Module VIII: Evolution

Introduction

The existence of every organism on earth in terms of how they evolve sets one on the thinking
lane. The word “evolution” merely means “change through time”. It does not imply a direction,
nor does it necessarily imply improvement, merely change. In this context, evolution refers to the
observation that the organisms in the world have not always been the same as those we see around
us today. How do we know that this is the case is what the topic is trying to address?

Evolution may be defined as the gradual changes that living organisms have undergone in
response to environmental changes since the beginning of life. The world is inhabited by dissimilar
plants and animals, which survive under different niches. Scientists have used theories of
creationism and organic evolution to explain the reason for the differences observed in plants and
animals.

Types of evolution

There are three main types of evolution: divergent, convergent, and parallel evolution.

Figure 1: Types of evolution; (a) divergent, (b) convergent, and (c) parallel.

Divergent Evolution

When people hear the word “evolution,” they most commonly think of divergent evolution, the
evolutionary pattern in which two species gradually become increasingly different. This type of
evolution often occurs when closely related species diversify to new habitats. On a large scale,
divergent evolution is responsible for creating the current diversity of life on earth from the first
living cells. On a smaller scale, it is responsible for the evolution of humans and apes from a
common primate ancestor.
Convergent Evolution

Convergent evolution causes difficulties in fields of study such as comparative anatomy.

Convergent evolution occurs when species of different ancestry share analogous traits because of
a shared environment or other selection pressure. For example, whales and fish have some similar
characteristics since both had to evolve methods of moving through the same medium: water.
Parallel Evolution

Parallel evolution occurs when two species evolve independently, maintaining the same level of
similarity. Parallel evolution usually occurs between unrelated species not occupying the same or
similar niches in a given habitat.
THEORY OF DIVINE CREATION (CREATIONISM)

The theory states that all living organisms were created by God (Divine creation) as stated in the
Quran and Bible. This theory believes that each organism was given life and adaptive features to
survive in their habitats.

THEORY OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION

The first living organism is believed to have come from a chemical combination of methane,
ammonia, hydrogen, and water vapour under ultraviolet radiation from the sun and electrical
lightning of the hot atmosphere about two billion years ago.

The various simple organisms evolved from the first living organism, while the complex organisms
evolved from the simple ones.

All living organisms change from generation to generation to generation, producing descendants
with new modifications. These processes result in different groups and varieties of living
organisms.

These different living organisms are related to each other in one way or the other.

LAMARCK’S THEORY OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION

Jean Baptist Lamarck, a French biologist in 1801, put forward the theory of organic evolution
based on three main ideas.

The theory of need

This states that the development of a new part or organ by an organism (plant or animal) results
from the need for that part or organ of the organism. For instance, snakes evolved elongated bodies
from their ancestral short bodies and legs. This evolution was due to the need for crawling through
narrow places in vegetation.

The theory of use and disuse

This states that organs become well-developed and active when used but slowly degenerate,
become functionless or disappear with disuse. For example, each generation of snakes continued
to stretch their bodies, strengthening their bodies. While their legs became useless and strengthless
and finally disappeared.

Theory of acquired characteristics by inheritance

This theory states that all characteristics (structures) or variations acquired by organisms during
their lifetime are transmitted to the next generation by inheritance. For instance, today’s snakes
inherited their legless and elongated bodies from their ancestors, who have lost their legs and short
bodies through disuse. The modern-day giraffe has a long neck and long forelegs, which are
acquired. Web toes in ducks for swimming were inherited from a generation that has developed
it.

DARWIN’S THEORIES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION

Charles Darwin, a British biologist, in 1859 propounded a theory of organic evolution by Natural
Selection leading to the origin of species. His theories of natural selection are as follows, using
the acronym “OSOAID.”

Overproduction

All organisms produce more offspring than can survive.

Struggle for existence

Due to the overproduction of offspring, there is a constant struggle (competition) for existence
among the offspring.

Offspring show variations

No two individuals are exactly the same.

Adaptive characteristics

Some of the offspring are better adapted (fitted) to survive the competition than others.

Inheritance of adaptive characteristics

The well-adapted ones (or the fittest) will transmit such variation to their offspring. Those with
poor adaptations will die off.

Development of new species

An accumulation of favourable variations will, over a long time, lead to a divergence (spread)
from the original stock, forming new species.
1. Comparism of Lamarck and Darwin's view of evolution of modern giraffe

MODERN THEORY OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION

The theory of organic evolution stated by Darwin has been modified. Modern theories are based
on genetics, ecology, cytology, palaeontology, physiology, anatomy, and embryology.

EVOLUTION OF NEW SPECIES BY MUTATION

Mutation is the sudden changes in genetic makeup (DNA) in either gene or chromosome, resulting
in a new characteristic or trait that can be inherited. Mutation forms the basis for evolution.

Mutation occurs during meiosis when the sperm and eggs (ova) are being formed. When a mutation
occurs, it will produce offspring with marked differences in appearance from other members of
the species’ population.

A mutation that provides an organism with beneficial traits (variation) to adapt to its environment
will survive the struggle for existence. The organism’s offspring inherit this trait, which will
gradually spread through the entire population, forming new species.
Types of mutation

There are two types of mutation: gene mutations (point mutations) and chromosome mutations.

Gene (point) mutations are sudden changes in the structure of DNA (gene code) at a particular
point or area of the chromosome.

Chromosome mutations are caused either by breaking off or fragmentation of chromosomes

during meiosis. The following may happen to the break-off or fragmented part. It may:

Be lost (deletion)

Be attracted to another end of another chromosome (translocation).

Be fused to another chromosome, resulting in duplication.

Turn through an angle of 1800 and rejoin the chromosome (inversion).

Causes of mutation

Mutation may be caused by frequent exposure to:

i. X-rays
ii. Ultra-violet sunlight
iii. Cosmic radiation.
iv. Chemical mutagens are usually present in cigarettes.
v. Evidence in support of organic evolution

There is evidence to support from comparative anatomy, vestigial organs, physiology, fossils,
embryology, and cytology.

EVIDENCE FROM COMPARATIVE ANATOMY

Homologous structures can be used to explain the evidence of comparative anatomy.

Homologous structures are those structures built in the same common plan but modified to
perform different functions due to differences in environment. For instance, pentadactyl plan.
Pentadactyl plan: The forelimbs of frog, bird, horse, whale, and man are in the pentadactyl plan
but perform different functions as shown below

The forelimb of a frog is modified for landing.

The forelimb of birds is modified as wings for flying.

The horse’s forelimb has only one digit (finger) for fast running.

The forelimb of the whale is used for swimming.

The forelimb of man can be rotated and has five fingers for holding and grasping.

It is, therefore, reasonable to say that this common plan of the forelimbs of the vertebrates indicates
a genetic relationship and common ancestor.

EVIDENCE FROM VESTIGIAL ORGANS

Vestigial organs are rudimentary or useless organs still found in animals and plants inherited from
ancestors. A good example is:

The appendix of man has no functions in man but perform a useful function in herbivorous animals
like cow and goat.

The caudal vertebrae (coccyx) of man have become vestigial. They have become fused together
and reduced to small-sized bones called coccyx, which has no function in man, but in other
mammals, it developed into a useful tail:

i. for balancing in monkeys

ii. for driving insect pests away from the posterior part in goats, sheep and cattle.
Other vestigial organs in man are the pyramid alisnasi muscle of the forehead and posterior
auricular muscles of the ear.

EVIDENCE FROM EMBRYOLOGY

The developments of vertebrate embryos are similar. The law of biogenesis states that during the
development of an individual. It passes through many embryonic stages that its ancestor
underwent simply because the development mechanism was inherited from a common ancestor. In
other words, ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny. For instance,

Human development: Human beings evolve through fish, amphibians, reptile and
mammalian lines. The following primitive features appear and disappear during the embryonic
development of humans.

i. The appearance of gill slits like those of fish.

ii. Two chambered heart like those of amphibians.
iii. Possession of tail like those of reptiles.
iv. Coat of hair like those of monkeys.

The whales have no teeth in the adult stage. They feed on minute organisms of the sea. However,
their embryos have tooth buds, which are absorbed as development continues. Likewise, birds
have no teeth, yet their embryos have tooth buds. Therefore, tooth buds in whales and birds prove
that they have descended from ancestors with teeth.

EVIDENCE FROM CYTOLOGY

The electron microscope has revealed that the cell structures (membranes, mitochondria, Golgi
apparatus, ribosomes, lysosomes etc.) are all similar in all living organisms. This shows that all
living organisms evolved from a common ancestor with similar cell structures.
EVIDENCE FROM PHYSIOLOGY

Enzymes and hormones are similar in many groups of animals. Trypsin is present right from
protozoa to man. Amylase is also found in the majority of animals. The actions of these two
enzymes are similar in all animals. Thyroid hormone is present in all vertebrates. It has been proved
that the thyroid hormone of vertebrates is exchangeable among them. For example, the thyroid
hormone from cattle has been used successfully to treat human thyroid deficiencies. This proves
that all vertebrates descended from a common ancestor.

EVIDENCE FROM FOSSILS

Fossils: are long-preserved remains or imprints of organisms that once lived.

The evolution of modern horse, Equus: It can be traced from its ancestors through fossil
evidence.

In the Eocene period (about 55,000,000 years ago), the most ancient horse, called Eohippus, was
a medium-sized dog. Its teeth were short crowned, the forelimbs had four functional toes with the
rudiment of fifth, while the hind limbs had four toes.

In the Oligocene period (about 35,000,000 years ago), another form called Mesohippus evolved.
Mesohippus had three toes in both fore and hind limbs and long-crowned teeth adapted for grazing
rather than browsing while height was 0.6m.
In the Miocene period (about 26 million years ago), Merrychippus evolved. The second and the
fourth toes became reduced, and the third toe enlarged due to the need for speed to escape
predators. Teeth became longer with cemented crowns. Height was 1m.

In the Pliocene period (about 7 million years ago), Pliohippus evolved. The second and fourth toes
became highly reduced, and the third toes enlarged with hoof. Crown teeth became prominent, and
height was still 1m.

The modern horse, Equus, evolved in the Pleistocene period (1 million years ago). The second
and fourth toes disappeared. The third toe became enlarged with a hoof. Teeth now have a large
surface area. Only molar teeth were present.

APPLICATION OF EVOLUTION TO PLANT AND ANIMAL TAXONOMY

Classification is simply ordering organisms into groups and giving them names. Before anyone
was particularly bothered about evolution, this tended to be a straightforward exercise: animals
that swim were placed in one group (fish & whales); flying animals in another (bats & birds); and
the ones that climb trees (monkeys & squirrels). Linnaeus expanded on this by using more than
one characteristic in his groupings, but there was always dispute about how to produce a “natural
grouping. When evolution became accepted, it became clear that the apparent way of grouping
organisms was by their evolutionary relationship - a huge family tree, if you like, showing how
the various animals have descended from common ancestors (divergent evolution) and grouped
accordingly. For instance, the classification hierarchy of plants and animals ideally reflects our
understanding of the evolutionary relationships among diverse life forms. Without evolution, this
would not have been possible.
GEOLOGIC TIME TABLE

Era Period Epoch Time from the Geologic Plant life Animal life
beginning of the period conditions
to the present (millions
of Year)

CENOZOIC Quaternary Recent 0.011 End of last ice Decline of Age of man
(AGE OF age; climate woody plants;
MAMMALS) warmer rise of
herbaceous one

Pleistocene 1 Repeated Great extinction Extinction of great

glaciation; 4 of species mammals; first
ice ages human social life

Tertiary Pliocene 13 Continue rise Decline of forest; Man evolved from

of mountains spread of manlike apes;
of Western grasslands; elephants, horses,
North flowering plant; camel almost like
America; monocotyledons modern species
volcanic developed
activity

Miocene 25 Sierra and Mammals at height

Cascade of evolution; first
mountain manlike apes
formed;
volcanic
activities
Nortwest
 U.S.; climate
cooler

Oligocene 36 Land lower; Maximum Archaic mammals

climate spread of forest; extinct; rise of
warmer rise of anthropoids; fore-
monocotyledons; runners of most
flowering plants living genera of
mammals

Eocene 58 Mountains Placental mammals

eroded; no diversified and
continental specialized; hoofed
seas; climate mammals and
warmer carnivores
established

Paleocene 63 Spread of archaic

mammals

Rocky Mountain Revolution (Little Destruction of Fossils)

MESOZOIC Cretaceous 135 Andes, Alps, First Dinosaurs reached

(AGE OF Himalayas, monocotyledons; peak, became
REPTILE Rockies first oak and extinct; toothed birds
formed late; ample forests; became extinct. First
earlier, in land gymnosperms modern birds;
seas and declined archaic mammals
swamps; common
 chalk, shale
deposited

Jurassic 181 continents Increase of First toothed birds

fairly high; dicotyledons; dinosaurs larger and
shallow seas cycads and specialized;
over some of conifer common insectivorous
Europe and marsupial
western U.S.

Triassic 230 Continents Gymnosperms First dinosaurs,

exposed; dominant, pterosaurs and egg
widespread declining toward laying mammals;
desert end; extinction extinction of
conditions; of seed ferns primitive amphibians
many land
deposits

Apalachian Revolution (Some Loss of Fossils)

Era Period Epoch Time from beginning Geologic Plant life Animal life
of period to present conditions
millions of Year

Paleozoic (age of Permian 280 Continent Decline of Many ancient

ancient life) rose; lycopods and animals died out;
appalachians horstails mammal-like
formed; reptiles, modern
increasing insects arose
 glaciation and
aridity

Pennsylvanian 320 Lands at first Great froests of First reptiles; insects

(Late low; great coal seed ferns and common; spread of
carboniferous) swamps gymnosperms ancient amphibians

Mississippian 345 Climate warm Lycopods and Sea lilies at height;

(early and humid at horsetails spread of ancient
carboniferous) first, cooler dominant; sharks
later as land gymnosperms
rose increasingly
widespread

Devonian 405 Smaller inland First forest; land First amphibians;

seas; land plants well lungfishes, sharks
higher, more established; first abundant
arid; gymnosperms
glaciation

Silurian 425 Extensive First definite Marine

continental evidence of land arachidsdominat;first
seas; lowland plants; algae (wingless) insects;
and dominant rise of fishes
increasingly
arid as land
rose

Ordovicia 500 Great Land plants First fishes, probably

submergence probably first freshwater; corals,
of land; warm
 climates even appeared; marine trilobites abundant;
in artic algae dominant diversified molluscs

Cambrian 600 Lands low, Marine algae Trilobites,

climate mild; brachiopods dominat
earliest rocks most modern phyla
with abundant established
fossils

Second great revolution (considerable loss of fossils)

PROTEROZOIC 1600 Great Primitive aquatic Various marine

sedimentation; plants alae, fungi protozoa; towards
volcanic end, molluscs,
activity later; worms, other marine
extensive invertebrates
erosion,
repeated
glaciations

First great revolution (considerable loss of fossils)

ARCHEOZOIC 3600 Great volcanic No recognizable fossils; indirect

activity, some evidence of living things from deposits of
sedimentary organic material in rock
deposition,
extensive
erosion
PRACTICE QUESTIONS

Which scientist is credited with developing the theory of natural selection as a mechanism
for evolution?

a) Gregor Mendel

b) Charles Darwin

c) Alfred Russel Wallace

d) Lamarck

The process by which species evolve and adapt to their environment over time is known as
__________.

Evolution is a theory that suggests organisms change during their lifetime in response to
their environment. (True/False)

Provide two examples of evidence that support the theory of evolution.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Match the following terms with their descriptions:

- Homologous structures

- Vestigial organs

- Fossil record

- Adaptive radiation

a) Structures with a common evolutionary origin

b) Organs with reduced or no function

c) The chronicle of past life on earth

d) Diversification of a group of organisms into new forms

Explain the role of natural selection in the process of evolution. Provide a real-world example
to support your explanation.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Examine the provided phylogenetic tree. Identify the common ancestor and explain how the
tree represents evolutionary relationships among the depicted species.
Discuss how antibiotic resistance in bacteria is an example of evolution in response to
selective pressures.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Evaluate the impact of human activities on the evolution of other species. Consider factors
such as habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Compare and contrast the theories of Lamarck and Darwin regarding evolution. Highlight the key
differences in their proposed mechanisms of evolutionary change.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………