Development specification

Simple neural structures in the womb

Brain development begins in the 3rd week of
pregnancy. Multiplying cells form a structure called
the neural plate. This folds over onto itself to form a
tube shaped structure called the neural tube.

During the 4th week the neural tube divides

into the spinal cord, forebrain, midbrain
and hindbrain.

During the 6th week the forebrain divides

into two areas- the cortex and the
thalamus. Neurons and synapse begin to
develop in the spinal cord, which allows
the foetus to move around.

By the 15th week the cerebellum has formed

from the hindbrain.
By the 6 month the brain is fully formed,
although not full sized yet.
During the last 3 months folds begin to form the
cortex. At birth the brain is 25% its adult size.
 Brain stem
The brain stem connects the spinal cord to the brain.
It controls basic autonomic functions such as
breathing, heart rate, blood pressure and sleeping. By
week 6 of pregnancy, the babies hear beats regularly
and blood pumps through the main vessels.

Thalamus
The thalamus is in the centre of the brain, and it’s the
sensory processing station. It receives messages from
the senses and turns them into appropriate
behavioural responses. All sensory information passes
through the thalamus on its way to the cortex (where
thinking takes place)

Cerebellum
The cerebellum is located at the back of the brain
behind the brain stem. It coordinates movement and
balance and receives information from the cortex and
other areas to fine tune motor activity like walking.
People with a damaged cerebellum would find it
difficult keeping their balance and coordination e.g.
difficulty riding a bike.

Exam questions
Describe the role of the thalamus (3 marks)
Which one the following best describes the brain stem- Breathing/ Balance/ Thinking (1 mark)
 The Cortex
Also known as the cerebral cortex, this is the outer layer of the brain. It is responsible for higher
cognitive processes and is divided into four lobes, each lobe with has different functions

Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Responsible for cognitive processes
such as thinking, planning and Processes information related to
problem solving touch on the skin- hot/ cold/ pain

Temporal lobe Occipital lobe

Involved in processing Involved in processing visual

auditory information information

Exam questions

Rosie is in the cinema watching the new Thor movie. She puts a hoodie on because she feels cold, which she thought
might happen after the last time she went to the cinema. Using your knowledge of the cortex explain how Rosie’s
brain allows her to perceive the situation she is in (4 marks)
Psychologists on the nature side of the debate
believe all your characteristics and behaviours
are inherited through genes.
Whereas those on the nurture side believe you
are influenced by your environment

Twin studies
Monozygotic twins (identical) share exactly the same
genes whereas Dizygotic twins (non-identical) do
not.
If MZ twins have the same characteristic, it’s
evidence that this characteristic is due to nature.
Evidence has shown that the concordance rate for
MZ twins IQ is 70%. This suggests nature has a major
role in intelligence than nurture.

Twin studies
Separated MZ twin studies who were raised apart
after just 4 weeks but then reunited aged 39 years
old found that they both suffered from headaches,
were prone to nail biting, smoked cigarettes, drove
the same type of car and even vacationed at the
same beach in Florida.
This suggests nature plays more of a role in
personality than nurture.
 Newborn babies
Newborns are useful to study with this debate,
because they show very little impact of nurture on
their behaviour. It’s been fund that babies can
recognise faces. This implies nature is responsible
for this ability. However, babies cannot talk until
later on, so it’s believed that nurture is responsible
for language development

Animals
A study on baby rats in cages, kept half the
rats together with lots of stimulating toys,
and the other half alone, with no toys. The
rats who were together with lots of toys
(stimulating environment) developed bigger
brains and better problem solving skills. This
supports the idea that nurture is very
important for brain development.

Evaluation
 Twin studies are flawed because the characteristics that MZ twins have in common might
be more due to their similar upbringing than their (genes) nature. Therefore, it’s difficult to
detangle the effects of nature and nurture in twin studies.

 Research into brain development is also animal bias, because we must be careful
generalising results research on rats to humans. This is because humans are more complex
than animals

 However, animal studies are very useful because experiments can be conducted on them
that would be unethical to conduct on humans
 Exam questions
Outline how the role of nature in brain development can be investigated (4 marks)

Outline how the role of nurture in brain development can be investigated (4 marks)

Evaluate research that has investigated the role of nature and nurture in brain development
(5 marks)

Discuss research that has investigated the role of nature and nurture in brain development
(9 marks)

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

Piaget studied children’s cognitive development
and believed that schemas were the key to how
children developed as they grew up.
Schemas are blocks of knowledge that develop in
response to our experiences of the world. He
believed babies have simple schemas for sucking
and grasping, and as the baby grows more
complex ones develop.

Schemas develop through assimilation or

accommodation. Assimilation occurs when new
information is added to an existing schema. E.g.
babies will use the sucking schema with fingers
and other objects they put in their mouth. But
to suck a straw the basic sucking schema need
to be changed- this is called accommodation.
 Piaget believed there are four stages to a child’s intellectual development. He said
children pass through these stages in the same order and at roughly the same age

Sensorimotor stage: 0-2 years

In this stage children learn through their senses and by doing things.
They develop object permanence which is knowing that objects still
exist even when they are out of sight

Piaget investigated this by giving a child a toy, then with the child
watching cover the toy and hide it in a blanket. He found that
children under 8 months did not search for the toy but children 8+
months did search.

Pre-operational stage 2-7 years

The main feature of this stage is that children are egocentric. This
means not being able to see things from other people point of
view.
Piaget investigated this with the three mountain experiment. He
placed a doll somewhere beside the model then showed children
photos of each side of the model. The children had to pick the
photo showing the view the doll could see. He found that children
under seven chose a photo that matched their own view.

Concrete stage 7-11 years

Piaget believed that when children reached 7 years old
they were acting in the concrete operational stage- be
able to apply logic to solve problems, and could
conserve- knowing that the amount of something stays
the same even if it’s appearance changes.

To investigate this Piaget showed children two identical

rows of counters, then asked them if there was the
same amount. He then spread out the counter on one
row as the child watched, then asked the children again.
Children under 7 now said they thought there were
more counters in the spread out row.
 Formal operational stage 11+ years
The main feature of this stage was that children could solve
problems in a systematic way. Children were given different
lengths of string and weights that could be attached.
The children had to find out what factors affected how fast
the pendulum would swing. To do this, the child had to vary
the length of the string and the number of weights attached.
Piaget found that children after the age of 11 would try and
solve this problem systematically. E.g. they would keep the
length of string the same, whilst changing the weights from
the highest to the lowest.

Draw a picture for each of Piaget’s stages

Exam questions
Which one of the following is Assimilation? (1 mark)
 Hollie holds a big spoon in the same way she holds a baby spoon
 Hollie has to change his spoon grip to hold a fork

What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation? (3 marks)

Identify and describe the second stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development (2 marks)

Define the term egocentric (2 marks)

Outline Piaget’s theory of cognitive development (5 marks)

 Evaluation
 Other psychologists have shown that the ages of Piaget’s stages are wrong. Babies have
object permanence before 8 months old, and that children can lose their egocentric thinking
and conserve before the age of seven. Also that people enter the formal operationalise
stage later than t11 years old.

 Paiget’s theory has been criticised because of the way he collected data. He used his own
children and small samples that are unrepresentative of most children. He also is criticised
because he asked children the same question more than once- before and after he moved
the counters. This may have led the children to believe that their first answer was wrong so
they should change it. Also the questions were not standardised as each child was treated
differently.

 Piaget’s work has had a major impact on education, where many of his ideas are still used
today. His methods of testing children’s development were new and fun and are simple to
test and replicate.

the questions he asked children were not standardised

The role of Piaget’s theory in education
Piaget suggested that children need to be able to
explore and discover objects and situations for
themselves. And that they had to be ready (readiness)
to learn e.g. in the right stage.

Applying Piaget’s theory to education

Teachers should take a readiness approach- give the child opportunities to learn when
that child is in the right stage.
Children should be taught in a self-centred way. The teacher should give the child
materials and allow them to explore and discover solutions themselves.
Teaching materials for science and maths should include actual objects for children to
explore. E.g. String/ weights/ blocks

Exam questions
Discuss Piaget’s theory of cognitive development (9 marks)
Describe one way in which Piaget’s theory of cognitive development could be applied to education
Hughes (1978) Description A01
Aim: To investigate if children can see things from another person’s point of view, at an
earlier age than Piaget suggested
Method: 30 children aged between 3.5-5 years old were shown a model of two intersecting
walls that formed a cross. The policeman doll was placed on the model. Children were asked
to hide a boy doll so that the policemen doll could not see him. The policeman was then
placed in different positions on the model, and the child was asked to hide the boy each time.
Then a second policeman doll was introduced and the child were asked to hide the doll again.
This was repeated 3 times so the child had to use different sections of the grid.
Results: 90% of the children aged between 3.5-5 years were able to hide the boy doll from
both policeman dolls.
Conclusion: Children aged between 3.5 years-5 years can see things from someone else’s
point of view if the situation is familiar to them and the task makes sense. This was different
to Piaget’s findings that children were egocentric until 7 years old.

Hughes (1978) Evaluation A03

 What is wrong with the number of children in the study?

 What is wrong with the setting of the study?

 Supporting research using the old 3 mountains task but with television characters found
that 3 and 4 year olds could give correct answers. Hughes also gave children a simpler version
of the 3 mountains task. He also found many 3 and 4 year olds gave the correct answers.

 These research findings are important because they show us how Piaget underestimated
the age at which children could see things from others point of view and that children
younger than 7 years old are not always egocentric.
Discuss Hughes Policeman Doll study (9 marks)
Discuss research which criticises Piaget’s age at which children are egocentric (9 marks)
McGarrigle and Donaldson’s Naughty Teddy (1974) Description A01
Aim: To investigate children developed conservation skills at an earlier age than Piaget found,
if the change to the materials was accidental
Method: 80 children between the ages of 4 and 6 were shown two rows of counters and
asked if there was the same amount in each row. Then a glove puppet (Naughty Teddy)
accidently messed up one of the row of counters. The messed up row was spread out to look
longer than the other row. The experimenter pretended to be really cross with Naughty
Teddy and told it off. The child was then asked if there were the same amount of counters in
each row.
Results: 62% of the 4-6 year olds stated there was still the same amount of counters in each
row, therefore they could conserve. This is compared to only 16% of the 4-6 year olds in
Piaget’s original study who could conserve when the adult changed the counters.
Conclusion: Children younger than 7 years can conserve if the change to the materials is
accidental. When Naughty Teddy messes up the row and spreads out the counters, younger
children know the amount of counters has not changed.

McGarrigle and Donaldson (1974) Evaluation A03

 What is wrong with the number of children in the study?

 What is wrong with the setting of the study?

 Supporting research comes from other psychologists who replicated the conservation of
number experiment, but only asked the question once. They showed children the two rows of
counters in silence, then after one row was spread out they were asked the question. They
found that more 6 year olds got the answer correct that Piaget originally found supporting
the McGarrigle and Donaldson’s idea that children can conserve before the age of 7.

Discuss research which criticises Piaget’s age at which children are able to conserve (9 marks)
Design an experiment to see if Piaget was correct about the age at which children can conserve (6 marks)
 v
Thinker: Which one do you agree more with?
 People are born with a set level of
intelligence and can’t really change this
 It doesn’t matter how much intelligence
someone is born with, they can always
increase it

Dweck’s Mindset Theory of Learning

Dweck’s Mindset theory of learning explains how students can achieve
success in their learning. Dweck suggested two types of mindset
Fixed mindset: students believe their intelligence is unchanging, it is genetic
and there is nothing you can do to change it.
Growth mindset- students believe their intelligence comes from hard work,
and that it can be increased over time by putting in effort to their learning.

Problem solving
When a student is faced with a challenge, the type of mindset they have will
affect how they deal with it. Dweck believed that a fixed mindset student will
give up very quickly, however a growth mindset student will keep trying
which will increase their chance of success.

Changing mindsets
Mindsets can be changed through training. In one study students
were taught about what happens in their brain each time they learn
something new and difficult. The students who were taught this
lesson showed a major improvement in their exam results,
compared to a control group who didn’t receive the lesson.
 Evaluation of Dweck’s Mindset theory of learning
 The theory has practical applications because it helps us understand how student’s can
increase their grades.
 It informs teachers that mindsets can be changed and explains how. This helps increase
teacher’s expectations of students and themselves
 There are many studies to support Dweck’s theory, which suggests are findings are
accurate and valid.

Exam questions
Outline Dweck’s mindset theory of learning (4 marks)
What is the difference between a fixed and growth mindset (3 marks)
Explain to a teacher how she can try to change the mindset of her students (4 marks)
Describe the role of praise in learning (4 marks)
Evaluate Dweck’s mindset theory of learning (3 marks)
Self-efficacy is the belief in your own ability to succeed in a task. A
student with a strong sense of self efficacy puts in effort to
achieve their goals. They will challenge themselves with difficult
tasks and are more likely to be successful.
A student with low self-efficacy believes they will not be
successful so they are unlikely to try. They will avoid challenging
tasks, and are less likely to achieve their goals

Students can increase their self-efficacy by;

 Being successful in something
 Observing other people succeed at something due to their effort
 Being persuaded they can achieve by a role model- teacher
 Being guided through a task

Exam questions
Define self-efficacy (2 marks)
Outline the role of self-efficacy in learning (3 marks)
Explain to the teacher how she can help her student’s increase their self-efficacy (4 marks)
Growth Mindset Questionnaire
Which one are you?
 I learn the most when I can discuss things
 I learn the most when I have a picture to look at
 I learn the most when I can move around

Visual, Auditory, and Kinaesthetic (VAK) theory

Visual learners
Learn best by seeing pictures. They like to see what they are
learning, and remember what things look like

Auditory learners
Learn best by listening. They like to hear something, or speak it
to learn it. They remember what they’ve heard.

Kinaesthetic learners
Learn best by doing something. They like to move or make
what they are learning. They remember best when some sort
of physical activity is involved.

Verbalisers and Visualisers theory of learning

Verbalisers process information verbally. They prefer to learn from written information,
and they like to write things down. They think using words.

Visualisers process information visually. They prefer to learn from pictures and diagrams.
They think using pictures.
1. If I am teaching someone something new, I tend to: 11. I really love:

a) write instructions down for them a) watching films, photography, looking at art or
b) give them a verbal explanation people watching
c) demonstrate first and then let them have a go b) listening to music, the radio or talking to friends
c) taking part in sporting activities, eating fine foods
and wines or dancing
2. During my free time I most enjoy:

a) going to museums and galleries 12. Most of my free time is spent:

b) listening to music and talking to my friends
c) playing sport or doing DIY a) watching television
b) talking to friends
c) doing physical activity or making things
3. When I go shopping for clothes, I tend to:

a) imagine what they would look like on 13. When I first contact a new person, I usually:
b) discuss them with the shop staff
c) try them on and test them out a) arrange a face to face meeting
b) talk to them on the telephone
c) try to get together whilst doing something else,
4. When I am learning a new skill, I am most such as an activity or a meal
comfortable:

a) watching what the teacher is doing 14. I first notice how people:
b) talking through with the teacher exactly what
I’m supposed to do a) look and dress
c) giving it a try myself and work it out as I go b) sound and speak
c) stand and move

5. If I am choosing food off a menu, I tend to:

15. If I am angry, I tend to:
a) imagine what the food will look like
b) talk through the options in my head or with my a) keep replaying in my mind what it is that has upset
partner me
c) imagine what the food will taste like b) raise my voice and tell people how I feel
c) stamp about, slam doors and physically
demonstrate my anger
6. When I concentrate, I most often:

a) focus on the words or the pictures in front of 16. I find it easiest to remember:
me
b) discuss the problem and the possible solutions a) faces
in my head b) names
c) move around a lot, fiddle with pens and pencils c) things I have done
and touch things

17. I think that you can tell if someone is lying if:

7. My first memory is of:
a) they avoid looking at you
a) looking at something b) their voices changes
b) being spoken to c) they give me funny vibes
c) doing something

18. I remember things best by:

8. When I am anxious, I:
a) writing notes or keeping printed details
a) visualise the worst-case scenarios b) saying them aloud or repeating words and key
b) talk over in my head what worries me most points in my head
c) can’t sit still, fiddle and move around constantly c) doing and practising the activity or imagining it
being done

9. When I have to revise for an exam, I generally:

A’s = B’s = C’s =
a) write lots of revision notes and diagrams If you chose mostly A’s you have a VISUAL learning style.
b) talk over my notes, alone or with other people
c) imagine making the movement or creating the If you chose mostly B’s you have an AUDITORY learning style.
formula If you chose mostly C’s you have a KINAESTHETIC learning style.

10. If I am explaining to someone I tend to:

Willingham disagrees that students learn best
depending on their preferred learning style, as he
believes learning styles like VAK theory don’t exist in this
way.

He points out that there is no experimental evidence to

support their existence, and also teaching students in
their ‘preferred’ style has no effect on exam results.

Willingham believes that students should be taught using the

best method for the content being taught. E.g. in a biology
lesson about the structure of the brain, all student’s need to
see diagrams, not just visual learners.

In a French lesson, all students need to hear how words are

pronounced, not just those with an auditory learning style.

If a student is finding something difficult they need to be

given the opportunity to practise dealing with that type of
information

Willingham agreed that students may have better visual or

auditory memory, but because teachers want students to
remember what things mean, not what they just look or sound
like, he says regardless if it’s presented visually or audibly, the
student needs to extract and store the meaning from the
information.

This explains why teaching students in their preferred learning

style has no effect on exam results: as a student’s ability to
store information is more important than how they learned the
information

Outline Willingham’s theory of learning (3 marks)

Explain Willingham’s criticism of learning styles (4 marks)
 1. Autonomic functions 16. Cognitive development

2. Brain stem 17. Concrete operational

3. Cortex 18. Conservation

4. Thalamus 19. Egocentric

5. Neurons 20. Pre-operational

6. Synapses 21. Schema

7. Cerebellum 22. Sensorimotor

8. Cognition 23. Formal operational

9. Sensory processing 24. Mindset Theory of Learning

10. Nature 25. Fixed Mindset

11. Nurture 26. Growth Mindset

12. Monozygotic twin 27. Praise

13. Dizygotic twin 28. Self-efficacy

14. Accommodation 29. Learning styles

15. Assimilation 30. Verbaliser

31. Visualiser