See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: [Link]

net/publication/364752915

Bakery Raw Materials and Quality Parameters

Chapter · January 2023

CITATIONS READS

0 4,894

4 authors:

Mohd Aaqib Sheikh Ph.D. Nadira Anjum

Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu
37 PUBLICATIONS 205 CITATIONS 25 PUBLICATIONS 362 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Charanjiv Singh Saini Mohit Sharma

Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology 12 PUBLICATIONS 58 CITATIONS
77 PUBLICATIONS 1,818 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Mohit Sharma on 15 April 2024.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 2
Bakery Raw Materials
and Quality Parameters

l
On
Mohd Aaqib Sheikh1*, Nadira Anjum2 Charanjiv Singh Saini1
Mohit Sharma3
1
Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Sant Longowal Institute of
Engineering & Technology, Longowal, Punjab, India

e
2
Division of Food Science and Technology, Sher-e- Kashmir University of
Agriculture Sciences and Technology, Chatha, Jammu, J&K, India

Us
3
Dr SS Bhatnagar University Institute of Chemical Engineering and Technology
Panjab University, Chandigarh, India

2.1 Introduction
al
The word “baked products” refers to a vast variety of foods, such as cakes,
on
bread, cookies, pastries, and crackers, and a variety of other items, and it might
be difficult to find a common thread that connects the members of this a varied
group. The strongest common connection is that all of them include wheat flour
rs

in their recipes. However, this definition will need to be widened to include

baked products like gluten-free items, which are utilized by persons with celiac
digestive disease. These foods are still called baked goods while being made
Pe

from grains other than wheat. The similar definition, on the other hand, could
barely be used to meringues, which include no cereal-based material at all,
much alone wheat flour, with sugar and egg white as its key ingredients. It may
be more possible to suppose baked items as products made in a bakery, where
r

the location of preparation, rather than any recipe, ingredient, or process element,
characterizes the product.
fo

Baked items, according to one viewpoint, should be described as having

undergone heat processing, such as baking, which results in alterations in structure
and form. This is undoubtedly true of the several basic items made in bakeries.
Chinese steamed bread, certain steamed puddings, and fried doughnuts are
t

possible exceptions to this classification; however, all of these goods involve a

an

heat-conversion process. Because the fillings, such items suffer physical and
chemical changes as a consequence of the input of heat, we may capture certain
composite products, like fruit and meat pies, by considering the existence of a
Me
 12 Bakery and Confectionery Technology

heat-processing phase to define bakery goods. The fillings, which will form part
of the product provided in the store/shop, are not included in the heat-processed
definition of such items prepared in bakeries.
Baked items are meals made from recipes that are mostly based on or include
considerable amounts of cereal or wheat flours, which are combined with other
ingredients, molded into characteristic forms, and heat-processed in a bakery

l
oven to remove moisture.

On
Any bakery items require the use of a variety of ingredients to meet the unique
needs of the product and preparation technique. The ingredients used to make a
bakery product are divided into two categories: (i) major (ii) minor. The addition
of minor ingredients to baked goods gives customers more choice and quality,
and the chance to include nutritional fortification into baked products to suit the

e
nutritional needs of a quickly increasing population.

Us
2.2 Raw Material for Bakery Products and their Role in Dough and
Batter Preparation
Flour, water, yeast, shortening, sugar, oxidants, salt, emulsifier (eggs), and reducing

al
agents are all utilized in the preparation of bakery items; however, not all of such
ingredients are required. The watery material combination that they produce
bakes around gas cells, determining the texture, appearance, and flavor of baked
on
items.

1. Major ingredients
rs

• Water
• Flour
Pe

• Salt
• Yeast and other chemical leavening agents

2. Minor ingredients
r

• Shortening
fo

• Sweeteners
• Milk and Milk products
• Eggs
t

• Reducing agents
an

• Oxidizing agents
• Antimicrobials
Me
 Bakery Raw Materials and Quality Parameters 13

• Emulsifiers
• Colorings
• Flavoring agents
• Flour improvers

Baking ingredients may also be divided into groups based on their

l
functionalities:

On
Structure builders: Flour, eggs, and milk, for example, provide the product texture
and structure.
Tenderizers: Sugar, fat, and baking powder may be used to provide the product
with shortness and softness.

e
Moisteners: Eggs, milk, syrup, water, etc., provide moisture and preserve quality.

Us
Flavors: Provide flavor, for example, chocolate, Cocoa, eggs, butter, and other
flavoring ingredients.

2.2.1 Major Ingredients

[Link] Flour al
It is finely ground raw grain product. Flour is made from cereal grains such as
on
rice, wheat, maize, barley, oats, rye, millets, and others. Flour is a thickening
agent and is used as an integral ingredient in all baked products. Wheat flour is
the most versatile cereal because of its high storage protein content, which
rs

forms the basis for bakery products. Wheat types are farmed all over the globe,
but durum wheat (Triticum durum) as well as common wheat (Triticum aestivum)
are the most popular for human consumption owing to their storage proteins’
Pe

capacity to form the gluten network. Wheat grain consist of Endosperm (70–
83%), germ (12%–14.5%), and bran (2%–2.5%). Wheat quality, strength and
functionality are mostly determined by the amount of gluten present, while
nutritional value plays a minor role. Bread and fine cakes are made with hard
r

wheat flour that has a high concentration of gluten, whereas spaghetti, macaroni,
fo

and other pasta products are made with durum wheat flour. Cookies, crackers,
and breakfast items are often made using soft wheat flour, which has less gluten.
The gluten content of the kernel determines the kernel hardness and the product
type made from it. Distinct varieties of flours are made for different purposes
depending on the wheat variety and milling procedure. Whole wheat flour has a
t

brownish color and is made by blending all three parts of the wheat grain (bran,
an

endosperm, and germ) after crushing them individually. Furthermore, it contains

all of the kernel’s nutritional advantages. White flour, on the other hand, is made
only after the germ and bran have been removed from the endosperm. It is less
Me
 14 Bakery and Confectionery Technology

nutritious and more stable than whole wheat flour. Bleached flour is sometimes
made by treating it with benzyl peroxide or chlorine, and the end product is
referred to as such. Whole wheat flour doesn’t rise as well as this flour does,
but it does soak up a lot more water than unbleached wheat flour. To make an
all-purpose or refined flour, the brown outer layer of the wheat grain is removed.
It is more stable than whole wheat flour, even though it includes fewer nutrients
such as protein and fiber. Carbohydrates (55-75%), fiber (12.2-13.2%), proteins

l
(10-18%), minerals (1.3-1.7%), lipids (1.5-1.8%), and other micronutrients like

On
vitamins (1.3-1.7%) constitute the overall composition of wheat flour. The
functional, physicochemical, and technological features of various kinds of meals
are influenced by the chemical composition of cereal grains.

e
Table 2.1: Flour quality tests

Us
Physiochemical tests Functional tests Rheological tests
It includes the identification It includes the determination It includes the dough
of protein, moisture, content of the SDS sedimentation mixtures recorded on
of ash, color of flour, and fat. volume test
Diastatic activity and maltose Falling number test Farinograph
value are determined.
Starch damage content and
flour particle size distribution
Dough raising capacity al
Mixograph.
on
are determined.
Alkaline water retention Viscoamylograph
capacity.
rs

Estimates gluten quantity. Extensograph.

Rapid Visco analyzer
Alveograph
Pe

Different flour grades provided and defined by millers to the baking

trade may be divided into three categories:
a) Patent flour: Patent flour is the highest quality of all the commercial flour
grades. It’s made by mixing flour with the milling process’s initial few
r

streams. It is mostly made up of endosperm, with no germ or bran. On a

fo

commercial basis, it is the finest flour available.

b) Clear flour: Commercially, the grade is regarded as the lowest quality of
all flour grades. It retains a high level of bran and thus includes more ash
and minerals. It’s made from leftover flour streams after patent flour has
t

been extracted. To boost the amount of gluten in clear flour, it is usually

combined with rye flour.
an

c) Straight flour: This flour isn’t often utilized in bakery items. It’s formed by
mixing all of the flour streams collected during the milling process. It has a
Me
 Bakery Raw Materials and Quality Parameters 15

greater mineral and ash content, and the bran is difficult to separate from
the endosperm.

Table 2.2: Nutritional wheat grain composition (Babu et al., 2018)

Component (%)
Dextrin 2.01

l
Sugars 0.61

On
Pentosans 6.27
Starch 63.80
Fiber 1.75
Protein (N X 6.25) 11.25

e
Ash 2.03
Fat 2.18

Us
Undetermined 10.10

• Flour types utilized in bakery items

The flour utilized to make bakery items is largely divided into the following
categories:
al
a) All-purpose flour: It has a protein concentration of 9.5-11.5 percent. It’s
on
usually made from hard wheat, although it may also be made by combining
hard and soft wheat. It’s used to make noodles, cakes, cookies, pastries,
and quick bread, etc. Depending on the use, it might be bleached or
rs

unbleached.
b) Bread Flour: It is white flour made from hard wheat with a protein value
of 11.5-13.5 percent. Bleached or unbleached, it is often used to make pan
Pe

bread, soft dough, rolls, and other baked products.

c) Cake flour: It’s made from soft wheat varieties with a protein level of 6 to
8%. This flour has a larger percentage of starch and is bleached with benzoyl
peroxide and chlorine before usage to get the appropriate flavor and color.
r

Cakes, cookies, and pastries are all made using it.

fo

d) Self-rising flour: It’s utilized to prepare biscuits and quick bread. Salt and
yeast are added to all-purpose flour to make such flour. By lowering the salt
and yeast levels, it may be used as a replacement for all-purpose flour.
e) Pastry flour: Protein content ranges from 7 to 9.5 percent. It’s made from
t

soft wheat types and may be used to make cookies and pastries. It is a flour
an

that falls between all-purpose and cake flour.

The characteristics and properties of flour have a major influence on the final
bakery items (Table 2.3). Color, smell, and feel may all be used to identify flour.
Me
 16 Bakery and Confectionery Technology

Color: The cake flour is whiter in color, packs readily, and lumps when pressed
or dusted, whereas the patent bread flour has a creamy color, a dry touch, and
does not pack when squeezed and dusts easily. The color of flour is determined
by the following factors: a) flour extraction rate b) pigment amount c) particle
size of flour. Contamination by bran particles causes the flour to be dull or
bright. The color becomes duller as the flour extraction rate increases, and vice
versa. The wheat of various origins, growth conditions, and varieties produce

l
flours with varying levels of yellow pigments. Because of the shadow effects of

On
bigger particles, coarse flour appears darker and dull than a fine flour.
Strength: Flour may be described as strong or weak based on its strength. Flour
strength is often referred to in these kinds of statements as being able to produce
a large, bold, well-risen loaf.

e
Tolerance: Tolerance refers to a flour’s capacity to endure the fermentation

Us
process and create an acceptable loaf for a longer amount of time than is generally
necessary to achieve the right degree of ripeness for the practical approach.
Water Absorption: The tendency of flour to absorb and keep the greatest quantity
of moisture for the entire development of the dough without extra mixing. Between

al
54 and 65 percent of water is absorbed. The baked product will lack volume,
have a dry crumb, and be of inferior eating and preserving quality if the dough is
not given the requisite mixing time due to inadequate mixing capacity or other
on
causes.
pH: Flour with a pH of less than 5.0 is normally excessively acidic and produces
bad outcomes in bread making; a good range for flour is between pH 5.5 and
rs

6.5.
Pe

Table 2.3: Nutritional composition in different parts of the wheat kernel (Mendel &
Osborne, 1919)
Component (%)
Endosperm Bran Embryo
r

Sugars 0.24 1.92 24.34

fo

Dextrin 3.63 5.03

Pentosans 1.80 32.77 -
Starch 77.52 0.00 0.00
Fiber 0.34 11.18 1.71
Protein (N X 6.25) 11.17 17.60 40.25
t

Ash 0.43 8.61 4.82

an

Fat 1.15 8.26 13.51

Undetermined 3.72 14.63 15.37
Me
 Bakery Raw Materials and Quality Parameters 17

• Flour Functions in baking

Flour is important in baking because it equally distributes and absorbs all of the
ingredients, resulting in a visco-elastic dough. All of the ingredients are bound
together by it. The following are the components contained in wheat:

a) Carbohydrates

l
Simple starch, sugars, pentosans, and dextrin are only a few of the carbohydrates

On
found in the wheat kernel (Table 2.3). Simple sugars are soluble carbohydrates
found in the embryo. In the embryo, sucrose is the most common simple sugar.
Starch is abundant in the endosperm, whereas pentosans are present in the
outer layer of the kernel and the husk. The water absorption capacity of pentosans
is quite high. Starch can be categorized based upon the X-ray diffraction produced

e
and nutritional characteristics. Based upon the X-ray diffraction produced, starch

Us
has been grouped into following categories:
a) Type A (having amylopectin of chain length 23-29 glucose units e.g. cereal
starch).
b) Type B (having amylopectin of chain length 30-44 glucose units e.g. tubers
and amylose rich starches).
al
c) Type C (mixture of Type A and B, comprising amylopectin with chain length
on
of 26- 29 glucose molecules e.g. legume starch).
d) Type V (present in swollen granules and is formed upon gelatinization. It is
a characteristic of amylose, fatty acids and mono-glycerides).
rs

These different X-ray patterns formed can be attributed to: the presence of
bound water within the crystal structure, amylopectin chain length and the
Pe

compactness of their packing within the granules. Type A is denser as compared

to type B, thus binding less water. While type A and B are almost crystalline in
structure, type C is a mixture of both crystalline and amorphous particles
Functions of Starch: The starch in flour serves a variety of purposes, including
r

absorbing liquids during dough formation, functioning as a thickening, gelatinization,

and pasting behavior after baking, caramelization and retrogradation, browning,
fo

as well as crystallization during storage. Other elements, particularly proteins,

have an impact on starch’s activity in baking. Each variety of flour has its unique
starch content, which influences its properties.
t
an
Me
 18 Bakery and Confectionery Technology

Table 2.4: Carbohydrates distribution in wheat fractions (%)

Carbohydrate Wheat Fractions
Germ Endosperm Bran
Sugars 36.4 1.5 7.6
Starch 31.5 95.8 14.1
Hemicellulose 15.3 2.4 43.1

l
Cellulose 16.8 0.3 35.2

On
b) Proteins
The wheat grain consists of about 8 to 15% of protein. The proteins are found
enclosed between the starch grains. Wheat protein comes in a large variety of

e
different molecules, with markedly divergent properties. The most import can
be distinguished by their specific solvent. Albumin and globulin forms about

Us
20% of the total amount of protein, while the glutenin and gliadin contribution is
the remaining 80%. The latter are responsible for the formation of the gluten
during kneading. The gliadin and glutenin form a network of molecules capable
of holding the carbon-dioxide gas that is a by-product of fermentation. It is this

al
network of lace that causes the bread to rise. The texture of baking products is
influenced by both gluten-forming and non-gluten-forming proteins are the two
forms of wheat proteins (Table 2.5). During dough formation, gliadins and glutenin
on
in wheat flour combine to create a continuous framework termed gluten, which
provides the dough its visco-elastic properties. Gluten is a key component in
defining dough qualities since it gives structure and helps the dough keep its
rs

form when baking. Wheat is divided into two types based on protein content:
hard wheat (level of protein >11 percent) and soft wheat (content of protein <11
percent). The protein content and the quality and amount of gluten in wheat
Pe

determine its baking quality. Gluten’s extensibility, elasticity, and gas retention
capability are all affected by the fact that it is found in endosperm rather than
germ and bran. When hydrated, gliadins act like a viscous liquid, imparting
extensibility and enabling the dough to rise during fermentation, while glutenin
r

gives strength as well as elasticity.

fo

c) Lipids
There are two kinds of lipids found in wheat: polar and non-polar. Polar lipids,
unlike non-polar lipids, may readily interact with water. The lipid content of the
t

wheat kernel is roughly 2%, making it a good source of important fatty acids
including linoleic and palmitic acids. Because lipids in flour have a lubricating
an

impact on gluten networks in the dough, the volume of the loaf is positively
determined during bread preparation. The inclusion of non-polar lipids in flour,
Me
 Bakery Raw Materials and Quality Parameters 19

on the other hand, has been shown to lengthen the mixing time during dough
preparation. Lipids aid in the stabilized gas bubbles in bread and give the end
product more softness.

Table 2.5: Protein classification (Goesaert et al., 2005).

Osborne fraction Solubility behaviour Composition Functional role

l
Globulin (5-10%) Dilute salt Non-gluten proteins Provide food reserve

On
(primarily monomeric) to embryo
Albumin (5-10%) Dilute & water buffers Non-gluten proteins Protection from
(primarily monomeric) pathogens
Glutenin (40-50%) Dilute base or acid Gluten proteins Dough plasticity/
(primarily HMW viscosity

e
glutenin polymers)
Gliadin (40-50%) Aqueous alcohols Gluten proteins Dough plasticity/

Us
(70%) (primarily monomeric viscosity
gliadins and low
molecular weight
glutenin polymers)
Residue Non-extractable in Polymeric non-gluten
dilute and water
buffers but extractable
with Urea+DTT+SDS
proteins (triticins)
& gluten proteins
al
(high molecular weight
on
SDS+ Phosphate polymers)
buffers+ sonication

d) Vitamins
rs

Malnutrition affects over 3 billion people worldwide due to a lack of key

micronutrients such as minerals and vitamins. A major contributing factor is a
Pe

diet deficient in foods that may adequately offer these nutrients. Various fractions
of wheat grain contain different vitamins, which are grouped into two categories.
B vitamins are known to be present in wheat bran. Wheat germ, in comparison
to bran and endosperm, has a larger level of total tocopherols.
r

e) Enzymes
fo

Wheat grain is known to contain a variety of enzymes, with quantities varying

based on genetic composition, climatic circumstances, and other variables such
as growing and harvesting. Because the aleurone layer and bran contain more
enzymes than the endosperm, various fractions of flour generated by milling
t

have varied enzyme concentrations. Amylolytic and proteolytic enzymes seem

an

to enhance bread-making characteristics, according to a variety of studies. The

following are the most significant enzymes and their functions:
Me
 20 Bakery and Confectionery Technology

 Alpha-amylase: Alpha-amylase plays a critical function in the manufacturing

of baking products. It causes the starch to be converted to simple sugars,
which yeast may then utilize. The increased yeast activity increases the
volume of the bread. The dough’s qualities such as volume and gas retention
power increase as the dough softens. Alpha-amylase also generates low
molecular weight branched chain starch polymers, which inhibit amylopectin
from recrystallizing and thus delay the staling process.

l
 Amyloglucosidase (glucoamylase): This enzyme is a member of the

On
amylase family. As a consequence, glucose is produced from the chain
ends. Because the liberated glucose undergoes the Maillard process, the
flavor is produced as well as the formation of a brown crust color.
 Hemicellulas: Hemicellase is a family of enzymes that decompose

e
hemicellulose. Hemicelluloses are mostly made up of arabinoxylans, and 3

Us
percent of arabinoxylans will bind around 30% of the water added to the
dough. Exoxylans and endoxylans are two types of enzymes in this category.
When these enzymes are activated, they release water and delay crumb
formation, result in a larger volume and a more delicate crumb.

f) Minerals
al
Wheat flour is an excellent source of vital minerals including zinc, iron, calcium,
on
selenium, and magnesium, etc. Any bakery product’s development depends on
the choice of adequate raw ingredients. Among all the raw ingredients, flour is
the most crucial since it is the foundation of the made bakery product. The
rs

flour’s composition should also be optimal. Functional tests such as SDS-

sedimentation value, falling number, and others are used to assess the flour
quality and forecast how it will behave during industrial processing and is also
Pe

influenced by the grains used. Functional tests are used to determine if the flour
is compatible with a certain product. Because the dough is viscoelastic,
determining its rheological qualities might assist predict how it will behave during
processing and handling.
r

[Link] Water
fo

Water is the most important component in baking because it plays a unique

function in developing the product structure and setting the structure that has
been established after it has been removed. Furthermore, the quantity of water
t

used dissolves other components in the recipe, aids in their dispersion, and
promotes yeast and hydration flour (proteins and starch) activation, resulting in
an

a smooth, workable dough. Water is spread between the gluten, starch, and
pentosans during the mixing process. The ability of flour to absorb water is
Me
 Bakery Raw Materials and Quality Parameters 21

determined by its quality. According to research, the better the quality of flour,
the higher the proportion of water utilized in the mixing process. Wheat proteins
cannot create the gluten structure necessary for most baked products without
hydration and proper ingredient mixing, and it is the level of gluten network
formation that determines dough texture and helps categorize them into distinct
classes. Water in the dough homogenizes all materials during mixing and distributes
heat (controls dough temperature) throughout the product during baking, affecting

l
organoleptic characteristics and acting as an effective crumb softener. Because

On
of the high temperature in the dough or batter, some water evaporates and adds
to the product expansion (leavening). Furthermore, the final taste, texture,
palatability, flavor, and mouthfeel of food are determined by the interaction of
water with other substances at atomic or molecular level. Because minerals

e
give nutrients to the leavening microorganisms (yeast) and maintain the gluten
network, water quality (hardness, taste, and pH) has a significant influence on

Us
dough properties as well as end product qualities. As a result, a change in mineral
concentration will have a direct impact on the rate of fermentation and the
consistency of the dough. Although some minerals in hard water have an effect
of gluten-strengthening, hard water is generally unsuitable for use in baking

al
items because the minerals present tighten the gluten strands excessively. Soft
water, on the other side, will result in a sticky and soft dough. The quantity of
water in the dough, as well as the quality of the dough, have a direct correlation
on
with the rate of fermentation. Furthermore, the quantity of water in the dough is
important for preserving the crispiness of the crust, the cellular structure of the
crumb, and the shelf life of the baked product. Water activity is a feature
rs

associated with a product’s moisture content that is accessible for microbial

development or to participate in a variety of changes during storage. As a result,
it is critical in preventing microbial deterioration, stalling, and migration difficulties
Pe

during product storage.

[Link] Leavening Agent

The word “leavening” literally means “to raise” or “making light.” It’s a chemical
r

that’s added to batter or dough for generating large amounts of gas (CO2),
fo

which lightens or softens the mixture and results in a porous baked product.
Carbon dioxide, air, and steam are the primary leavening gases in baked products.
Leavening agents are classified into three categories based on how they integrate
gases into batter or dough:
t

[Link] Chemical Leavening

an

Chemical leavening is a method of increasing the volume of baked goods by

generating gases from a mixture of sodium bicarbonate, ammonium bicarbonate,
Me
 22 Bakery and Confectionery Technology

or potassium bicarbonate, as well as acidic substances when combined with

water in a regulated proportion. To aerate the mixture, an acid-base reaction
occurs with water, resulting in the generation of carbon dioxide. The leavening
bubbles expand during baking, resulting in a porous crumb structure. The most
popular chemical leavening agents are baking powder and baking soda (sodium
bicarbonate). Generally, in chemical leavening, several reactions result in the
development of gases like ammonia and CO2, as shown below:

l
I. Decomposition reaction of ammonium bicarbonates in presence of heat as

On
“NH4HCO3= NH3 +CO2+H2O”
II. The reaction of an acid with a base compound is as follows:
“HZ + NaHCO3 =NaZ + H2O +CO2”

e
‘Z’ may be a non-metal or a hydrocarbon chain.

Us
Chemical leavening may also be categorized into three categories depend on
the formulation/process and desired properties of the final product, as shown
below:
a) Fast acting: Acidulants such as monocalcium phosphate and monohydrate

al
sodium bicarbonate, as well as tartaric acid or calcium triphosphate, react
rapidly and produce gas during mixing and at baking or steaming
temperatures.
on
b) Slow acting: Sodium acid pyrophosphate, glucono-lactone, orglucono-ä-
lactone, sodium aluminium phosphate, and tartar cream (potassium bitartrate)
rs

are common ingredients that release the majority of their gases when baked.
c) Double acting: Fast- and slow-acting acidulants, as well as a blend of
sodium aluminium sulphates and monocalcium phosphate, are the most
Pe

common ingredients. Commercially accessible double-acting leavening

agents are often utilized in baked goods that need an initial gas evolution.

[Link] Biological Leavening

r

In the leavening process, nontoxic microorganisms that produce carbon dioxide

fo

as part of their life cycle are used as biological leavening agents. The most
commonly utilized biological leavening agent is yeast, or Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, which produces carbon dioxide by digesting carbohydrates when
added to food. Furthermore, the ethanol generated during the fermentation process
adds to the baked good’s particular flavor. In general, three types of yeast are
t

utilized in baking as described:

an

a) Active dry yeast: It is composed of dormant yeast cells in the form of

small, dehydrated granules. Dehydration of yeast cells to a low moisture
Me
 Bakery Raw Materials and Quality Parameters 23

content makes up the composition of matter. It’s a live organism that’s

inactive until proofed and has to be rehydrated with warm water (approx
110°F) carrying fermentable sugars before being mixed with the remainder
of the dough’s components.
b) Instant yeast: It is a form of dry yeast that was formed in the 1970s
following active dry yeast. It’s composed of smaller, dehydrated yeast cells

l
that are finer in texture than dry yeast. It gives the yeast additional surface
area to interact with the other ingredients. Furthermore, since it absorbs

On
liquids rapidly, it activates and dissolves quicker than active dry yeast. Unlike
active dry yeast, which must be proofed before use, instant yeast may be
added to the dry ingredients without any further steps.
c) Compressed yeast: It’s a form of instant yeast made from yeast cream

e
that’s been filtered or pressed in a filter press and has a moisture level of 27

Us
to 34 percent. It usually includes glycerides, ascorbic acid, lecithin, sorbitan
esters, and other ingredients that help to condition the dough. Because it
doesn’t have to be dissolved and proofed like dry yeast, it works much
faster than that. Aside from its convenience, its shelf life varies from 3 to 4

al
weeks under refrigerated settings with a gradual reduction in leavening
activity.
on
[Link] Physical Leavening
Baking usually entails adding air and steam to the mixture by physically pressing
them into the pan. Integrating whipping batter and whipped egg whites or cream,
rs

as well as kneading or folding dough, adds air to the batter or dough. It also
works by releasing gas that has already been trapped.
Pe

[Link] Salt
The ionic component sodium chloride is often referred to as “salt” in baking
formulations since it is an important ingredient and is typically utilized in baked
products at a minor concentration of 1.5-2.25 percent to serve the following
r

critical functions:
fo

a) Stabilizing yeast fermentation

Owing to the effect of chloride and sodium ions on the yeast cells membrane
(partial dehydration), salt reduces the pace of fermentation, functioning as a
t

healthy check on yeast proliferation due to osmotic pressure, and thus helps in
browning by reducing sugar degradation during fermentation. Yeast ferments
an

excessively due to a shortage of salt in the dough, resulting in grassy, sourdough-

like baked products with poor texture. As a result, salt inhibits a rise in acidity as
Me
 24 Bakery and Confectionery Technology

well as unfavorable dough development. Furthermore, using salt to suppress

fermentation offers the baker a tool to regulate the formation of carbon dioxide
gas and other undesired fermentation products.

b) Strengthening the dough

Salt has a binding action that toughens the gluten and gives strength to the

l
dough, allowing weak flours to be reinforced. Furthermore, the increased
hardness supplied by salt to the gluten network helps dough in better absorbing

On
water and gas and helps it to expand without ripping.

c) Enhancing the flavor

The capacity of salt to improve the flavor and taste of food is one of its most

e
essential functions. Because the use of salt promotes palatability and digestibility

Us
due to its unique flavor, skipping salt from the recipe leads to an insipid and
tasteless baked product. Furthermore, the concentration utilized in the product
does not add a salty flavor, but rather reinforces the system’s other unique
flavors and tastes. As a result, it helps to balance and enhance the flavors of
other ingredients.

d) Increasing dough mixing time

al
on
Adding salt at the end of a mixing process is a usual technique since it reduces
the amount of time it takes for the mixture to come together, and so saves time
and energy.
rs

2.2.2 Minor Ingredients

Pe

[Link] Sweeteners and Sugars

The baked product is sweetened by the addition of sugar in different forms
during the baking process. Sucrose, the most often used sugar by bakers, is an
organic compound. Sugar is hygroscopic, which means it absorbs moisture,
r

lowers protein-protein interactions like gluten formation, increases palatability

and tenderness, and adds to the baked product’s flavor by combining with other
fo

ingredients. It prevents the baked food from getting dry or stale by reducing the
water activity of the baked item owing to its capacity to form bonds with water
(hygroscopic). Sugar also serves as a humectant, increasing the shelf life of
foods by limiting the development of microbes and preserving and balancing the
t

water activity of products. Sugar gives foods flavor, structure, and volume, as
an

well as imparting mouthfeel, which improves texture and helps baked products
keep their freshness and flavor. Millard reactions, which occur between amino
acids and reducing sugars to give baked products optimal color and flavor, affect
Me
 Bakery Raw Materials and Quality Parameters 25

various processes that generate the texture and color of baked food.
Caramelization happens when sugar is cooked to very high temperatures, and it
is essential for color formation. When sugar is heated, as in baked custard and
other desserts, it serves as an anti-coagulant. Sugar is a source of energy for
fermenting microorganisms and serves as nourishment for yeast. The following
are the several kinds of sweeteners used in bakery products:

l
• Granulated sugar: The baking sector is the most prevalent consumer of

On
this sort of sugar. It is extremely refined and suited for a wide range of
applications. Sugar beets and sugar cane are used to make it. Sugar crystals
are ideal for aerating batters and doughs during the creaming process,
resulting in a light, soft crumbs.

e
• Superfine sugar or castor sugar: It’s granulated sugar that’s been refined
into tiny crystals. Granulated sugar has a finer texture, and is utilized for

Us
creaming in the baking process.
• Icing sugar or powdered sugar: A powdered sugar made by grinding
granulated sugar into a fine powder. Anti-caking agents like starch and
tricalcium phosphate are often used. It has a finer texture and is intended

al
for use in dusting and coating baking products. Clumping is prevented by
absorbing moisture.
on
• Brown sugar: It’s raw, unprocessed sugar that’s often used to enhance
the color and flavor of baking food. Molasses is also been used into various
products. To obtain particular features, such as chewiness and keeping fast
rs

bread soft for longer periods, the addition of more moisture and additional
water is necessary. Colors for brown sugar vary from light yellow to dark
brown. In addition to dark bread and cookies, it’s also found in devil’s food,
Pe

spice, and a variety of other dark desserts.

• Golden syrup, often known as light treacle, is a thick, amber-colored invert
sugar. Sugar cane or sugar beet is refined to produce such products. Biscuits
and ginger cakes are two of the most common uses for this ingredient. It
r

resembles honey in appearance and is often used as a replacement.

fo

• Honey: It’s a thick, naturally occurring paste made up of fructose and

glucose that’s usually used to make gingerbread and nuggets. It’s particularly
hygroscopic likely to absorb moisture and keep the product soft.
t

• Liquid glucose or corn syrup: It is made by boiling starch in water and

then adding a mild acid to a gelatinized gel to facilitate the starch hydrolysis
an

and the generation of simple sugars. Cakes and cookies include this sort of
sweetener.
Me
 26 Bakery and Confectionery Technology

• Milk sugar: Sometimes known as lactose, is a disaccharide solely present

in mammalian milk. Because it is unaffected by yeast, unlike other sugars, it
survives yeast fermentation. It is made by crystallizing whey after it has
been concentrated. It’s a crystalline powder that’s non-hygroscopic and
free-flowing. It gives baking foods a sweet taste and flavor.
• Fermentable sugars: Glucose, fructose, maltose, and sucrose are all sugars

l
that occur naturally in flour.

On
• Non-fermentable sugars such as oligosaccharides.
• Medium Granulated sugar: It’s utilized in sand pies, cookies, and many
other baking items that need a coarse grain. It’s also used for decoration
purposes.

e
• Sanding Sugar: Most often used for sanding or sparkling cookies, pies, and

Us
other baked goods. It can reflect light, giving the product it’s applied to a
glittering finish. It’s the lightest shade of sugar there is.
• Extra fine Granulated Sugar: This is the most often used ingredient in the
field of baking. It’s easily dissolved in water or other bread liquefiers.
•
al
Icing Sugar: It is utilized in the production of high-quality icing. High gloss
and quick crusting are two of the benefits.
on
[Link] Shortening
The hydrogenation of vegetable or animal fat yields shortening, a viscous organic
rs

molecule that is soluble in nonpolar solvents and often used as a cooking fat
substitute. Oils and fats are hydrogenated by adding additional hydrogen atoms
and transforming them into solids. Fat may shorten structural protein networks
Pe

(gluten) in the baked dough by reacting with wheat during processing, facilitating
dough expansion, and enhancing handling during sheeting and molding (a process
known as shortening in the baking industry) (Table 2.6). Because shortening
has such a profound effect on baked products in terms of their flavor and structure
as well as their mouthfeel and stability as well as their storage quality and aesthetic
r

value, it’s a must-have component. Furthermore, it increases sensory qualities

fo

in a variety of ways, including a quick bite, a lubricative feel, and crispy or

crunchy auditory tones. Shortening is primarily used to tenderize baked foods,
which is mostly determined by the fat’s “slip point” (the temperature at when it
starts to melt). The following are the additional functional features given by the
t

shortening:
an
Me
 Bakery Raw Materials and Quality Parameters 27

Table 2.6: Mostly utilized shortening types in Bakery items

Type Description
Butter It consists mostly of milk fat (80-83 percent), moisture (15.5-16.0 percent),
salt (0-3 percent), and salt (1-1.5 percent). It’s made by churning milk cream
into a thick, creamy substance. It’s good for baking because of its delightful
fragrance, but it melts at temperatures exceeding 40°F. In addition, the fatty
acid content of butter is important for a variety of reasons. Fatty acids found

l
in butter including monounsaturated fatty acids, saturated fatty acids, as well

On
as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PFA), all of which constitute 21.021 percent
of the fat content (51.03 -52.343 percent).
Margarine It’s a condiment that may be used for flavoring, cooking, and baking. It’s
mostly made up of water and refined vegetable oil. It’s most also utilized as
a low-cost butter alternative, and it keeps well at room temperature. PFA

e
(7.45-21.5%), monounsaturated fatty acids (21.9–35.8%), and saturated fatty
acids (38.9–53.1%) make up the fatty acid content of margarine.

Us
Vanaspati Ghee It’s a kind of Indian vegetable ghee that’s been partly or hydrogenated and
hardened to increase its melting qualities, and it’s frequently used as an
inexpensive alternative to butter. Its gritty texture prevents it from being
used in baking items. It has a significant amount of trans fats (50%) that are
unhealthy to the heart and may cause heart attacks and strokes by raising

Refined Oil
low-density lipoproteins (bad cholesterol).

al
Non-glyceride impurities found in crude oil are removed from vegetable oils
during refinement. In baked foods, vegetable oil is recognized to provide the
on
moistest results. The reason for this is because, at normal temperature,
vegetable oil stays liquid, while butter solidifies. Refined oils include a high
percentage of unsaturated fats (healthy fats), making them a desirable option
for health-conscious people.
rs

Functions of Shortening
• Shortening helps to prevent air cells from forming during processing, softens
Pe

or lightens the product, and provides a thin, delicate structure.

• Shortenings cause the 3D structure or matrix of dough to be disrupted,
giving baked foods a tenderizing mouthfeel.
r

• Shortening helps to sustain the baked food’s quality and extend its shelf life
by inhibiting moisture transfer into the product retainer.
fo

• During dough or batter preparation, shortening from emulsions with other

ingredients serves as a lubricant, reducing the abrasive impact of flour and
sugar.
t

• Seasonings and toppings stick to the fat coats of the completed product,
therefore shortening increases flavor and works as a flavor carrier.
an

Shortening with a neutral flavor is typically used in baking products.

• Shortening prevents the dough from sticking to baking pans.
Me
 28 Bakery and Confectionery Technology

The interactions between polymer chains break down in the absence of shortening
when force is applied to the dough. When shortening is mixed into dough during
mixing, its structure and other rheological qualities are favorably altered, and
such attributes vary depending on the kind of shortening used.

[Link] Eggs

l
The richness, softness, and color of the baked item are all obtained with the
usage of eggs. Eggs offer fat, protein, and moisture to the baked product, as

On
well as crucial structure and texture. Furthermore, eggs aid in the binding of
other substances, which tightens the gluten network; however, the fat in the
yolk counteracts this action. Because trapped air bubbles in the blend caused by
whipping expand during baking and cause goods to rise, eggs function as aerating

e
agents. Furthermore, egg yolk includes lecithin, an emulsifier that helps to integrate

Us
fat into liquid components while also improving elasticity, crumb softness, volume,
gas retention, structure, and gluten strength.

[Link] Milk

al
Milk is often added to dough or batter during the blending step to enhance flavor,
color, texture, mouth-feel, and nutritional quality, as well as to give appealing
sensory aspects to the baked result. It includes fat and protein, which help to
on
strengthen and create the structure of baking items while also giving them a soft
crumb. It also provides water, which is required to hydrate starch, protein, and
leavening agents. Chemical changes are required for the structure, color, and
rs

texture development after the water is absorbed by the dry components.

Furthermore, milk sugars caramelize during baking, resulting in the baking dish
developing a golden-brown color. The most common dairy products used in
Pe

bakeries are listed below.

• Fresh Milk: Fresh milk is 80-90 percent water and the remainder is milk
solids. Whole milk, skim milk, and buttermilk are all forms of fresh
milk. Adding milk to baking products enhances their color and flavor. By
r

promoting the development of good microbes in the gut, lactose found in

fo

milk is beneficial. During the mixing process, milk solids bond with gluten
and give a toughening effect. Bakery goods are made more delicate because
of the water in milk that mixes with the other components.
• Concentrated milk products: Condensed skim milk, condensed whole
t

milk, buttermilk, as well as sweetened condensed whole milk are all included
in this category.
an

• Dry milk products: Whey, whole milk, and skim milk powder are the
most common types of dried milk powders, this category also includes butter.
Me
 Bakery Raw Materials and Quality Parameters 29

Taste, color, and aroma will all improve as well as the nutritional content of
these milk products.

[Link] Oxidizing Agents

Gluten reformation, a key factor in dough strength and elasticity, may be improved
by the use of oxidizing chemicals, often known as oxidizers. In the end, disulfide

l
bridges between neighboring protein molecules are formed by oxidizing agents,
which mostly impact sulfur-containing amino acids (gluten molecules). A more

On
durable dough will result from the addition of these additives to flour. These are
the most prevalent oxidizing agents:
• Ascorbic acid: In either natural or synthetic form, it may be obtained. The
FDA has classified it as a food additive that is generally regarded as safe

e
(GRAS).

Us
• Glucose oxidase: Mold or honey are commonly used to make it. With the
help of ambient oxygen, it converts glucose to gluconic acid and water to
hydrogen peroxide.
• Enzyme-active soy flour: Lipoxygenase, an enzyme found in soy flour,

•
exerts an oxidative impact on gluten protein.
al
ADA (Azodicarbonamide): It may be utilized as a dough conditioner in
on
bread making and as an aging and bleaching agent in cereal flour. It improves
the condition by oxidizing the sulfhydryl (SH) groups. During the 2.5 min
mixing of dough, the oxidation is quick and almost complete.
rs

• Bromate: more exactly, potassium bromate. Bromate slowly oxidizes

glutathione without the need for an enzyme. It produces a high-volume
production with excellent fermentation tolerance. It has increasingly been
Pe

substituted with ascorbic acid due to concerns about its health implications.

[Link] Reducing Agents

To increase the machinability of the dough, a reducing agent such as L- cysteine
r

is employed, which reduces the mixing time. A reducing agent performs the
opposite function as an oxidizing agent. Gluten protein’s strength is diminished
fo

when a reducing agent is used. The use of around 20-40 ppm of L-cysteine has
been shown to shorten mixing time by roughly 25%-40%. Reducing agents are
not advised for frozen baking products since they weaken the structure, resulting
in a drop in loaf volume during storage.
t
an

[Link] Surfactants or Emulsifiers

Emulsifiers used in bakery goods include CSL (calcium stearoyl-2 lactylate),
SSL (sodium stearoyl-2 lactylate), Sucrose Esters, DATEM (Diacetyl Tartaric
Me
 30 Bakery and Confectionery Technology

Acid Esters of Fat Forming Acids), Mono and Diglycerides (Mono & Di).
Emulsifiers increase the texture, flavor, and preserve the quality of the end
product by acting on the protein-starch interface in the dough. Even with soft
flour, quality bread may be produced with the addition of a suitable emulsifier.
These substances also contribute to enhancing mixing tolerance and the end
product’s structure.

l
[Link] Antimicrobials/ Preservatives

On
Depending on the conditions during product preparation, packing, transit, and
storage, bakery goods are subject to spoiling by various microorganisms, primarily
mold and bacteria. Bakery goods are prone to microbial infections even when
they are made using excellent production processes and sanitization methods.

e
Antimicrobial agents such as benzoic acid, acetic acid, sodium acetate, propionic

Us
acid, sodium or calcium propionate, sodium benzoate, and potassium/sorbic
sorbate are then indicated. Because Bacillus subtilis causes rope formation in
bakery goods, sorbates are often employed to avoid it, as sorbates are considered
to be more effective against rope formation. Such additives may be added up to
0.3 percent of the flour’s weight.

[Link] Flavoring Agents al

on
A quality product’s flavor is highly vital and must be chosen as per the product
being made. Flavoring agents must remain stable while baking and should not be
affected by heat or altered by alkali or acid. Vanilla, chocolate, cinnamon, cloves,
rs

and nutmeg are just a few examples.

[Link] Colorings
Pe

Food color is an essential sensory feature because it enhances the look of baking
products, provides excitement, appeals to prospective consumers, is tasty,
instructive, and has a big impact on customer judgment. Furthermore, it adds no
flavor to the product but may be utilized to increase palatability. Natural colors,
r

metallic and organic compounds, inorganic pigments, and synthetic coal tar
fo

substances are all included. Caramel coloring, cochineal, annatto, betanin produced
from beets, saffron, turmeric, elderberry, and paprika are just a few examples.

[Link] Flour Improvers

t

Food additives that are added to flour to increase its overall functioning, such as
workability and strength, are known as bread or dough improvers. Oxidizing and
an

reducing agents, as well as emulsifiers, bleaching agents, and enzymes such as

lipoxygenase, amylase, and protease, are all included in this category. Benzoyl
Me
 Bakery Raw Materials and Quality Parameters 31

peroxide, ascorbic acid, potassium bromates, chlorine dioxide, chlorine,

azodicarbonamide, and improvers are only a few examples. In India, however,
millers are allowed to utilize benzoyl peroxide (max 40ppm) and ascorbic acid
as bleaching agents (max 200ppm).

2.3 Conclusion

l
On a daily basis, huge quantities of bakery products are eaten. The quantity and
diversity of new bakery items continue to rise, and demand for them is increasing.

On
Each ingredient in a baking recipe has a particular purpose and is essential to
the baked product’s failure or success. Quality ingredients are required to produce
baked products with excellent texture and flavor. The end product’s texture and
taste are determined by the ingredients used, their proportions, and how they

e
are mixed.

Us
References
Baºman. A. and Koksel, H. (1999). Properties and composition of Turkish flat bread
(Bazlama) supplemented with barley flour and wheat bran. Cereal Chemistry, 76:
506-511.

al
Belitz, H. D., Grosch, W., Schieberle, P. (2009) Cereals and cereal [Link] Chemistry,
4thedn. Springer, Berlin, 670–675
on
Chung, F.H.Y., (2017). “Bakery Processes, Chemical Leavening Agents.” Wiley Online
Library. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2000.
Davis, E.A. (1995). Functionality of sugars: physicochemical interactions in foods.
rs

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 62:170-177.

Debi Rogers (2004). Functions of fats and oils in bakery products. Journal of the American
Oil Chemists’ Society, 70:965-970
Pe

Defloor, I. and Delcour. J.A. (1999). Impact of maltodextrins and antistaling enzymes on
the differential scanning calorimetry staling endotherm of baked bread doughs.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 47:737–741.
Demiralp, H., Celik. S. and Koksel. H. (2000). Effects of oxidizing agents and defatting on
r

the electrophoretic patterns of flour proteins during dough mixing. journal European
fo

Food Research and Technology, 211:322-325

Edwards, R.A, Ross. A.S, Mares. D.J, Ellison. F.W. and Tomlinson. J.D. (1989). Enzymes
from rain-damaged and laboratorygerminated wheat I. Effects on product quality.
Journal of Cereal Science, 10:157–167.
t

Elkhalifa, A.E.O. and El-Tinay, A.H. (2002). Effect of cysteine on bakery products from
wheat-sorghum blends. Food Chemistry, 77:133-137.
an

Fu. J., Mulvaney, S.J. and Cohen. C. (1997). Effect of added fat on the rheological
properties of wheat flour doughs. Cereal Chemistry, 74:304–311.
Me
 32 Bakery and Confectionery Technology

Goesaert, H., Brijs, K., Veraverbeke, W. S., Courtin. C. M., Gebruers, K. and Delcour, J. A.
(2005). Wheat flour constituents: how they impact bread quality, and how to impact
their functionality. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 16:12-30.
Kowieska, A., Lubowicki. R., Jaskowska, I.S. (2011). Chemical composition and nutritional
characteristics of several cereal grain. Actasci .pol zootechnica 10:37-50.
Marconi, E. and Carcea, M. (2001). Pasta from non-traditional raw materials. Cereal

l
Foods World, 46:522–530.
McCormack, G., Panozzo. J. F., Bekes, F. and MacRitchie, F. (1991). Contributions to

On
bread-making of inherent variations in lipids content and composition of wheat
cultivars. I. Results of survey. Journal of Cereal Science, 13:255-261.
Moonen, H. and Bas. H. (2015). Mono- and diglycerides. In: Norn V, editor. Emulsifiers in
Food Technology. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 73-91.

e
Moot, D.J. and Every. D. (1990): A comparison of bread baking, falling number, amylase

Us
essay and visual methods for assessment of pre-harvest sprouting in wheat. Journal
of Cereal Science, 11:225–234.
Osborne, T.B. and Mendel L.B. (1919).The nutritive value of the wheat kernel and its
milling products. Journal of Biological Chemistry 37:557-601.

Cake Making, Blackie Academic & Professional, London, UK, 48-80.

al
Rajah, K.K. (1997). Cream, butter and milk products. In (ed. A.J. Bent) The Technology of

Rouille, J., Le Bail, A. and Courcoux. P. (2000). Influence of formulations and mixing
on
conditions on breadmaking qualities of French frozen dough. Journal of Food
Engineering, 43:197-203.
Shewry, P.R., Tatham. A.S., Barro. F., Barcelo. P. and Lazzeri, P. (1995). Biotechnology of
rs

breadmaking: unraveling and manipulating the multi-protein gluten complex.

Biotechnology, 13:1185-1190.
Song, Y. and Zheng. Q. (2007). Dynamic rheological properties of wheat flour dough and
Pe

proteins. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 18:132-138.

Sramkova, Z., Gregovab, E. and Sturdíka, E. (2009) Chemical composition and nutritional
quality of wheat grain. ActaChimicaSlovaca, 2:115-138.
Stauffer, C.E. (1993). Frozen dough production. In: Advances in baking technology.
r

Kamel BS, Stauffer CE (eds), Chapman & Hall, London. UK.

fo

Sultan, W.J. (1990). Practical baking. 5th edn, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Zhang, X., Sun. J., Li., Z. (2007). Effect of DATEM on dough rheological characteristics
and qualitiesof CSB and bread. Cereal Chemistry. 84:181-185.
Zhou, W., Therdthai. N., Selman. J. D., Rosell. C. M., Pagani. M. A., De Leyn. I., and
t

Hui.Y. H. (2014). Bakery Products Science and Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
ISBN 978-1-119-96715-6.
an
Me

View publication stats