Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology

School of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering

Compressible Flow (Gas Dynamics)

 Outline

 Introduction  Isentropic Flow with Area Changes

 Objectives  Critical Throat Area of a Duct
 Applications  Choking in a Converging Nozzle
 Speed of Sound and Mach Number  Converging Nozzles – Sonic Design
 Classifications of Compressible Flow  Shock Waves
 Governing Equations  Converging – Diverging Nozzles / de
 The Perfect Gas Laval Nozzles
 Isentropic Process  Converging – Diverging Nozzles –
 Isentropic and Adiabatic Flow Supersonic Design
 Stagnation Enthalpy and Stagnation
Properties
 Isentropic and Non-isentropic
Stagnation States
 Mach Number Relations
 Critical Values at the Sonic Point
 Non-isentropic Compressible Flow
Models: Fanno and Rayleigh Flow
 Fanno Flow (Compressible Flow with
Friction)
 Rayleigh Flow (Compressible Flow
with Heat Transfer)
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 Introduction

 For the most part, we have limited our consideration so far to flows for
which density variations and thus compressibility effects are negligible
=> ‘low speed’, ‘Incompressible flows’.

 In this chapter we lift this limitation and consider flows that move at
speeds comparable to its speed of sound or more, its density changes
become significant . Such flows are called compressible flows, and they
are frequently encountered in devices that involve the flow of gases at
very high speeds.

 Compressible flow combines fluid dynamics and thermodynamics in that

both are absolutely necessary to the development of the required
theoretical background. In this chapter, we develop the general relations
associated with compressible flows for an ideal gas with constant specific
heats.
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 Cont’d …

 Such flows are difficult to obtain in liquids, since high pressures of order
1000atm are needed to generate sonic velocities.

 In gases, however, a pressure ratio of only 2:1 will likely cause sonic flow.
Thus compressible gas flow is quite common, and this subject is often
called gas dynamics.

The two important and distinctive effects of compressibility on flow are:

1. Chocking – wherein the duct flow rate is limited by the sonic condition
2. Shock Waves – which are linearly discontinuous property changes in supersonic flow.

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 Objectives

The purpose of this chapter is to explain striking phenomena and to

familiarize students with engineering calculations of compressible flow (gas
dynamics).

At the end of this chapter students will have deeper understanding on:
 Speed of Sound and Mach No
 Isentropic Processes and Stagnation Properties
 Adiabatic and Isentropic Steady Flows: Mach Number Relations
 Non-isentropic Compressible Flow Models
 Fanno Flow and
 Rayleigh Flow
 Isentropic flow through gentle area variations
 Converging Nozzles: Sonic Design (Chocked Flow)
 Shock wave: characteristic features, types of shock waves, governing equations,
calculation of properties across normal shock waves
 Converging – Diverging Nozzles: Supersonic Design

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 Applications

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 Speed of Sound and Mach Number
Speed of Sound
An important parameter in the study of compressible flow is the speed of sound (or the sonic
speed), which is the speed at which an infinitesimally small pressure wave travels through a
medium. The pressure wave may be caused by a small disturbance, which creates a slight rise
in local pressure.

To obtain a relation for the speed of sound in a medium, consider a duct that is filled with a fluid at rest, as
shown in Fig.

• A piston fitted in the duct is now moved to the right

with a constant incremental velocity dV, creating a
sonic wave.

• The wave front moves to the right through the fluid at

the speed of sound c and separates the moving fluid
adjacent to the piston from the fluid still at rest. The
fluid to the left of the wave front experiences an
incremental change in its thermodynamic properties,
while the fluid on the right of the wave front maintains
its original thermodynamic properties, as shown in Fig.

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 Cont’d …

To simplify the analysis, consider a control volume that encloses the

wave front and moves with it, as shown in Fig. To an observer
traveling with the wave front, the fluid to the right will appear to be
moving toward the wave front with a speed of c and the fluid to the
left to be moving away from the wave front with a speed of c - dV.

Of course, the observer will think the control volume that encloses the wave front (and herself or
himself) is stationary, and the observer will be witnessing a steady-flow process.
The mass balance for this single-stream, steady-flow process can be expressed as:

No heat or work crosses the boundaries of the control volume during this steady-flow process, and
the potential energy change can be neglected. Then the steady-flow energy balance ein = eout
becomes:

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 Cont’d …

which yields

where we have neglected the second-order term dV2. The amplitude of the ordinary sonic wave is
very small and does not cause any appreciable change in the pressure and temperature of the fluid.
Therefore, the propagation of a sonic wave is not only adiabatic but also very nearly isentropic.
Then the thermodynamic relation T ds = dh - dP/𝜌 reduces to:

Combining Eqs. a, b, and c yields the desired expression for the speed of sound as

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 Cont’d …

Mach Number
A second important parameter in the analysis of compressible fluid flow is the Mach
number, Ma. It is the ratio of the actual velocity of the fluid (or an object in still fluid)
to the speed of sound in the same fluid at the same state:

Note that the Mach number depends on the speed of sound, which depends on the
state of the fluid. Therefore, the Mach number of an aircraft cruising at constant
velocity in still air may be different at different locations.

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 Classification of Compressible Flows

Fluid flow regimes are often classified in terms of the flow Mach number.

>

The five categories of the flow are appropriate to external high-speed aerodynamics.
For internal (duct) flows, the most important question is if the flow is subsonic (Ma <
1) or supersonic (Ma > 1).

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 Governing Equations

 Any flow (compressible or incompressible) requires momentum and continuity

analysis.
 If density variations are significant, it follows from equation of state that
temperature and pressure changes are also substantial. Large temperature
changes imply that the energy equation can no longer be neglected.

Therefore the work is doubled from two basic equations to four.

1. Continuity Eqn.
2. Momentum Eqn.
3. Energy Eqn.
4. Eqn. of State

Thus the general theory of compressible flow is quiet complicated, and we try to
make further simplifications, especially by assuming a reversible or isentropic flow.

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 The Perfect Gas

In principle, compressible flow calculations can be made for any fluid. But in fact,
most elementary treatments are confined to the perfect gas with constant specific
heats. Equation of state:

For real gases, Cp, Cv and k vary with temperature but only moderately; for example,
Cp of air increases 30% as temperature increases from 0 to 50000F. Since we rarely
deal with large temperature changes, it is quiet reasonable to assume constant
specific heats.

The changes in internal energy 𝑢 and enthalpy ℎ of a perfect gas are

computed for constant specific heats as:

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 Isentropic Process

The isentropic approximation is common in incompressible flow theory. We compute

the entropy change from the first and second law of thermodynamics for pure
substances.

The above equation is used to compute entropy change across shock wave, which is
an irreversible process.
For isentropic flow => s1 = s2

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 Adiabatic and Isentropic Flow

 As already mentioned the isentropic approximation greatly simplifies a

compressible flow calculation. So does the assumption of adiabatic flow,
even if non-isentropic.
 Consider a high-speed flow of a gas past an insulated wall (might be a
wall of a duct). There is no shaft work delivered to any part of the fluid.
Therefore any stream-tube in the flow satisfies the steady flow energy
equation of the form:

Where point 1 is upstream of point 2

 Potential energy changes of a gas are extremely small compared with

kinetic energy and enthalpy terms.
 Outside the boundary layer the heat transfer and viscous-work terms are
zero. So the outer flow satisfies the simple relation:

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 Stagnation Enthalpy and Stagnation Properties

The constant in the above equation is equal to the maximum enthalpy which
the fluid would achieve if the flow is brought to rest adiabatically. This value is
called the stagnation enthalpy of the flow.

If the fluid were brought to a complete stop,

then the velocity at state 2 would be zero
and above equation would become:

Thus the stagnation enthalpy represents the enthalpy of a fluid when it

is brought to rest adiabatically.

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 Cont’d …

During a stagnation process, the kinetic energy of a fluid is converted to

enthalpy (internal energy + flow energy), which results in an increase in the
fluid temperature and pressure.

The properties of a fluid at the stagnation state are called stagnation

properties (stagnation temperature, stagnation pressure, stagnation density,
etc.).

The stagnation state and the stagnation properties are indicated by the
subscript 0.

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 Isentropic and Non-isentropic Stagnation States
The stagnation state is called the isentropic stagnation state when the
stagnation process is reversible as well as adiabatic (i.e. isentropic).
The entropy of a fluid remains constant during an isentropic stagnation
process. The actual (irreversible) and isentropic stagnation processes are
shown on an h-s diagram

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 Cont’d …

When the fluid is approximated as an ideal gas with constant specific heats,
its enthalpy can be replaced by cpT:

Here T0 is called the stagnation (or total) temperature, and it represents the temperature an
ideal gas attains when it is brought to rest adiabatically. The term V2/2cp corresponds to the
temperature rise during such a process and is called the dynamic temperature. For example,
the dynamic temperature of air flowing at 100 m/s is (100 m/s)2/(2 * 1.005 kJ/kg · K) = 5.0
K.

The pressure a fluid attains when brought to rest adiabatically is called the stagnation
pressure P0. For ideal gases with constant specific heats, P0 is related to the static pressure of
the fluid by:

Also,
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 Mach Number Relations
The dimensionless form of the above equation brings in the Mach Number as
a parameter.

For a perfect gas:

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 NOTE

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 Critical Values at the Sonic Point
The stagnation values (a0,T0,P0, 𝜌0 ) are useful reference conditions in
compressible flow, but of comparable usefulness are conditions where the
flow is sonic, Ma = 1. These sonic or critical properties are denoted by
asterisks: a*, T*, P*, 𝜌∗ .

They are certain ratios of the stagnation properties when Ma = 1; for K =

1.4

In all isentropic flow, all critical properties are constant; in adiabatic non-isentropic flow, a*
and T* are constant, but P* and 𝜌∗ may vary.

The critical velocity V* equals the sonic speed a* and is often used as a reference velocity in
isentropic or adiabatic flow.

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 Example 1
1. Carbon dioxide flows steadily through a varying cross-sectional area duct such as
a nozzle shown in the Fig. at a mass flow rate of 3 kg/s. The carbon dioxide enters
the duct at a pressure of 1400 kPa and 200°C with a low velocity, and it expands in
the nozzle to a pressure of 200 kPa. The duct is designed so that the flow can be
approximated as isentropic.

Determine the density, velocity, flow area, and Mach number at each location along
the duct that corresponds to a pressure drop of 200 kPa.

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 Solution

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 Cont’d

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 Cont’d

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 Non-isentropic Compressible Flow Models: Fanno and Rayleigh Flow

Fanno Flow vs Rayleigh Flow

Fanno Flow Rayleigh Flow
• A vary common internal compressible flow application • In other compressible flow applications, heat is
is flow of gases in pipeline. added to/removed from a fluid.
• In addition to compressibility effects in such flows, the • A combustion from air fuel mixture in a jet
effect of friction determines the total pressure loss engine is a good example.
uncured by the flowing gas. • 1D frictionless compressible flow with
• The overall pumping power required to transport gas considerable heat transfer is called Rayleigh
from one location to the other must overcome these Flow.
pressure losses. .
• 1D adiabatic compressible flow with considerable
friction is called Fanno Flow.
.

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 Fanno Flow (Compressible Flow with Friction)
Fanno Flow is a steady 1D adiabatic compressible
flow through const. area duct with significant
friction effect.

Governing Equations:
1. 𝜌1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝑉2 ⇒ Continuity eqn.
Friction
2. 𝑃1 + 𝜌1 𝑉12 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌2 𝑉22 + => Momentum eqn.
Area
𝑉12 𝑉22
3. ℎ1 + =
2
ℎ2 +
2
=> Energy eqn.
4. P = 𝜌RT => Equation of state (perfect gas)
5. h = 𝐶𝑃 𝑇 => for a perfect gas
𝑇2 𝑃2
6. 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝐶𝑃 ln − 𝑅ln => Entropy change
𝑇1 𝑃1

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 Fanno Flow – Property Relations

Taking sonic condition (Ma = 1) as a reference condition at section 1 (upstream)

we will get:

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 Fanno Line/Fanno Curve

• For any specified value of Ff, there is an

infinite number of possible down stream
states corresponding to the upstream state.

• We assume various values of Ff andT2 to

calculate all other properties on the down
stream and we can plot T-s/h-s Diagram.

• A plot of fanno flow on T-s or h-s diagram

is called Fanno Line or Fanno Curve.

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 Fanno Line/Fanno Curve

• Fanno line is the locus of all possible

downstream states corresponding to initial state.

• For any given initial state, the flow can not exist
on any downstream state outside the fanno line
on T-s or h-s diagram.

• Friction causes entropy to increase as the

process will always proceed to the right.

• At point ‘a’ the entropy is maximum, here Ma =

1.

• All states on the upper arm of the fanno line

represents subsonic flow and all states on the
lower arm represents supersonic flow.

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 Fanno Line/Fanno Curve
Observations:

• For supersonic inlet (Ma > 1), the effect of friction decelerates the flow and the
downstream flow approaches point ‘a’. The longer the pipe the greater the frictional loss,
the closer the downstream conditions are to point ‘a’.
• At the critical pipe length L*, the flow in the downstream become sonic and it is
considered ‘chocked’. It is not possible to increase the length any further without
drastically changing the upstream conditions.
• Any further increase in the length of the pipe beyond this critical value will produce a
normal shock and the upstream flow conditions become subsonic.
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 Fanno Line/Fanno Curve
Observations:

• Similarly in the upper branch, where the flow is subsonic (Ma < 1), the effect of friction
is to accelerate the flow.
• At the critical pipe length L*, the flow in the downstream become sonic and it is
considered again ‘chocked’. It is not possible to increase the length any further without
drastically changing the upstream conditions.
• The stagnation pressure always decreases in fanno flow, for both subsonic and
supersonic inlet conditions.

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 Critical Length of the Duct

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 Critical Length of the Duct

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 Fanno Line/Fanno Curve
Observations:

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 Example 2 – Fanno Flow in a Duct
2. Air enters a 3-cm-diameter smooth adiabatic duct at Ma1 = 0.4, T1 = 300 K, and
P1 = 150 kPa (Fig.). If the Mach number at the duct exit is 1, determine the duct
length and temperature, pressure, and velocity at the duct exit. Also determine the
percentage of stagnation pressure lost in the duct.

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 Solution

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 Solution

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 Discussion

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Rayleigh Flow (Compressible Flow with Heat Transfer)

Rayleigh Flow is a steady 1D frictionless compressible flow through

const. area duct with significant
Heat transfer.

Governing Equations:
1. 𝜌1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝑉2 ⇒ Continuity eqn.
2. 𝑃1 + 𝜌1 𝑉12 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌2 𝑉22 => Momentum eqn.

𝑉12 𝑉22
3. ℎ1 + 2
+ q = ℎ2 +
2
=> Energy eqn.

4. P = 𝜌RT => Equation of state (perfect gas)

5. h = 𝐶𝑃 𝑇 => for a perfect gas
𝑇2 𝑃2
6. 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝐶𝑃 ln − 𝑅ln => Entropy change
𝑇1 𝑃1

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 Rayleigh Flow – Property Relations

Taking sonic condition (Ma = 1) as a reference condition at section 1 (upstream)

we will get:

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 Rayleigh Line/ Rayleigh Curve

• For any specified value of q, there is an

infinite number of possible down stream
states corresponding to the upstream state.

• We assume various values of q and T2 to

calculate all other properties on the down
stream and we can plot T-s/h-s Diagram.

• A plot of Rayleigh flow on T-s or h-s

diagram is called Rayleigh Line or Rayleigh
Curve.

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 Rayleigh Line/ Rayleigh Curve
Observations:

• Raleigh line is the locus of all possible

downstream states corresponding to initial
state. (or simply each point on a Rayleigh
line corresponds to a different value of heat
added/removed from the flow.)

• For any given initial state, the flow can not

exist on any downstream state outside the
Rayleigh line on T-s or h-s diagram.

• Heat addition causes entropy to increase

as the process will always proceed to the
right.

• At point ‘a’ the entropy is maximum, here

Ma = 1.

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 Rayleigh Line/ Rayleigh Curve
Observations:

• All states on the upper arm of the Rayleigh

line represents subsonic flow and all states
on the lower arm represents supersonic
flow.

• Heat addition increases the Ma of subsonic

flow to sonic state (Ma = 1).

• Heat addition decelerates the supersonic

flow to sonic state.

• Total temperature will always increase

during heating and decrease during
cooling.

• Maximum total temperature (To,max) will

exist at point a, Ma = 1.
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 Rayleigh Line/ Rayleigh Curve
Observations:

• Static temperature increases when heat is

added to subsonic flow up to Ma = 1/ 𝐾,
and decreases for small range of Mach
numbers until Ma = 1 is achieved.

• It seems odd that the temperature drops as

heat is being added, but it is due to large
increasing fluid velocity (a gain in dynamic
temperature).

• Therefore, maximum static temperature

exists at Ma = 1/ 𝐾.

• Heat addition to a subsonic flow increases

the Ma and hence decreases the static
pressure and vice versa for cooling.

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 Rayleigh Line/ Rayleigh Curve
Observations:
• Heat addition to a supersonic flow
decreases the Ma and hence increases the
static pressure and vice versa for cooling.

• Heat addition to a subsonic flow increases

the Ma and hence its density will decrease
and vice versa for cooling.

• Heat addition to a supersonic flow

decreases the Ma and hence its density will
increase and vice versa for cooling.

• Heat addition increases entropy, whenever

entropy increases, the total pressure will
decrease for both subsonic and supersonic
cases.

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 Rayleigh Line/ Rayleigh Curve
Observations:
• Stagnation temperature will always
increase during heating whether the flow is
subsonic or supersonic.

• Adding q beyond q* to a subsonic flow is

not possible without drastic revision of
upstream conditions. Will cause a
series of pressure waves which will
propagate to upstream direction and it will
adjust the upstream conditions naturally to
lower supersonic Mach numbers.

• Any further in heat addition beyond the

critical value (q*) is not possible without
drastic revision on upstream condition.
Normal shock will form in the
upstream direction in the case of
supersonic flow.
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Effects of Heating and Cooling on the Properties of Rayleigh Flow

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 Example 3 – Rayleigh Flow in Tubular Combustor
3. A combustion chamber consists of tubular combustors of 15-cm diameter.
Compressed air enters the tubes at 550 K, 480 kPa, and 80 m/s (Fig.). Fuel with a
heating value of 42,000 kJ/kg is injected into the air and is burned with an air fuel
mass ratio of 40. Approximating combustion as a heat transfer process to air,
determine the temperature, pressure, velocity, and Mach number at the exit of the
combustion chamber.

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 Solution

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 Solution

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 Solution

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 Isentropic Flow with Area Changes

By combining isentropic and/or adiabatic flow relations with equations of

continuity, we can study practical one dimensional compressible flow
problems.

For steady one dimensional flow, the equation of continuity is:

Before applying this duct theory, it is important to introduce the differential

form of the continuity and momentum equations.

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 Isentropic Flow with Area Changes

Continuity:

Momentum:

Speed of Sound:

Now eliminate dv and dρ to obtain the following relation between pressure

change and area change in isentropic flow:

Now eliminate dp and dρ to obtain the following relation between velocity

change and area change in isentropic flow:

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 Isentropic Flow with Area Changes

Inspection of the equations, without actually solving, reveals a

fascinating aspect of compressible flow. Property changes are of
opposite sign for subsonic and supersonic flow. There are four
combinations of area change and Mach number, summarized here.

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 Isentropic Flow with Area Changes

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 Isentropic Flow with Area Changes

Observations:
From our previous studies, we are used to subsonic behavior (Ma<1): when area increases, velocity
decreases and pressure increases, which is denoted a subsonic diffuser. But in supersonic flow (Ma>1):
the velocity actually increases when the area increases, a supersonic nozzle. The same opposing behavior
occurs for an area decrease, which speeds up a subsonic flow and slow down a supersonic flow.

About the sonic point (Ma=1), since infinite acceleration is not possible, the equation indicates that dV
can be finite when dA = 0. That is a minimum area (throat) or maximum area (bulge). The throat or the
converging-diverging section can smoothly accelerate a subsonic flow through sonic to supersonic flow.

This is the only way a supersonic flow can be created by expanding gas from a stagnant reservoir.

Although supersonic flow downstream of the nozzle requires a sonic throat, the opposite is not true. A
compressible gas can pass through a throat section without being sonic.

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 Isentropic Flow with Area Changes

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 Critical Throat Area of a Duct

We can use perfect – gas and isentropic - flow relations to convert the
continuity relation in to algebraic expression involving only area and Mach
number, as follows (equating the mass flow rate at any section to the mass
flow rate under sonic conditions):

Both terms on the right are functions of only Mach number for isentropic
flow.

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 Critical Throat Area of a Duct

For k = 1.4,

The result shows that the minimum

area which can occur in a given
isentropic duct flow is the sonic,
critical or throat area. All other duct
sections must have A greater than
A*. In many flows a critical sonic
throat is not actually present, and
the flow in the duct is either entirely
subsonic or, more rarely, entirely
supersonic.

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 Choking in a Converging Nozzle

The inverse ratio A*/A equals to ρV/(ρ*V*), the mass flow per unit area at
any section compared with the critical mass flow per unit area.

This inverse ratio rises from zero at Ma = 0 to unity at Ma = 1 and back

down to zero at large Ma.

Thus for a given stagnation conditions, the maximum possible mass flow
passes through a duct when its throat is at the critical or sonic condition.

The duct is said to be choked and can carry no additional mass flow unless
the throat is widened. If the throat is constricted further, the mass flow
through the duct must decrease.

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 Choking

The maximum flow is:

For K = 1.4,

The only cumbersome algebra in these problems is inversion of

To compute the Mach number when A/A* is known. EES is ideal for this
situation. In the absence of EES, the following correlations estimate the Mach
number within ±2% accuracy for K = 1.4.
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 Choking

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 Converging Nozzles – Sonic Design

Consider the subsonic flow through a

converging nozzle as shown in Fig. The
nozzle inlet is attached to a reservoir at
pressure Pr and temperature Tr. The
reservoir is sufficiently large so that the
nozzle inlet velocity is negligible. Since
the fluid velocity in the reservoir is zero
and the flow through the nozzle is
approximated as isentropic, the
stagnation pressure and stagnation
temperature of the fluid at any cross
section through the nozzle are equal to
the reservoir pressure and temperature,
respectively.

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 Converging Nozzles – Sonic Design

Now we begin to reduce the back

pressure and observe the resulting
effects on the pressure distribution along
the length of the nozzle, as shown in Fig.
• If the back pressure Pb is equal to P1,
which is equal to Pr, there is no flow
and the pressure distribution is
uniform along the nozzle.
• When the back pressure is reduced
to P2, the exit plane pressure Pe also
drops to P2. This causes the pressure
along the nozzle to decrease in the
flow direction.

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 Converging Nozzles – Sonic Design

• When the back pressure is reduced

to P3 = P*, which is the pressure
required to increase the fluid velocity
to the speed of sound at the exit
plane or throat), the mass flow
reaches a maximum value and the
flow is said to be choked.

• Further reduction of the back

pressure to level P4 or below does
not result in additional changes in the
pressure distribution, or anything else
along the nozzle length.

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 Converging Nozzles – Sonic Design

A plot of 𝑚 versus Pb /P0 for a converging nozzle is

shown in Fig.

Note that the mass flow rate increases with

decreasing Pb /P0, reaches a maximum at Pb = P*,
and remains constant for Pb /P0 values less than
this critical ratio. Also illustrated on this figure is the
effect of back pressure on the nozzle exit pressure
Pe. We observe that:

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 Converging Nozzles – Sonic Design

Under steady-flow conditions, the mass flow rate through the nozzle is constant and
can be expressed as

Thus, for a particular ideal gas, the maximum mass flow rate through a nozzle with a
given throat area is fixed by the stagnation pressure and temperature of the inlet flow.
The flow rate can be controlled by changing the stagnation pressure or temperature,
and thus a converging nozzle can be used as a flow meter. The flow rate can also be
controlled, of course, by varying the throat area. This principle is very important for
chemical processes, medical devices, flow meters, and anywhere the mass flux of a
gas must be known and controlled.

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 Converging Nozzles – Sonic Design

A relation for the variation of flow area A through the nozzle relative to throat area A*
can be obtained by combining for the same mass flow rate and stagnation properties
of a particular fluid. This yields:

The effects of the stagnation

temperature T0 and stagnation
pressure P0 on the mass flow rate
through a converging nozzle are
illustrated here.

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Example 4 – Choked Flow through a Duct of Variable Cross sectional Area

4. Air flows isentropically through a duct. At section 1 the area is 0.05m2 and V1 =
180m/s, p1 = 500kpa, and T1 = 470K. Compute:
a. To
b. Ma1
c. p0
d. Both A* and mass flow rate
If at section 2 the area is 0.036m2, compute Ma2 and p2 if the flow is
e. Supersonic
f. Subsonic
Assume K = 1,4, Cp = 1005 J/kg K and R = 287J/kg K

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 Example 5 – Effect of Back Pressure on Mass Flow Rate

5. Air at 1 MPa and 600°C enters a converging nozzle, shown in Fig., with a velocity
of 150 m/s. Determine the mass flow rate through the nozzle for a nozzle throat area
of 50 cm2 when the back pressure is:

(a) 0.7 Mpa and

(b) 0.4 MPa.

Take: K = 1,4, Cp = 1005 J/kg K and R = 287J/kg K

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 Shock Waves

Mach number is defined as the ratio of speed of the object to the speed
of sound in the given medium, i.e.,

Subsonic Waves
If speed of an object in the fluid is less than that of
sound, then such a speed is referred to as subsonic
and the wave is a subsonic wave. In this case the
Flow of velocity of object at any point is less than
the speed of fluid. Therefore sound waves moves
ahead of the object. For subsonic waves Mach no < 1
Ex. The speeds of cars, trains and speeds of birds.

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 Shock Waves

Supersonic Waves
When an object moves with speeds greater than the speed of sound in the medium,
the wave is said to be supersonic wave and the speed is called supersonic speed. In
this case the flow of velocity of fluid at any point is greater than the speed of sound in
that fluid, the flow is said to be supersonic flow. For which Mach number >1 and
less than 3

A body moving with supersonic speed moves

forward by cutting its own sound wave front,
leaving behind a series of expanding sound
waves with their centers displaced continuously
along its trajectory.
Ex. Fighter planes move with supersonic speed.

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 Shock Waves

Mach Angle
A number of common tangents drawn to the expanding sound waves emitted from
a body moving at supersonic speed form a cone called the Mach cone. The angle
made by the tangent with the axis of the Mach cone is called the Mach angle,
(µ) and is related to the Mach Number through the equation:

Shock Waves
Shock waves are the sound waves produced by a medium due to sudden
dissipation of mechanical energy in a medium enclosed in a small space.

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 Shock Waves

Shock Waves
Shock waves are the sound waves (pressure waves) produced by a medium due to
sudden dissipation of mechanical energy in a medium enclosed in a small space.
Shock wave occurs when many sound waves “run into” each other and accumulate
(some refer to it as “coalescing”) into a large difference, which is the shock wave.

• Any fluid that travels at supersonic speeds, give rise to a shock wave. Shock waves are
produced during earth quakes and lightning. Shock wave cannot be heard, but we can
hear a booming sound, ‘sonic boom’.

• When a shock wave is formed, there is a distinct surface created by the medium itself
called shock front. Typical thickness of a shock front is few micrometers. Within the
shock front, the pressure, temperature and density of the gas undergoes sudden changes.

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 The Normal Shock Wave

Normal shock wave is a common irreversibility occurring in supersonic internal or

external flows. Shock waves are very thin (a few micrometers thick) and approximate
a discontinuous change in the flow properties.

Shock wave is a fixed strong pressure wave. To compute all property

changes, we use all our basic one-dimensional steady flow relations,
letting section 1 be upstream and section 2 be downstream.
(A1 = A2 because of the small thickness of the wave)

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 Property Relations across N. Shock Wave
Eliminate V2 and ρ2 from thr first three equations and introduce

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 Property Relations across N. Shock Wave

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 Property Relations across N. Shock Wave

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 Mach Number Relations across N. Shock Wave

Further manipulation of basic relations for perfect gas, gives additional

equations relating the change in properties across a normal-shock wave:

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 Mach Number Relations across N. Shock Wave

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Converging – Diverging Nozzles / de Laval Nozzles

• When we think of nozzles, we ordinarily think of

flow passages whose cross-sectional area
decreases in the flow direction. However, the
highest velocity to which a fluid can be accelerated
in a converging nozzle is limited to the sonic
velocity (Ma = 1), which occurs at the exit plane
(throat) of the nozzle.

• Accelerating a fluid to supersonic velocities (Ma >

1) can be accomplished only by attaching a
diverging flow section to the subsonic nozzle at the
throat.

• The resulting combined flow section is a

converging–diverging nozzle, which is standard
equipment in supersonic aircraft and rocket
propulsion.

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Converging – Diverging Nozzles / de Laval Nozzles

 The flow area of the duct considered in this

example first decreases and then increases. Such
ducts are called converging–diverging nozzles.

 These nozzles are used to accelerate gases to

supersonic speeds and should not be confused
with Venturi nozzles, which are used strictly for
incompressible flow.

 The first use of such a nozzle occurred in 1893 in

a steam turbine designed by a Swedish engineer,
Carl G. B. de Laval (1845–1913), and therefore
converging–diverging nozzles are often called
Laval nozzles.

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 Converging – Diverging Nozzles

Forcing a fluid through a converging–diverging nozzle is no guarantee that the fluid will be
accelerated to a supersonic velocity. In fact, the fluid may find itself decelerating in the
diverging section instead of accelerating if the back pressure is not in the right range.

Therefore, for given inlet conditions, the flow through a converging–diverging nozzle is
governed by the back pressure Pb, as will be explained.

Consider the converging–diverging nozzle shown in Fig below. A fluid enters the nozzle
with a low velocity at stagnation pressure P0. When Pb = P0 (case A), there is no flow
through the nozzle. This is expected since the flow in a nozzle is driven by the pressure
difference between the nozzle inlet and the exit. Now let us examine what happens as the
back pressure is lowered.

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 Converging – Diverging Nozzles

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 Converging – Diverging Nozzles

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Converging – Diverging Nozzles – Supersonic Design

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Example 6 – Air Flow through Converging – Diverging Nozzle

6. Air enters a converging–diverging nozzle, shown in Fig., at 1.0 Mpa and 800 K
with a negligible velocity. The flow is steady, one-dimensional, and isentropic with k
= 1.4. For an exit Mach number of Ma = 2 and a throat area of 20 cm2, determine:

(a) the throat conditions,

(b) the exit plane conditions, including the exit area, and
(c) the mass flow rate through the nozzle.

Ref.

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 Example 7 – Shock Wave in Converging – Diverging Nozzle

7. If the air flowing through the converging–diverging nozzle of Example 6

experiences a normal shock wave at the nozzle exit plane, determine the following
after the shock:
(a) the stagnation pressure, static pressure, static temperature, and static density;
(b) the entropy change across the shock;
(c) the exit velocity; and
(d) the mass flow rate through the nozzle.
Assume steady, one-dimensional, and isentropic flow with k = 1.4 from the nozzle
inlet to the shock location.

Ref.

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