Unit II- Ecosystem

Dr. Neetu
Dwivedi
Ecosystem
The ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms
interact with each other and the surrounding environment.

In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of interaction between organisms and their

environment.

The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by [Link], an English botanist, in 1935.

Characteristics of an Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

✔Ecosystem is the major ecological unit. It regulates the essential ecological processes,
and supports life systems.
✔It contains both biotic and abiotic components.
✔It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.
✔It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
✔The boundaries of the ecosystem is not rigidly defined it is flexible.
✔Any ecosystem passes from less complex state to more complex state which is called
ecological succession.
 Structure of the Ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:
•Biotic Components
•Abiotic Components
Estuaries
 Energy flow in an ecosystem

❖ Energy is defined as capacity of doing work.

❖There is a continuous loss of energy with in each trophic level from producer to
consumers with an ecosystem during energy flow.
❖The flow of energy through the ecosystem is always unidirectional.
❖If the length of food chain is shorter, availability of food will be greater.

❖The energy flow in any ecosystem depends on the two law of thermodynamics:
i. First law of thermodynamics: Energy neither be created nor be destroyed but
may be transferred from one form to another.
Example:
Solar energy Chemical energy mechanical energy Kinetic energy

i. Second law of thermodynamics: During the transfer of energy from one trophic
level to another, amount of energy loss occur and only 10% energy of the
previous level transfer to the next level. This is called Lindeman 10% law.

According to second law the amount of energy dissipated at each successive level
from bottom to top that is why the pyramid of energy is always upright.
Schematic representation of flow of energy in an
ecosystem
Food Chain:
“ Schematic, sequential representation of flow of energy from one trophic level to
another is known as food chain”

Types of food chain:

1. Grazing food chain:

This type of food chain starts from the living green plants goes to grazing herbivores,
and on to carnivores. Ecosystems with such type of food chain are directly
dependent on an influx of solar radiation.

2. Detritus food chain:

This type of food chain goes from dead organic matter into microorganisms and then
to organisms feeding on detritus (detrivores) and their predators. Such ecosystems
are thus less dependent on direct solar energy.
Grazing food chain
Food web
 Ecological pyramid
“A graphic representation of trophic structure in which first trophic level forms the base and
higher trohic levels forms successive tiers or apex is known as ecological pyramid.” and their
order, which is based on who eats whom, represents the flow of energy.
This term was coined by Charles Elton in 1920.
Types of pyramids:
1. Pyramid of number: Number of individuals counted at each trophic level in any ecosystem
2. Pyramid of biomass: Total living and dry weight of organism at each trophic level .
3. Pyramid of energy: Total amount of energy at each successive level.
 Inverted pyramid of biomass in aquatic ecosystem
hyperparasites

parasites
herbivores

producers

Forest ecosystem
 Ecological succession
▪Succession means “Change”. Therefore, Change in any ecosystem or conversion of any type of
ecosystem into different type of ecosystem is known as ecological succession. Eg. Conversion of
aquatic ecosystem in terrestrial one.
Or
▪It is an orderly process in which communities of plants and animals become colonies after a long
period of time in a particular area called as ecological succession.

▪Ecological succession aims at reaching the equilibrium in the ecological system. This is achieved
by a community called the Climax Community.

▪The area in which the order of communities undergoes a specific change is called Sere. Each
changing community is therefore called a Seral Community.

Causes of Succession

Biotic cause Abiotic cause

Human Grazing Invasive Insect/ pest Climatic Edaphic Fire Factor

Animal species attack Factor Factor
 Types of Ecological
Succession

Primary succession
Secondary succession
▪The process that starts in lifeless
▪This process occurs when
areas such as the regions devoid of
the primary ecosystem gets
soil or the areas where the soil is
destroyed. For eg., a climax
unable to sustain life.
community gets destroyed
by any factor like fire etc.
▪Primary succession is a gradual and
▪This is a faster process
low process because in this case,
because life has already
life starts from noting.
been supported in these
conditions earlier.
 OTHER TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

3) Autogenic Succession: (Auto means self or same, and genic means producing / causing) The
developing plant community brings a change in the condition of a particular place, which is not
suitable for them, but creates or produces an environment for the growth of a different
community. It is a succession driven by biotic components of an ecosystem.

4) Allogenic Succession: (It is caused by abiotic factors) In contrast to autogenic succession,

allogenic succession is an abiotic factor driven condition. The habitat of the ecosystem is
changed due to volcanic eruption, climate change, comet strike, earthquake, flood, drought etc.

5) Induced Succession: It is a man-made process, developed for the benefit of the humankind.
Ex. Cultivation of Crops in a field.

6) Autotrophic Succession: When a place is rich in inorganic content & poor in organic matter,
the development of succession of plants over that area is called as autotrophic succession.

7) Heterotrophic Succession: If a succession begins in an area which is rich in organic contents

like forest litter, sewage etc, and dominated by saprophytes like fungi, mushrooms etc is called
heterotrophic succession.

8) Retrogressive Succession: Sometimes due to heavy biological or biotic interferences, the

succession goes backward instead of progressing. Ex. Forest community changes to a shrub land
or grassland or to a barren land due to deforestation and overgrazing.
1. Nudation: Destruction of community or development of a bare area.
2. Invasion: Establishment of a species in the bare area. First arrivals are known as
Pioneers. The process is completed in three steps:
Migration- Arrival of seeds, spores in a bare area through pollination.
Ecesis- Germination of seeds and spores.
Aggregation- The individuals of a species increase their number and they stay
close to each other.
3. Competition: Fight for space, food, light and reproduction.
4. Reaction: Modification of the environment through the influence of living
organism present on it.
5. Stabilization: Final community becomes more or less stabilized for longer period
of time. This is also known as climax stage or climax community.
 Hydrosere: Conversion of
aquatic ecosystem in to
terrestrial ecosystem.

Xerosere: conversion
of bare area or desert
area in to grassland/
woodland ecosystem.
 Biogeochemical cycles
“The cyclic exchange of nutrient material between the living organism and their nonliving
environment is called Bio geochemical cycles .”

These cycles are of two types-

1. Gaseous cycle
2. Sedimentary cycle

Oxygen cycle Carbon cycle

 Water cycle
Water cycle, also called hydrologic cycle, that involves the circulation of water in the
Earth- atmosphere system by the following processes like- Evaporation, Transpiration,
Condensation, Precipitation and runoff.
Sulfur Cycle
Phosphorus cycle
Ecosystem services can be defined as the goods and services provided by ecosystem
that benefit, sustain and support the wellbeing of people.
PRODUCTIVITY
The rate of biomass production is called productivity. The portion of fixed energy, a trophic
level passes on to the next trophic level is called production.

Productivity is a rate function, and is expressed in terms of dry matter produced or energy
captured per unit area of land, per unit time. It is more often expressed as energy in
calories/cm2/yr or dry organic matter in g/m2/yr.

Productivity in ecosystems is of two kinds, i.e., Primary and Secondary

Primary Productivity: The rate at which the energy accumulates in the green plants or
producers is known as primary productivity.

Secondary Productivity: It is the rate of energy storage at consumer’s levels-herbivores,

carnivores and decomposers. Consumers tend to utilise already produced food materials in
their respiration and also converts the food matter to different tissues by an overall
process.
Primary productivity has two aspects:
What Is Ecosystem Homeostasis?

Ecosystems are huge and complex. They contain networks of animals, from the largest
mammals to the smallest insects, along with plants, fungi, and various microorganisms. All
of these life forms interact and affect one another. Bears and birds eat the fish, shrews eat
insects, and caterpillars eat leaves. Everything in nature works in a delicate balance. But
scientists like technical terms, so this balance of the organisms in an ecosystem is more
commonly referred to as ecosystem homeostasis. This term was first proposed by
Canadian born American ecologist Robert Mac Arthur in 1955.

Homeostasis refers to as any self-regulating process by which biological systems tend to

maintain stability while adjusting to conditions that are optimal for survival. If
homeostasis is successful, life continues; if unsuccessful, disaster or death ensues.

Ecosystem homeostasis is all about equilibrium. When something is in equilibrium, it's in

balance. In the real world of ecosystems, nothing is ever perfectly balanced. So an
ecosystem in equilibrium is said to be in a relatively stable state. This means that the
populations of various animals in the ecosystem are generally staying within a similar
range. Populations can go up and down in cycles, as long as there isn't a general upwards
or downwards trend.
Example of Ecological Homeostasis