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Geological Hazards
• Introduction
• Major geological Hazards: Flood, GLOF, erosion,
mass movement and their Causes
• Types of mass movements
• Earthquake and seismicity
• Structural control on geo-hazards
• Geological hazard in soil mass and rock mass
• Engineering evaluation of geological hazard and risks,
problem specific hazards mapping and mitigation
measures

Deepak Gautam
Engineering Geologist

Hazard

“A potentially damaging physical event,

phenomenon or human activity that may cause the loss of life
or injure, property damage, social and economic disruptions or
environmental degradation”
Types of Hazard :
Natural Hazards: It includes all hazards caused naturally such
as ‘earthquakes, landslide, volcanoes, GLOF’ (geological
hazard), tsunami, forest fire, flood, drought, cyclones etc.

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Man Made Hazard:

Risk:

Danger: It is a threat to human life and property

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Major Geological Hazards: Flood, GLOF, Erosion,

Mass Movement and Their Causes
• Flood:
• It is the unusual rise in water level in rivers/ streams
which submerges the land that is usually dry
• Or flood is a temporary covering by water of land which
normally not remains covered by water
• It is natural phenomena which cannot be prevented.

Causes of Flood: Flood Control:

• Heavy rain fall • Planting vegetation
• Heavy snowmelt • Terracing hillside to the
• Landslide flow along downhill
• Glacial lake Outburst flood • Construction of levees,
• Collapse of protective structures dams, reservoir etc.
• Debris Flow • Construction of floodways
• Deforestation to divert floodwater

Glacial Lake Outburst Flood

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Glacial lake
Lake
Glacial lake is formed as the result of glacier melt/shrink,
which often left behind large debris deposits

Lakes may be formed either within part of the eroded

landform (e.g. bed rock dammed) or build behind a dam
formed by moraines, ice and/or landslide debris

Glacial lakes are not only the important refresh water resources, but also
act as a trigger of many glacial hazards such as glacial lake outburst flood
(GLOF) and debris flow

Glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF)

A glacial lake outburst flood is a type of outburst
flood occurring when water dammed by glacier or
moraine is released.

When the natural dam fails

Failure can happen due to erosion, seepage, a buildup of
water pressure, rock fall, ice or large snow avalanche and
an earthquake

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Causes of GLOF:
The causes of the GLOF are following below
• Buildup of water pressure
• Earthquake
• Climate change (increase in temperature)
• An avalanche of rock or heavy snow

Erosion

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• Rain and Rain water Runoff

• High winds
• Traditional Farming
• Deforestation
• Over grazing by cattle
• River and Stream

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Mass Movements
Mass movement is a process of downslope movement of
detached earth mass of rock, soil, or debris mainly by
gravitational forces.
Mass movement process is also defined equivalently by
Slope movement, and
Mass wasting
Landslide is a general term used to denote the mass
movement.
When shear stress exceeds shear strength of the
material, downward movement of material starts along
the slope.
In other words, the sliding of mass occurs while the
component of gravitational force exceeds the resistance
force due to friction and obstructions.

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Principle of Mass
Movement

A= area of shear surface

F= gravitational force
Fsinθ= shear stress
τf= shear strength
c= friction constant
ῳ= Internal friction angle

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Indicators of landslide phenomenon

A) Terrain/Morphologic Features Indicating Risk of a Landslide-
• Steep slopes: slope with angles over 30 degrees should be avoided if possible.

• Old landslides sites: the old landslide can be reactivated, for example, by heavy
rainfall or an earthquake.

• New cracks or unusual bulges in the ground or street pavements.

B) Landslide Risk Indicators:

• Tilting or cracking of concrete floors and foundations.
• Soil moving away from foundations.
• Broken water lines and other underground utilities.
• Leaning telephone poles, trees, retaining walls, or fences.
• Sudden decrease in ground water levels though rain is still falling or just recently
stopped.

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MAIN MITIGATION STRATEGIES

Hazard mapping
Land use
Retaining Walls
Surface Drainage Control
Works
Engineering structures
Increasing vegetation cover

MAIN MITIGATION STRATEGIES

 Hazard mapping will locate areas prone to slope failures. This will permit to
identify avoidance of areas for building settlements. These maps will serve as a
tool for mitigation planning.

 Land use practices such as:

• Areas covered by degraded natural vegetation in upper slopes are to be afforested
with suitable species.
• In construction of roads, irrigation canals etc. proper care is to be taken to avoid
blockage of natural drainage
• Total avoidance of settlement in the risk zone should be made mandatory.
• Relocate settlements and infrastructure that fall in the possible path of the landslide
• No construction of buildings in areas beyond a certain degree of slope.

 Retaining Walls can be built to stop land from slipping (these walls are commonly
seen along roads in hill stations). It’s constructed to prevent smaller sized and
secondary landslides that often occur along the toe portion of the larger landslides.

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MAIN MITIGATION STRATEGIES

Surface Drainage Control Works. The surface drainage control works are
implemented to control the movement of landslides accompanied by infiltration of rain
water and spring flows.

Engineered structures with strong foundations can withstand or take the ground
movement forces. Underground installations (pipes, cables, etc.) should be made
flexible to move in order to withstand forces caused by the landslide.

Increasing vegetation cover is the cheapest and most effective way of arresting
landslides. This helps to bind the top layer of the soil with layers below, while
preventing excessive run-off and soil erosion.

How to Minimize Landslide Hazards

A) Passive Intervention
• Choose a safe location to build your home, away from steep slopes and places
where landslides have occurred in the past.
• Prevent deforestation and vegetation removal.
• Avoid weakening the slope.
B) Active Preventive Intervention
• Reforestation: Root systems bind materials together and plants do both prevent
water percolation and take water up out of the slope.
• Proper water runoff must be ensured by providing a proper canalization network.
• Drainage: good ground drainage is essential to prevent saturation and consequent
weakening. Drainage is also needed in civil work, like retaining walls.
• Proper land use measures: Adopt effective land-use regulations and building codes
based on scientific research.
• Structural measures: Nets, Retaining walls and major civil works to mitigate
landslides. (Bioengineering).

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C) Non- Structural measures:

• Awareness generation: Educate the public about signs that a landslide is imminent
so that personal safety measures may be taken.
• Financial Mechanisms: Support the establishment of landslide insurance.
• Legal and Policy: legislation to direct a governmental or private program to reduce
landslide losses should be strengthened.
D) Landslide Hazard Mapping and Use of GIS:
• Landslide Hazard Zonation of the Vulnerable Areas.
• Use of remote sensing and ground truth data for making landslide hazard zone map.
• Here, such maps are used to develop mitigation plans in consultation with experts.

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a. Straight river
• Following straight
path.
• Topography of area is
characterized by high
relief. River mostly
occur in Himalayan
region
• Velocity of water is
high. Erosional rate is
higher than
depositional
• Deep scouring along
the river path is higher
than side cutting

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• Follow Zig- Zag Path

• Topography of area is
characterized by moderate
relief
• Velocity of water is medium
and erosional and
depositional rate almost
equal
• Side cutting is higher in the
striking bank and
depositional of sediments
take place in depositional
bank
• This type of river mostly
occur in the midland and
lesser himalayas

• Single river path is

divided into several paths
• Topography of area is
characterized by low
gradient
• Velocity of water is low
and depositional rate of
sediments is higher than
erosional rate
• Channel shifting is
prominent
• Channel bar deposits
occur along the river path
• These type of river mostly
occur in the Terai region

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V-shaped river valley

Steep sided river valley

Common river action on valley sides

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These are various shaped depressions

of different dimensions that are
developed in the river bed by
excessive localized erosion by the
streams. The pot holes are generally
cylindrical or bowl shaped in
outlinethese are commonly formed in
the softer rocks occurring at critical
location in the bedrock of a stream.
The formation process for a pothole
may be initiated by a simple plucking
out of a outstanding rock projection
at the river bed by hydraulic action.

5. Georges and Canyons

• The process of valley

deepening often gives rise
to magnificent surface
features known as Georges
and canyons.
• Georges are very deep and
narrow valley with very
steep and high walls on
either side.
• A canyon is a specific type
of George where the layers
cut down by a river are
essentially stratified and
horizontal in attitude.

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Canyons

6. Stream/ River Terraces

• These are bench like ledges or flat surfaces that occur
on the sides of many river valley. From a distance
they may appear as successions of several steps of a
big natural staircase rising up the riverbed.

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Stream/ River Terraces

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Alluvial fans and cones

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Deltas

alpine valley piedmont

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• Alpine glaciers

• Valley glaciers

• Piedmont glaciers

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[Link]:
These are highly over deepened narrow elongated valley-
like channels that have been excavated by the glacial ice
between high walled rock. It is typical of many of the
fiords that they reach the coastline below the sea level.
Due to this reason, many of the fiord become inland
extensions of the sea.

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deflation
abrasion attrition

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Landforms produced by Sea

• Marine Erosion: Marine water erodes the rocks at the shore and
else where with which it comes in contact in a manner broadly
similar to that of stream water.
The work of erosion is accomplished in three ways. Hydraulic
action, abrasion, and corrosion.
• Hydraulic Action: This is the process of erosion by water
involving breaking, loosening and plucking out of loose, disjointed
blocks of rocks from their original places by the strong forces
created by the impact of sea waves and currents.
• Marine Abrasion This involves the rubbing and grinding action
of seawater on the rocks of the shore with the help of sand particles
and other small fragments that are hurdled up again these rocks.
• Corrosion: It is the solvent action of seawater which is
particularly strong in environment where the shore is of vulnerable
chemical composition.

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Landforms produced by Sea

• Feature of Marine Erosion:
• Some very common features of marine erosion are headlands,
bays, sea cliff and wave-cut terraces.
• Headlands and Bays
In an originally uniform sloping shoreline composed of
materials of unequal hardness, the softer rocks get eroded
easily and quickly. Seawater enters the inland spaces so
created along the shore, These form the bays. The stronger
rocks, however, resist erosion to a great extent and stand for a
considerable time. These may get smoothened and variously
modified but still stand as projecting parts of original as
headlands.

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Landforms produced by Sea

Landforms produced by Sea

• Sea Cliffs
• A Sea cliff is seaward facing steep front of a moderately high shoreline and
indicates the first stage of the work of waves on the shore rocks. There may
be a number of sea cliffs seen on a shore line. They are outstanding rock
projection having smoothened seaward sloping surface.
• Wave-Cut Terraces
• A wave-Cut Terrace is a shallow shelf type structure, carved out from the
shore rocks by the advancing sea waves. The waves first of all cut a notch
where they strike against the cliff rock again and again. The notch is
gradually extended backward to such a depth below the overlying rock that
the latter becomes unsupported from below. The cliff eventually falls down
along the notch. A platform or bench is thus created over which the seawater
may rush temporarily and periodically. The resulting structure is called a
wave curt terrace.

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Depositional landform
• Seas are regarded as most important and extensive sedimentation
basins, this becomes evident from the fact that marine deposits of
practically of all the geological ages. These deposits are exposed
at many places in almost all the continents all the marine deposits
are conveniently classified into two groups: Shallow water
deposits and Deep-water deposits.

• Shallow Water (Neritic Deposits)

• These include marine deposits laid down in neritic zone of the
sea, which extends from the lowest tide limit to the place of the
continent shelf where the slope becomes steeper.
• (i). Beaches: These are loose deposits made by the sea near the
shore from the materials eroded from nearby regions. The lower
margin of a beach is commonly beneath the waves whereas the
upper margin is a few meter above the still water. Waves and
currents play a greater role in formation of a beach.

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• ii) Barriers and Bars: These are ridge shaped deposits of sand and
shingle that often extends across the embayment.
• (iii) Tombola: It is the form of marine deposit that connects a
headland and an island or one island with another island.
• (iv)

Spits

Bar and Barrier

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Tombolo

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Stalactite
Stalagmite

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Moment magnitude scale (Mw)

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Richter magnitude scale (ML)

 Time difference between arrival of P-wave and S-wave increases as

increase in distance from epicenter.
 The relationship between this arrival time difference and distance is used
to calculate how far the epicenter is.

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 Epicenter of an earthquake
is determined by
Triangulation method
using records of three
seismological centers

 There is a graphical
relation between distance
from epicenter, Magnitude,
and Amplitude of S-wave

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Magnitu Descriptio Mercalli Average frequency of

Average earthquake effects
de n Intensity occurrence (estimated)
Less Microearthquakes, not felt, or felt rarely by sensitive people. Recorded by Continual/several million
Micro I
than 2.0 seismographs. per year
Over one million per
2.0–2.9 I to II Felt slightly by some people. No damage to buildings.
year
Minor
Often felt by people, but very rarely causes damage. Shaking of indoor
3.0–3.9 II to IV Over 100,000 per year
objects can be noticeable.
Noticeable shaking of indoor objects and rattling noises. Felt by most
people in the affected area. Slightly felt outside. Generally causes none to
4.0–4.9 Light IV to VI 10,000 to 15,000 per year
minimal damage. Moderate to significant damage very unlikely. Some
objects may fall off shelves or be knocked over.
Can cause damage of varying severity to poorly constructed buildings. At
5.0–5.9 Moderate VI to VIII most, none to slight damage to all other buildings. Felt by everyone. 1,000 to 1,500 per year
Casualties range from none to a few.
Damage to many buildings in populated areas. Earthquake-resistant
structures survive with slight to moderate damage. Poorly-designed
structures receive moderate to severe damage. Felt in wider areas; up to
6.0–6.9 Strong VII to X 100 to 150 per year
hundreds of miles/kilometers from the epicenter. Damage can be caused
far from the epicenter. Strong to violent shaking in epicentral area. Death
toll ranges from none to 25,000.
Causes damage to most buildings, some to partially or completely collapse
7.0–7.9 Major or receive severe damage. Well-designed structures are likely to receive 10 to 20 per year
damage. Felt in enormous areas. Death toll ranges from none to 250,000.
Major damage to buildings, structures likely to be destroyed. Will cause
VIII or moderate to heavy damage to sturdy or earthquake-resistant buildings. One per year (rarely none,
8.0–8.9
greater Damaging in large areas, some totally destroyed. Felt in extremely large two, or over two per year)
Great regions. Death toll ranges from 100 to 1 million.
Severe damage to all or most buildings with massive destruction. Damage
9.0–9.9 and shaking extends to distant locations. Permanent changes in ground One per 5 to 50 years
topography. Death toll ranges from 1,000 to several million.

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