The Urinary system capsule along with adipose
consists of two kidneys, tissue.
Internal Structure and
two ureters, the urinary
Histology of the Kidneys
bladder along with the
1. The kidney consists of an
urethra.
outer cortex and an inner
medulla.
2. Each renal pyramid has
its base at the division
between the cortex and the
medulla. The apex of the
renal pyramid points
towards the center of the Arteries and Veins
kidney and is encased by a 1. The renal arteries branch
calyx. off into smaller arteries that
3. Calyces are extensions of lead to afferent arterioles.
the renal pelvis, which is the 2. Afferent arterioles provide
enlarged portion of the blood to the glomeruli.
ureter found within the renal 3. Efferent arterioles
Roles of the Urinary
sinus. transport blood away from
System
4. The nephron serves as the glomeruli to the
1. The kidneys eliminate
the functional unit of the peritubular capillaries.
waste substances.
kidney, made up of the renal 4. Blood from the
2. The kidneys manage
corpuscle, proximal peritubular capillaries drains
blood volume and pressure
convoluted tubule, loop of into the renal veins.
by adjusting the amount of
Henle, and distal convoluted
urine produced.
tubule. Urine Production
3. The kidneys assist in
5. The filtration membrane Urine is created through
maintaining the balance of
is created by the glomerular filtration, tubular
key ions in the body fluids.
capillaries, the basement reabsorption, and tubular
4. The kidneys contribute to
membrane, and the secretion.
regulating the pH of the
podocytes of the Bowman
extracellular fluid.
capsule. Filtration
5. The kidneys control the
1. Renal filtrate moves from
concentration of red blood
the glomerulus into the
cells within the bloodstream.
Bowman capsule,
6. The kidneys work with
containing no blood cells
the skin and liver to regulate
and minimal blood proteins.
the synthesis of vitamin D.
2. Filtration pressure plays a
key role in the formation of
Structure of the Kidneys
filtrate.
Position and External
3. Heightened sympathetic
Structure of the Kidneys
activity reduces blood flow
Each kidney is located
to the kidneys, diminishing
behind the peritoneum and
filtrate formation and
is encased in a renal
lowering urine production.
Conversely, reduced 1. When blood pressure possess smooth muscle
sympathetic activity declines, renin is released within their walls.
increases these processes. from the kidney. Renin 4. The external urethral
converts angiotensinogen sphincter controls the flow
Tubular Reabsorption into angiotensin I, which is of urine through the urethra.
1. Approximately 99% of the then transformed into
filtrate volume is angiotensin II by
reabsorbed, leaving 1% to angiotensin-converting
become urine. enzyme. Angiotensin II
2. Reabsorbed substances promotes the release of
include proteins, amino aldosterone, which
acids, glucose, fructose, enhances Na+ and Cl−
Na+, K+, Ca2+, HCO3−, reabsorption from the
and Cl−. nephron.
3. Roughly 65% of the 2. The posterior pituitary
filtrate volume is reabsorbed secretes ADH when blood
in the proximal convoluted concentration rises or blood
tubule, 15% in the pressure drops. ADH
descending limb of the loop increases the permeability
of Henle, and another 19% of water in the distal
in the distal convoluted convoluted tubule and
tubule and collecting duct. collecting duct, leading to
enhanced water
Tubular Secretion reabsorption by the kidneys. Micturition Reflex
Hydrogen ions, certain 3. Atrial natriuretic hormone 1. An increase in the
metabolic by-products, and is released from the right bladder's volume leads to
some medications are atrium in response to stretching of its wall,
actively secreted into the elevated blood pressure triggering the micturition
nephron. and acts on the kidneys to reflex.
promote the excretion of 2. Action potentials from the
Na+ and water in urine. parasympathetic nervous
system cause the bladder to
Urine Movement contract, while decreased
Anatomy and Histology of somatic motor action
the Ureters, Urinary potentials result in
Bladder, and Urethra relaxation of the external
1. Each ureter conveys urethral sphincter.
urine from the renal pelvis 3. Higher cognitive centers
to the urinary bladder. in the brain regulate the
2. The urethra transports micturition reflex. The
urine from the urinary stretching of the bladder
bladder to the external activates sensory neurons
environment. that transmit signals to the
Regulation of Urine 3. The ureters and urinary brain, indicating the need to
Concentration and Volume bladder are lined with urinate.
Hormonal Mechanisms transitional epithelium and
Body Fluid Water continuously shifts blood Ca2+ levels when
Compartments between compartments due they are excessively high.
1. Water, along with its to differences in hydrostatic 4. When levels of PO4 3−
dissolved ions, is distributed and osmotic pressures and SO4 2− in the filtrate
between the intracellular among them. are low, almost all of them
and extracellular fluid The overall volume of water are reabsorbed. However,
compartments. and electrolytes in the body when their levels are
2. Approximately two-thirds remains constant unless an elevated, surplus amounts
of the body's total water is individual is either growing, are excreted in urine.
located inside the cells. gaining weight, or losing
3. Roughly one-third of the weight. Three main types of buffers
total body water exists The feeling of thirst in bodily fluids help maintain
outside the cells, primarily intensifies when stable pH levels: proteins,
within interstitial fluid, blood extracellular fluid becomes the phosphate buffer
plasma, and lymph. more concentrated or when system, and the bicarbonate
blood pressure falls. buffer system.
Composition of the Fluid 1. Sodium ions are the
in the Body Fluid primary ions found in the The respiratory system
Compartments extracellular fluid. quickly adjusts pH levels.
1. Intracellular fluid has a Aldosterone promotes the An increase in the
higher concentration of K+, reabsorption of Na+ from respiratory rate raises the
Mg2+, PO4 3−, SO4 2−, the filtrate, ADH enhances pH by enhancing the
and proteins compared to water reabsorption from the elimination of CO2, while a
extracellular fluid. nephron, and ANH leads to decrease in the respiratory
2. Extracellular fluid an increase in Na+ rate lowers the pH by
contains greater amounts of excretion via urine. reducing CO2 removal.
Na+, Ca2+, Cl−, and HCO3 2. Aldosterone boosts K+
− than intracellular fluid. excretion in urine. Elevated The kidneys release H+
blood levels of K+ stimulate when blood pH drops and
the secretion of reabsorb H+ when blood pH
aldosterone, while rises.
decreased levels inhibit it.
3. Parathyroid hormone, 1. Acidosis takes place
released by the parathyroid when blood pH falls below
glands, elevates 7.35, with the two primary
extracellular Ca2+ levels by forms being respiratory
promoting the breakdown of acidosis and metabolic
bone and enhancing Ca2+ acidosis.
reabsorption in the kidneys.
Parathyroid hormone also 2. Alkalosis occurs when
increases the production of blood pH rises above 7.45,
vitamin D. Calcitonin, which with the two main forms
is produced by the thyroid being respiratory alkalosis
gland, reduces bone and metabolic alkalosis.
resorption and decreases