PEST - Derived from French word ‘Peste’ and Latin term ‘Pestis’ meaning plague or

contagious disease
The word ‘Pest’derived from the Latin word ‘Pestis’ meaning Plague.

Pest is defined as insect or other organisms that cause any damage to crops, stored
produce or animal. OR
Pest is an organism that causes damage resulting in economic loss to a plant or
animal.

INSECT PESTS: “Insects that cause economic loss to plant and plant produces and attack
livestock or man”.

Pest that cause less than 5% loss in yield, are said to be negligible.
Pest that cause 5-10% loss in yield, are minor pests.
Pest that cause more than 10% loss in yield, are major pests.

CATEGORIES OF INSECT PESTS:

Insect pests are classified as follows based on season and locality
Regular pests: Occur most frequently (regularly) in a crop and has close association
with particular crop.
Eg: Chilli Thrips, Brinjal Shoot & Fruit borer, Rice stem borer

Occasional Pests: Pests that occur rather infrequently and have no close association with a
particular crop. Eg: Rice Case Worm

Seasonal Pests: Pests that occur on a crop during a particular part of the year.
Eg. Red hairy caterpillar in groundnut

Persistent pests: Pests, which occur on a crop almost throughout the year. Eg. Thrips on
chillies.

Sporadic pests: Pests, which occur in a few isolated localities Eg. Rice ear head bug.
Insects pests are also classified as follows based on intensity of infestations
Epidemic pests: Pests, which occur in severe form in a region or locality at a particular
season. outbreaks (sudden increase in large numbers) of a pest in a given area at given
time. Eg. BPH in Tanjore, RHC in Madurai.
Endemic pests: Pests, which occur regularly and confined to a particular area of locality.
Native pest or pests permanantlay established in an area. Eg. Rice Gall midge in Madurai
district and rice stem borer cauvery delta.

CAUSES FOR OUTBREAK OF PESTS

1. Destruction of forest or bringing forest area under cultivation: This will affect the
weather conditions in that locality and thus set favourable conditions for some insects
to assume pest status. There is always a chance for forest tree pests become field crop
pests.
2. Destruction of natural enemies: Indiscriminate use of pesticides leads to destruction
of natural enemies, pest resistance, pest resurgence. (eg) Synthetic pyrethroids on
sucking pests.

3. Intensive and extensive cultivation: Intensive cultivation (eg) Diamond

backmoth on cauliflower in plains and extensive cultivation (eg)
monoculture of rice leads to out break of leaf folder.

4. Introduction of new crops and improved strains:Introduction of new crops in a

new area may serve as new hosts for some of the insect pests. Most of the improved
strains of crops are susceptible to pests. Sometimes, the minor pests become major
with the introduction of new varieties or strains.
5. Improved agronomic practices: Good tilth, higher ‘N’, closer spacing, weed control
etc, improve crop growth and reduce competition for food.
6. Introduction of new pest in a new area: A pest becomes more abundant when it is
introduced into a new area without its natural enemies. Eg. Apple woolly aphid,
Eriosoma lanigera become a serious pest in Nilgiris as there was no natural enemy of
the pest. It was brought under control, when its specific parasite Aphelinus mali was
introduced from Punjab.
 7. Introduction of foreign pests: Several insect pests were introduced into India
through imported materials. The important are diamond backmoth, Plutella xylostella,
San Jose scale, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus, coffee green scale, Coccus viridis,
Potato tuber moth, Pthorimaea operculella etc.
8. Large-scale storage of food grainsIt enhances the stored product pest problems.
9. Resurgence of sucking pests: Insecticides applied for the control of one pest may
tend to offer physiological conditions favourable for rapid multiplication of some
sucking insects (called resurgence)
10. Climatic factors of a particular locality: The environmental factors, when they are
favourable, cause pest out break.

PEST SURVEILLANCE AND FORECASTING

Pest Monitoring
− Monitoring phytophagous insects and their natural enemies is a fundamental tool
in IPM - for taking management decision
− Monitoring - estimation of changes in insect distribution and abundance
- information about insects, life history
- influence of biotic and abiotic factors on pest population
Pest Surveillance: Refers to the constant watch on the population dynamics of pests, its
incidence and damage on each crop at fixed intervals to forewarn the farmers to take up
timely crop protection measures.
Three basic components of pest surveillance : Determination of
a. the level of incidence of the pest species
b. the loss caused by the incidence
c. the economic benefits, the control will provide
Pest Forecasting :Forecasting of pest incidence or outbreak based on information obtained
from pest surveillance.
Uses
- Predicting pest outbreak which needs control measure
- Suitable stage at which control measure gives maximum protection
Two types of pest forecasting
a. Short term forecasting - Based on 1 or 2 seasons
b. Long term forecasting - Based on affect of weather parameters on pest Eg. Locust warning
stations.
Objectives of Pest Surveillance
− to know existing and new pest species
− to assess pest population and damage at different growth stage of crop
− to study the influence of weather parameters on pest
− to study changing pest status (Minor to major)
− to assess natural enemies and their influence on pests
− effect of new cropping pattern and varieties on pest

Survey : Conducted to study the abundance of a pest species

Two types of survey - Roving survey and fixed plot survey
Roving survey : Assessment of pest population/damage from randomly selected spots
representing larger area
- Large area surveyed in short period
- Provides information on pest level over large area
Fixed plot survey : Assessment of pest population/damage from a fixed plot selected in a
field.
The data on pest population/damage recorded periodic from sowing till harvest. e.g.
In an acre plot, five micro plots of m2 area are marked one each in four corners (1 m away
from bund) and fifth in the centre of the chosen field. Periodical assessment is done in these
micro plots. These plots are to be kept free from chemical sprays till the ETL is reached
Sampling Techniques
Absolute sampling - To count all the pests occurring in a plot
Relative sampling - To measure pest in terms of some values which can be compared
over time and space e.g. Light trap catch, Pheromone trap
Methods of sampling
a. In situ counts - Visual observation on number of insects on plant canopy
(either entire plot or randomly selected plot)
b. Knock down - Collecting insects from an area by removing from crop and
(Sudden trap) counting (Jarring)
c. Netting - Use of sweep net for hoppers, odonates, grasshopper
d. Norcotised collection - Quick moving insects anaesthesised and counter
e. Trapping - Light trap - Phototropic insects
Pheromone trap - Species specific
 Sticky trap - Sucking insects
Bait trap - Sorghum shootfly - Fishmeal trap
Emergence trap - For soil insects
f. Crop samples : Plant parts removed and pest counted e.g. Bollworms

Concept of Threshold Levels or PARAMETERS OF INSECT POPULATION LEVELS

1. General equilibrium position (GEP):The average density of a population over a long period
of time, around which the pest population tends to fluctuate due to biotic and abiotic factors
and in the absence of permanent environmental changes.
2. Economic threshold level (ETL): Population density at which control measure should be
implemented to prevent an increasing pest population from reaching the ETL.
3. Economic injury level (EIL) :The lowest population density that will cause economic
damage
4. Damage boundary (DB): The lowest level of damage which can be measured.
ETL is always less than EIL. Provides sufficient time for control measures.
Pests are classified as follows based on damage potential
Key pests: These are the most severely damaging pests. The damage is always above the
EIL. Human intervention may bring the population temporarily below the EIL, but it rises
back rapidly and repeated interventions (sprays) may be required to minimize damage.
Major pests: These are pests with the population crosses EIL quite frequently and require
repeated control measures to avoid economic damage. (Damage >10%).
Minor pests: These are pests with population rarely crosses EIL and fluctuates around ETL.
But these pests are easily amenable to available control measures and a single application of
insecticides is usually enough to prevent economic damage (5-10% damage).
Potential pests: These pests normally do not cause any economic damage. Any change in the
ecosystem may make them to cause economic damage (Damage > 5%).

FORECASTING: It is ‘an advance knowledge of probable pest infestations (out breaks) in

a crop for planning the cropping pattern in such a way as to minimize the damage but also to
get the best advantage of the pest control measures’ or ‘forewarning of the forthcoming
infestations of pests’.
Forecasting service serves (I) to predict the forthcoming infestation level of the pest, which
knowledge in essential in justifying the use of control measures and (ii) to find out the
critical stage at which the applications of insecticides would afford maximum protection.
The forecasts may be of two types viz.,
Short term forecasting (covers a particular season or two successive seasons and it is based
on simple sampling).
Long term forecasting (covers large areas and it is based on possible effects of weather on
the insect abundance or by extrapolating from the present population density into the future).
Integrated Pest Management
Pest Control” Eradication of pests – any method adopted to kill species i.e, 100%
elimination of pest is aimed.
Integrated control: A single method it is not possible to achieve goal so integration of more
than one method to get 100% control.
Pest management: Pests are managed below ETL as 100% control is not possible & is not
desirable because of presence of resistant individuals in a population.
IPM: Aims at combining all available methods of insect pest control in a manner that
minimizes insecticides use & least disturbance to the ecosystem.
Definition: IPM definition by FAO (1967) is a pest management system that, in the context
of associated environment & population dynamics of the pest species, utilizes all suitable
techniques & methods in as compatible a manner as possible & maintains pest populations at
levels below those causing economic injury.
Smith (1978) defined IPM as a multidisciplinary ecological approach to the management of
pest populations which utilizes a variety of control tactics compatibly in a single coordinated
pest management system.
Principles
➢ Management of pest below ETL
➢ Integrated use of all the method to control pests with least disturbance to ecosystem
In India concept of IPM was introduced by Dr. S. Pradhan who first proposed the integrated
methods of pest control. The strategy to “Kill all” gave way the concept of “Live & live”
Need for Pest Management (or) Why Pest Management
1. Development of resistance in insects against insecticides e.g. OP and synthetic
pyrethroid resistance in Helicoverpa armigera.
2. Out break of secondary pests e.g. Whiteflies emerged as major pest when
spraying insecticide against H. armigera.
3. Resurgence of target pests e.g. BPH of rice increased when some OP chemicals
are applied.
4. When number of application increases, profit decreases.
5. Environmental contamination and reduction in its quality.
6. Killing of non-target animals and natural enemies.
7. Human and animal health hazards.
Stages in crop protection leading to IPM
1. Subsistence phase : Only natural control, no insecticide use
2. Exploitation phase : Applying more pesticides, growing HY varieties and get
more yield and returns
3. Crisis phase : Due over use pesticides, problem of resurgence, resistance,
secondary pest out break, increase in production cost
4. Disaster phase : Due to increased pesticide use - No profit, high residue
in soil - Collapse of control system
5. IntegratedManagement Phase: IPM integrates ecofriendly methods to optimize
control rather than maximise it..
Objectives of pest management
1. To reduce pest status below economic injury level. Complete elimination of pest
is not the objective.
2. To manage insects by not only killing them but by preventing feeding,
multiplication and dispersal.
3. To use ecofriendly methods, which will maintain quality of environment (air,
water, wild life and plant life)
4. To make maximum use of natural mortality factors, apply control measures only
when needed.
5. To use component in sustainable crop production.

Requirements for successful pest management programme

1. Correct identification of insect pests
2. Life history and behaviour of the pest
3. Natural enemies and weather factors affecting pest population
4. Pest surveillance will provide above data
5. Pest forecasting and predicting pest outbreak
6. Finding out ETL for each pest in a crop
7. Need and timing of control measure - Decision
8. Selection of suitable methods of control
9. Analysis of cost/benefit and benefit/risk of each control measure
10. Farmer’s awareness and participation
11. Government support
12. Consumer awareness on use of pesticides free products
TOOLS OR COMPONENTS OF INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
i. Cultural method or use of agronomic practices
1. Crop rotation 5. Pruning or thinning
2. Crop refuse destruction 6. Fertilizer management
3. Tillage of soil 7. Water management
4. Variation in time of 8. Intercropping
planting or harvesting 9. Trap crop
ii. Host plant resistance - Antixenosis, antibiosis, tolerance
iii. Mechanical methods of pest control
1. Hand destruction
2. Exclusion by screens, barriers
3. Trapping, suction devices, collecting machine
4. Crushing and grinding
iv. Physical methods
1. Heat
2. Cold
3. Energy - light trap, irradiation, light regulation
4. Sound
v. Biological methods
1. Protection and encouragement of NE
2. Introduction, artificial increase and colonizing specific parasitoids and
[Link] on insects like virus, bacteria, fungi and protozoa
4. Use of botanicals like neem, pongam, etc.
vi. Chemical methods
1. Attractants
2. Repellents
3. Insecticides - OC, OP, carbamates, pyrethroids, etc.
4. Insect growth inhibitors
5. Chemosterilants
[Link] methods
1. Pheromones
2. Allelochemics
viii. Genetic/biotechnology method
- Release of genetically incompatible/sterile pests
- Transgenic plant
ix. Regulatory/legal method
- Plant/animal quarantine
- Eradication and suppression programme