Prepared by: Dr.

Binod Kumar

What is quantum
cryptography?
Quantum cryptography (also known as quantum encryption) refers to
various cybersecurity methods for encrypting and transmitting secure
data based on the naturally occurring and immutable laws of quantum
mechanics.

While still in its early stages, quantum encryption has the potential to be far more secure than
previous types of cryptographic algorithms and is even theoretically unhackable.
Unlike traditional cryptography, which is built on mathematics, quantum cryptography is built on
the laws of physics. Specifically, quantum cryptography relies on the unique principles of quantum
mechanics:

 Particles are inherently uncertain: On a quantum level, particles can simultaneously

exist in more than one place or in more than one state of being at the same time. And it is
impossible to predict their exact quantum state.
 Photons can be measured randomly in binary positions: Photons, the smallest particles
of light, can be set to have specific polarities, or spins, which can serve as a binary
counterpart for the ones and zeros of classical computational systems.
 A quantum system cannot be measured without being altered: According to the laws
of quantum physics, the basic act of measuring or even observing a quantum system will
always have a measurable effect on that system.
 Particles can be partially, but not totally cloned: While the properties of some particles
can be cloned, a 100% clone is believed to be impossible.
 Prepared by: Dr. Binod Kumar

Why is quantum
cryptography important?
To date, traditional data encryption has generally been sufficient for maintaining secure
communications in most cybersecurity settings. However, the rise of quantum
computing poses an existential threat to even the most secure
traditional cryptographic algorithms.

Like quantum cryptography, quantum computing is a rapidly emerging technology that

also harnesses the laws of quantum mechanics. Compared to our fastest and most
cutting-edge classical computers, quantum computers have the potential to solve
complex problems orders of magnitude faster.

Mathematician Peter Shor first described the threat quantum computers pose to traditional
security systems in 1994. Today’s cryptosystems can be divided into two main categories,
symmetric systems, which use one secret key to both encrypt and decrypt data. And asymmetric
systems, which use a public key that anyone can read and private keys that only authorized
parties can access. Both types of cryptosystems create these keys by multiplying large prime
numbers. And rely on the massive computing power that is required for factoring large numbers
to ensure that these encryption keys can’t be cracked by eavesdroppers or hackers.
Even the most powerful supercomputers on earth would require thousands of years to
mathematically break modern encryption algorithms like the Advanced Encryption Standard
(AES) or RSA. According to Shor’s Algorithm, factoring a large number on a classical computer
would require so much computing power it would take a hacker many lifetimes before even
coming close. But a fully functional quantum computer—should one be perfected—might
potentially find the solution in only a matter of minutes.
For this reason, the use cases for quantum cryptography are as endless as there are use cases
for any form of cryptography at all. In the event that anything from corporate information to state
secrets must be kept secure, when quantum computing renders existing cryptographic algorithms
obsolete. Quantum cryptography may be our only recourse for securing private data.

As computer scientists around the world work day and night to develop practical quantum
technology. It’s critical that we also develop new forms of cryptography to prepare for the quantum
age of computing. Although quantum computers were once considered only theoretical, experts
estimate that we may be only 20 to 50 years away from fully entering the quantum age.
 Prepared by: Dr. Binod Kumar

Types of quantum
cryptography
Quantum key distribution (QKD)

Originally theorized in 1984 by Charles H. Bennett (of IBM’s Thomas J. Watson Research
Center) and Gilles Brassard, quantum key distribution (QKD) is the most common type of
quantum cryptography. QKD systems are not typically used to encrypt secure data itself,
but rather to make a secure key exchange between two parties by collaboratively building
a shared private key, which can in turn be used for traditional symmetric key encryption
methods.

QKD systems work by sending individual photon light particles across a fiber optic cable.
This stream of photons travels in a single direction and each one represents a single bit,
or qubit, of data—either zero or one. Polarized filters on the sender’s side change the
physical orientation of each single photon to a specific position. And the receiver uses
two available beam splitters to read the position of each photon as they’re received. The
sender and receiver compare the sent photon positions to the decoded positions, and the
set that matches becomes the key.

To better understand QKD, imagine two people, Alice and Bob, who need to establish a secure
connection. They can use QKD to create a secure cryptographic key by sending polarized
photons over a fiber optic cable. The cable doesn’t need to be secured because each photon will
have its own randomized quantum state. Should someone, let’s call her Eve, be eavesdropping,
Alice, and Bob will always be able to tell because it’s impossible to observe a quantum state
without also affecting it. In this way, QKD systems are considered to be unhackable. If Bob and
Alice detect a change in the quantum states of the photons, they’ll know that Eve is
eavesdropping. And if Eve is eavesdropping, Bob and Alice will always be able to detect it.
Although the benefits of QKD have been proven in both laboratory and field settings, there are
many practical challenges preventing widespread adoption, most notably infrastructure
requirements. Photons sent across fiber optic cables degrade over distances of about 248 to 310
miles. However, recent advancements have extended the range of some QKD systems across
continents by using secure nodes and photon repeaters.
 Prepared by: Dr. Binod Kumar

Quantum coin-flipping
Quantum coin-flipping is a type of cryptographic primitive (something of a building block for
algorithms) that allows two parties who do not trust each other to agree on a set of parameters.
Imagine if Bob and Alice are talking on the telephone and want to bet on a coin toss, but only Bob
has access to the coin. If Alice bets heads, how can she be sure that Bob won’t lie and say that
the coin landed on tails, even if it lands on heads?
This type of 50:50 bet can accomplished by Bob sending Alice a series of photons polarized based
on one of two orientations. And making note of the specific spins of each photon as either a one
or a zero, as well as the filters he uses to set their polarities. Alice can then guess which filter to
use to read the polarization for each individual photon. And from this, she can compare her
readings to Bob’s notations and guess if Bob chose one set of polarities or another. If either Bob
or Alice suspects the other of cheating, they can compare the readings that are taken by the
polarizing filters for authentication.

Additional types of quantum cryptography

Researchers continue to explore other types of quantum cryptology incorporating direct
encryption, digital signatures, quantum entanglement and other forms of quantum
communications. Other types of quantum encryption include the following:

 Position-based quantum cryptography

 Device-independent quantum cryptography
 Kek protocol
 Y-00 protocol
 Prepared by: Dr. Binod Kumar

Post-quantum cryptography
According to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (link resides outside
[Link]), the goal of post-quantum cryptography (PQC, also called quantum-resistant or
quantum-safe) is to “develop cryptographic systems that are secure against both quantum
and classical computers, and can interoperate with existing communications protocols
and networks.”

Not to be confused with quantum cryptography, which relies on the natural laws of physics
to produce secure cryptosystems, post-quantum cryptographic algorithms use different
types of cryptography to create quantum-proof security. These are the six primary areas
of quantum-safe cryptography:

 Lattice-based cryptography
 Multivariate cryptography
 Hash-based cryptography
 Code-based cryptography
 Isogeny-based cryptography
 Symmetric key quantum resistance