Chapter 6

Flow Measurement
6.1 Introduction
The measurement of fluid flow is important in many applications such as blood-flow
rates in a human artery, flow of liquid oxygen in a rocket, oil flow in a pipeline in the oil
industry, water flow in piping networks, etc.
The selection of the proper instrument for a particular application is governed by
many variables, including fluid type, accuracy, cost, etc.
Flow-rate-measurement devices frequently require accurate pressure and
temperature measurements in order to calculate the output of the instrument.
Flow rate is expressed in both volume and mass units of varying sizes. Some
commonly used terms are:
Commercial gas-flow meters typically specify flow ratings in volume flow rate at
standard conditions of 1 atm and 20◦C. The units employed are standard cubic feet
per minute (scfm) and standard cubic centimeters per minute (sccm).

There are many types of flow-meters which can be categorized based on their
working principle.
6.2 Positive-Displacement Methods
Positive-displacement flowmeters are generally used for those applications where
consistently high accuracy is desired under steady-flow conditions.
Nutating-disk meter:
This meter operates on the nutating-disk principle. Water enters the left side of the
meter and strikes the disk, which is eccentrically mounted. In order for the fluid to
move through the meter, the disk must “wobble” or nutate about the vertical axis since
both the top and bottom of the disk remain in contact with the mounting chamber. As
the disk nutates, it gives a direct indication of the volume of liquid that passed through
the meter. The indication of the volumetric flow is given through a gearing and register
arrangement connected to the nutating disk. The nutating-disk meter is typical for
home water meters which may give reliable flow measurements within 1%.

Fig. 6.1 The nutating-disk meter.

Rotary-vane meter:
The vanes are spring-loaded so that they continuously maintain contact with the
casing of the meter. A fixed quantity of fluid is trapped in each section as the eccentric
drum rotates, and this fluid eventually finds its way out the exit. An appropriate
register is connected to the shaft of the eccentric drum to record the volume of the
displaced fluid. The uncertainties of rotary-vane meters are of the order of 0.5%.

Fig. 6.2 Rotary-vane flowmeter.

The lobed-impeller meter:
The lobed-impeller meter may be used for either gas- or liquid-flow measurements.
The impellers and case are carefully machined so that accurate fit is maintained. In
this way the incoming fluid is always trapped between the two rotors and is conveyed
to the outlet as a result of their rotation. The number of revolutions of the rotors is an
indication of the volumetric flow rate.

Fig. 6.3 Lobed-impeller flowmeter.

Examples 6.1:
A lobed-impeller flowmeter is used for measurement of the flow of nitrogen at 20 psia
and 100◦F. The meter has been calibrated so that it indicates the volumetric flow with
an accuracy of ± one-half of 1% from 1000 to 3000 cfm. The uncertainties in the gas
pressure and temperature measurements are ±0.025 psi and ±1.0◦F, respectively.
Calculate the uncertainty in a mass flow measurement at the given pressure and
temperature conditions.

Solution
The mass flow is given by
(a)

where the density of nitrogen is given by

(b)

Using Eq. (2.2), we obtain the following equation for the uncertainty in the mass flow:
2 2 1/2
𝑝𝑝 2 2 𝑄𝑄 2 𝑝𝑝𝑄𝑄 2
𝑤𝑤𝑚𝑚 = 𝑤𝑤𝑄𝑄 + 𝑤𝑤𝑝𝑝 + − 2 𝑤𝑤𝑇𝑇
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
Using Eqs. (a) and (b), it becomes

Using the given data, we obtain

or 0.505%

Thus, the uncertainties in the pressure and temperature measurements do not

significantly influence the overall uncertainty in the mass flow measurements.

In the ideal gas law, T

must be in oR or K
oR = oF + 460

=100 + 460
=560 oR
6.3 Flow-Obstruction Methods
Several types of flowmeters fall under the category of obstruction devices. Such
devices are sometimes called head meters because a head-loss or pressure-drop
measurement is taken as an indication of the flow rate. They are also called
differential pressure meters.

Consider the one-dimensional flow system shown in Fig. 6.4. The continuity relation
for this situation is
(6.1)

where u is the velocity. If the flow is adiabatic and frictionless and the fluid is
incompressible, Bernoulli equation may be written

(6.2) where now ρ1 = ρ2.

Solving Eqs. (6.1) and (6.2) simultaneously

gives for the pressure drop

(6.3)

Fig. 6.4 General one-dimensional flow system.

and the volumetric flow rate may be written

(6.4)

Thus, a channel like the one shown in Fig. 6.4 could be used for a flow measurement
by simply measuring the pressure drop (p1 − p2). However, the volumetric flow rate
calculated from Eq. (6.4) is the ideal value as the losses due to friction were not
considered.
An empirical discharge coefficient C can be introduced by the following relation

(6.5)

The discharge coefficient is not constant and may depend strongly on Reynolds
number and the channel geometry.
When the flow of an ideal gas is considered, the following equation of state applies:
(6.6)

For reversible adiabatic flow the steady-flow energy equation for an ideal gas is

(6.7)

Combining Eqs. (6.1), (6.6), and (6.7), we get

(6.8)

Assuming the velocity at section 1 to be very small, Eq. (6.8) may be simplified to

(6.9)

where
Equation (6.9) is valid for
When a further simplification may be made as:

(6.10)

Note that Eq. (6.10) reduces to Eq. (6.4) when the relation for density from Eq. (6.6) is
substituted. Thus, for small values of Δp compared with p1 the flow of a compressible
fluid may be approximated by the flow of an incompressible fluid.
Three typical obstruction meters are available (venture, orifice, and flow nozzle)
(Fig. 6.5). The venturi offers the advantages of high accuracy and small pressure
drop, while the orifice is considerably lower in cost. Both the flow nozzle and the
orifice have a relatively high permanent pressure drop. Flow-rate calculations for all
three devices are made on the basis of Eq. (6.4) with appropriate empirical constants
defined as follows:

When flow measurements of a compressible fluid

are made, an expansion factor Y is additionally
used. For venturis and nozzles, this factor is
given by

Fig. 6.5 Three typical obstruction meters.

(a) Venturi; (b) flow nozzle; (c) orifice..
while for orifices an empirical expression for Y is given as

We thus have the following semiempirical equations, which are conventionally applied
to venturis, nozzles, or orifices:
venturis, incompressible flow:

(6.11)

nozzles and orifices, incompressible flow:

(6.12)

When compressible fluids are used, the above equations are modified by the factor Y
and the fluid density is evaluated at inlet conditions. We then have
venturis, compressible flow:

(6.13)

nozzles and orifices, compressible flow:

(6.14)

In Eqs. (6.11) to (6.14) the appropriate units are

6.4 Flow Measurement by Drag Effects
Rotameter
In this device, the flow enters the bottom of the tapered vertical tube and causes the
bob or “float” to move upward. bob will rise to a point in the tube such that the drag
forces are just balanced by the weight and buoyancy forces
The position of the bob in the tube is then taken as an indication of the flow rate. This
device is sometimes called an area meter.
A force balance on the bob gives

(6.15)

where ρf and ρb are the densities of the fluid and bob, Vb is the
total volume of the bob, g is the acceleration of gravity, and Fd
is the drag force, which is given by

(6.16)

Cd is a drag coefficient, Ab is the frontal area of the bob, and um

is the mean flow velocity in the annular space between the bob
and the tube.
Fig. 6.6 Schematic of a rotameter.
Combining Eqs. (6.15) and (6.16) gives

(6.17)

or
(6.18)

where A is the annular area and is given by

(6.19)

D is the diameter of the tube at inlet, d is the maximum bob diameter, y is the vertical
distance from the entrance, and a is a constant indicating the tube taper.
The drag coefficient Cd is dependent on the Reynolds number and hence on the fluid
viscosity; however, special bobs may be used that have a constant drag coefficient.
For many practical meters the quadratic area relation given by Eq. (6.19) becomes
nearly linear for actual dimensions of the tube and bob, so the equation for mass flow
would become
(6.20)
where C1 is now an appropriate meter constant.
For flow of a gas

and for a bob density ρb ˃˃ ρf

(6.20a)

Eq. (6.20a) rates gas flowmeters in terms of scfm. To determine the mass flow under
inlet conditions other than 70◦F and 1 atm, an appropriate correction must be used.
Turbine Meters
As the fluid moves through this meter, it causes a rotation of the small turbine wheel.
In the turbine-wheel body a permanent magnet is enclosed so that it rotates with the
wheel. A reluctance pickup attached to the top of the meter detects a pulse for each
revolution of the turbine wheel. Since the volumetric flow is proportional to the number
of wheel revolutions, the total pulse output is taken as an indication of total flow.
The meter has very good transient response. A flow coefficient K for the turbine meter
is defined so that
(6.21)

where f is the pulse frequency. The flow

coefficient depends on flow rate and the
kinematic viscosity of the fluid ν.
This meter indicates the flow accurately
within ±0.5% over a wide range of flow
rates.
(1) Inlet straightening vanes, (2) rotating turbine blades
with embedded magnet, (3) smooth afterbody to
reduce pressure drop, (4) reluctance pickup, (5) meter
body for insert in pipe or flow channel
Fig. 6.7 Schematic of turbine meter.
Ultrasonic Flowmeters
The Doppler effect is the basis for operation of the ultrasonic flowmeter. A signal of
known ultrasonic frequency is transmitted through the liquid. Solids, bubbles, or any
discontinuity in the liquid will reflect the signal back to the receiving element. Because
of the velocity of the liquid, there will be a frequency shift at the receiver which is
proportional to velocity. Accuracies of about ±5% of full scale may be achieved. Most
devices require that the liquid contain at least 25 parts per million (ppm) of particles or
bubbles having diameters of 30 μm or more.

Fig. 6.8 Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeter.

Laminar Flowmeter
If the flow in a channel or tube is laminar (Re < 2000), the volumetric flow rate is
related to pressure drop by

(6.22)

The mass flow is, correspondingly,

(6.23)
A laminar flow meter may be constructed of a collection of sufficiently small tube
elements to maintain laminar flow. Uncertainties of ±1/4% for determination of flow
rate are reported. However, laminar tube elements are subject to clogging due to their
relatively small size.

Fig. 6.9 Laminar flow element.

 Fig. 6.10 Laminar flowmeter.

We may note that

Combining the latter relation with Eq. (6.23) gives

(6.23a)
6.5 Flow-Visualization Methods
Flow visualization by optical methods offers the advantage that when properly
executed it does not disturb the fluid stream, and thus gives the experimentalist an
extra tool to use in conjunction with other measurement devices.
In some instances, flow-visualization techniques may be employed for rather precise
measurements of important flow parameters, while in other cases they may serve
only to furnish qualitative information regarding the overall flow behavior.
6.5.1 The Shadowgraph
The shadow technique is a method for direct viewing of flow phenomena. Imagine the
flow field as shown in Fig. 6.11 with a density gradient in the y direction.
The parallel light rays enter the test section as shown. In the regions where there is
no density gradient, the light rays will pass straight through the test section with no
deflection. For the regions where a gradient exists, the rays will be deflected. The
rays will bunch together after leaving the test section to form bright and dark spots.
The shadowgraph is a very simple optical tool, and its effect may be viewed in several
everyday phenomena using only the naked eye and local room lighting.

Flow direction is
normal to the figure
(z direction)
Fig. 6.12 Shadowgraph of free convection
Fig. 6.11 Shadowgraph flow-visualization boundary layer on a 1.25-cm diameter
device. horizontal cylinder.
6.5.2 The Schlieren
The schlieren is a device which indicates the density gradient. Similar to the
Shadowgraph, the contrast on the screen is directly proportional to the density
gradient in the flow.
Schlieren photographs are used extensively for location of shock waves and
complicated boundary-layer phenomena in supersonic flow systems.

Fig. 6.13 Schlieren photograph of the heated

wake from an electric soldering iron.
6.5.3 The Interferometer
The Mach–Zehnder interferometer is the most precise instrument for flow
visualization. The interferometer is used to obtain a direct measurement of density
variations in the test section.
The interferometer gives a direct quantitative
indication of density changes in the test
section, but these changes are represented as
integrated values over the entire thickness of
the flow field. It is applicable to a wide range of
flow conditions ranging from the low-speed
(∼30 cm/s) flow in free-convection boundary
layers to shockwave phenomena in supersonic
flow.

Fig. 6.14 Interferometer photograph of the

interaction of free-convection boundary layers on
three horizontal heated cylinders.
 He–Ne: helium–neon laser

6.5.4 The Laser Doppler Anemometer (LDA)

The laser anemometer is a device that offers the nondisturbance advantages of
optical methods while affording a very precise quantitative measurement of high-
frequency turbulence fluctuations.
He–Ne gas lasers are most often employed for
LDA work, although argon ion lasers provide a
more intense beam output.
It is clear that the LDA measures the velocity
of the scattering particles. If they are
sufficiently small, the slip velocity between
particles and fluid will be small, and thus an
adequate indication of fluid velocity will be
obtained.

Fig. 6.15 Schematic of laser-anemometer flow-measurement system.

6.5.5 Smoke Methods
A very simple flow-visualization method utilizes the injection of smoke traces in a gas
stream to follow streamlines. The method is primarily of qualitative utility in that direct
measurements are difficult to obtain except for certain special phenomena.
In this case smoke is used to view the complicated secondary flow patterns in a
channel through which a forced flow is coupled with a standing sound wave.

Fig. 6.16 Smoke photograph showing secondary flow effects

resulting from a standing sound wave in a tube:
6.8 Summary
Table 6.1 Comparisons of operating range, characteristics, and advantages of several types of flowmeters.