Module: ESP Learners: Master students

Teacher: Dr. Hassina Bouchareb

THE PEOPLES’ DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ALGERIA

MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

ECOLE NORMALE SUPERIEURE – BOUZAREAH

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

English for Specific Purposes

Lessons designed for Master Students
English Department

Designed by:

Dr. Hassina BOUCHAREB

ACADEMIC YEAR

2023-2024

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Module: ESP Learners: Master students
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Contents Page

Introduction

1.0. Introduction

1.1. Theoretical Considerations

1.1.1 Concepts and Definitions on ESP

1.1.2 Characteristics of ESP

1.1.3 Types of ESP

1.1.4 Emergence of ESP

1.1.5 Stages of ESP Development

1.1.6 General English VS ESP

1.2 Needs Analysis

1.2.1 Key Notions and Concepts

1.2.2 Development of Needs Analysis

1.2.3 Insights Into Needs Analysis Approaches

1.3 Syllabus Design

1.3.1 Difference Between Curriculum and Syllabus

1.3.2 ESP Syllabus Design

1.4 Evaluation and ESP Program Evaluation

1.4.1 Evaluation

1.4.2 ESP Program Evaluation

1.4.3 ESP Program Evaluation Frameworks

1.5 EFL Teachers VS ESP Practitioners

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Contents Page

1.5.1 The EFL Teachers

1.5.2 The ESP Practitioners

1.5.3 The Training of the ESP Teachers

Practice

Bibliography

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INTRODUCTION:

After the Second World War English became the global language, countries
worldwide made it a priority in foreign language teaching. It became the language
most demanded and available to learners, and the educational authorities made it
compulsory to be taught in schools and universities as a second or a foreign language.

An increasing number of learners all over the world get interested in English and
felt the need to learn it. Those learners were from different categories having different
needs and the general English provided to them couldn‟t meet the needs of those eager
learners of English. Every category of learners needed different kind of English. The
demand for specialized English language became consequently necessary. This
situation gave birth to what is known today as Specific English or English for Specific
Purpose (ESP).

This new trend in English Language Teaching started to gain more and more
importance throughout the years to become the most important part of English
language teaching, it is demanded and required by all specialists in different domains
whether academic or professional. In ESP all decisions about content, method and
material are based on the learners‟ needs and reasons for learning. Therefore, ESP is
designed to meet the specific needs of learners which determine any purpose that
could be specified in academic or professional life.

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General Objectives of the ESP Course:

The present English for Specific Purposes (ESP) course aims to achieve several
interrelated objectives aligned with the course content:

1. Understanding Key Notions about ESP

 Define ESP and its place within the broader field of English Language
Teaching (ELT).
 Explore the history and evolution of ESP.
 Differentiate ESP from General English (GE), emphasizing its focus on specific
needs and contexts.
 Introduce the key types of ESP (e.g., English for Academic Purposes (EAP),
English for Occupational Purposes (EOP)).
2. Needs Analysis
 Understand the role of needs analysis in ESP course design.
 Learn about the key notions and historical development of needs analysis.
 Learn how to conduct a comprehensive needs analysis using various tools and
methods suggested in this course.
 Identify target language needs, including professional, academic, or specific
situational requirements of learners.
3. Syllabus Design
 Familiarize learners with the different types of syllabi (e.g., task-based, skills-
based, content-based).
 Understand how to align syllabus design with the outcomes of needs analysis.
 Show the importance of Syllabus design in meeting the specific goals of ESP
learners and selecting, adapting, and sequencing materials accordingly.
4. ESP Course Evaluation
 Learn how to evaluate the effectiveness of an ESP course in achieving its
objectives.
 Explore tools for formative and summative assessment tailored to ESP contexts.

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 Understand how to gather and use feedback from students, teachers, and
stakeholders to improve course quality.
 Assess the alignment of course content with the specific needs identified during
the analysis phase.
5. Differences between an EFL Teacher and an ESP Practitioner
 Compare the roles and responsibilities of EFL teachers and ESP practitioners.
 Emphasize the specialized knowledge an ESP practitioner requires, such as
familiarity with the learners' professional or academic fields.
 Highlight the importance of collaboration with subject matter experts in ESP
contexts.
 Discuss the ESP practitioner's need for flexibility, adaptability, and often more
personalized teaching approaches compared to general EFL contexts.
Overall Learning Objectives:
By the end of the course, participants should be able to:
1. Define and conceptualize ESP, distinguishing it from General English.
2. Conduct an effective needs analysis to inform ESP course design.
3. Develop a context-specific syllabus based on learners' needs and objectives.
4. Evaluate ESP courses effectively to ensure they meet learner and stakeholder
expectations.
5. Understand and embody the unique role of an ESP practitioner, appreciating the
skills and strategies required for success in this specialized field.

ESP Course Description

This ESP course is designed to provide learners with both theoretical knowledge and
practical experience in English for Specific Purposes (ESP), ensuring a comprehensive
understanding of the subject and its application in various professional and academic
contexts.

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Course Structure
1. Theoretical Component
This part establishes the foundation for understanding ESP by covering the following
key topics:
 Key Notions about ESP:
o Introduction to ESP, its scope, and its importance in specific professional
and academic fields.
o Differences between General English (GE) and ESP in terms of focus,
content, and methodology.
 Needs Analysis:
o Understanding the process of identifying learners' language needs, goals,
and contexts of use.
o Exploring methods such as surveys, interviews, and workplace
observations to gather data for course planning.
 Course Design:
o Principles of ESP syllabus design tailored to meet learners‟ objectives.
o Types of syllabi (e.g., task-based, content-based) and the inclusion of
authentic materials.
 ESP Course Evaluation:
o Developing tools to assess the success of an ESP course in meeting its
objectives.
o Using feedback to enhance future course iterations.
 EFL Teacher vs. ESP Practitioner:
o Differences in roles, teaching approaches, and required expertise.
o Understanding the interdisciplinary role of an ESP practitioner and the
need for collaboration with subject matter experts.
Learners will consolidate their theoretical knowledge through lectures, readings, and
discussions, in addition to project work.

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2. Practical Component
This part emphasizes hands-on activities to apply ESP principles in realistic and
interactive contexts.
 Practice and Exercises in ESP Fields:
Formal Letter Writing: In this section we will attempt to equip ESP learners with the
necessary knowledge about formal letters writing in terms of:
 how to layout the letter,
 how to chose the letter‟s content,
 know about the opening and closing sentences,
 learn the formal phrases and words to use,
 and how to plan the formal letter s(introduction, content, and
conclusion).
 ESP in the Workplace:
 Creating and delivering effective workplace presentations.
 Practicing communication skills, leadership, management
techniques, and team collaboration.
 Exploring topics like time management, productivity, and
cryptocurrency-related terminology.
 All these topics are developed with students participation to make it
more interactive.
 Sentence Transformation Exercices:
o Transforming sentences from General English into advanced, field-
specific language (e.g., technical, business, or academic English).
 Video on Digital Marketing:
o Viewing and analyzing a video to deepen understanding of ESP in the
context of digital marketing.
o Discussing terminology and communication strategies used in the field.
 Interactive Activities:
o Research Work: Assigning students research tasks to make them
involved and interested in the course.

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o Debates and Discussions: Encouraging classroom debates on ESP-

related topics to develop argumentation and communication skills.
o Internet Resources: Teaching students to use online tools and platforms
to enhance their ESP knowledge and skills (audios, videos,...)
 Final Essay:
o Students write an essay on the theoretical part of the course, evaluating
their understanding of ESP concepts, needs analysis, syllabus design,
and the role of an ESP practitioner.
The purpose of the Interactive Engagement is to make the students actively participate
in research, debates, and collaborative learning activities to enhance their practical
ESP skills.

Interactive Classroom Environment

The practical component ensures a dynamic and engaging learning experience
through:
 Collaborative Tasks: Group research projects and discussions on emerging
ESP topics.
 Debates: Encouraging critical thinking and persuasive communication in an
ESP context.
 Technology Integration: Using internet resources and multimedia content for
immersive learning.
This two-part course blends theory with interactive practice to equip learners with a
strong foundation in ESP and the skills to excel in specific professional or academic
environments.
Interactive and Practical Approach in the ESP Course
The practical component of this ESP course is designed to immerse students in real-
world applications of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), making the learning
experience highly interactive and relevant to workplace contexts.

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Students are exposed to practical examples and scenarios from actual professional
environments, helping them connect theoretical knowledge with real-world
applications. Activities include:
 Formal Letter Writing:
Writing professional emails, letters, and reports tailored to specific workplace
requirements, such as job applications, business proposals, and formal inquiries.
 Presentations:
Crafting and delivering effective presentations for workplace meetings,
conferences, and team discussions, focusing on clarity, professionalism, and
audience engagement.
 Communication Skills:
Engaging in activities that emphasize professional communication, including
negotiating, active listening, and workplace interactions.
 Speaking in an ESP Context:
Practicing speaking skills through role-plays and dialogues that simulate real-
world workplace situations, such as client meetings, team collaboration, and
industry-specific discussions.

2. Interactive Classroom Debates

To ensure students fully understand complex terms and notions, classroom debates are
incorporated:
 Students discuss and debate theoretical and practical aspects of ESP, fostering
critical thinking and deeper comprehension.
 Instructors provide clarifications and real-life examples during debates to
address challenging concepts.

3. Research and Project Work

Students actively contribute to their learning process by engaging in research and
project work.

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Integration of Pioneer Scholars

The references used in the present ESP course are relatively old compared with the
new trends of ESP, but the reason behind lays under the fact that we wanted to
introduce the key figures in ESP so that students gain an appreciation of the theoretical
roots of ESP while actively contributing to the body of knowledge through their
research. In addition to helping them understand the roots of ESP and through research
projects, they explore how these foundational concepts apply to modern professional
contexts.

Target leaners:
The current ESP course is designed for second year Language and Culture master
students, of the Ecole Normale Supérieure (ENS) Bouzareah.

Time allocated to the course:

The ESP module is allocated 1 hour and a half per week, amounting to a total of 25
hours over the course of the third semester. This schedule is designed to provide a
balanced blend of theoretical understanding and practical application within a
manageable timeframe. The course adopts a dual format, functioning as both a
conference and travaux dirigés (TD) session, allowing students to engage in lectures
for theoretical insights and practical sessions for hands-on activities. This structure
ensures that students not only grasp key ESP concepts but also apply their learning in
interactive and professional scenarios, fostering a comprehensive understanding of the
subject.

Methods of evaluation:
The evaluation method for the ESP course is designed to balance continuous
assessment and final examination, ensuring a comprehensive measure of students‟
understanding and practical skills. Fifty percent of the total mark is allocated to
students‟ presentations and project work, emphasizing the importance of active
participation, research, and the application of ESP principles. These activities

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encourage students to engage deeply with the course material, collaborate with peers,
and demonstrate their ability to communicate effectively in specific contexts. The
remaining fifty percent is based on a final in-class exam, which assesses students'
grasp of the theoretical concepts and their ability to apply them in structured and
context-specific scenarios. This dual evaluation method promotes both consistent
engagement throughout the semester and individual accountability during the final
assessment.

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Module: ESP Learners: Master students
Teacher: Dr. Hassina Bouchareb

Lesson 01

Objective of the lesson:

By the end of this lesson students will be able to understand key notions about ESP. Define ESP
and its place within the broader field of English Language Teaching (ELT).
Time allocated to the session: one hour and a half (01h.30)

I Concepts and Definitions on ESP:

ESP established roots thanks to pioneers such as Hutchinson and Water (1987),
Dudley-Evans (1998) and Robinson (1991) among others, who gave different
definitions of ESP which varied and developed from one period to another.

Mackay and Mountford (1978: 2), defined ESP as a language that is generally
used to refer to the teaching of English for a clearly utilitarian purpose. The later is
usually defined with reference to some occupational requirement like international
telephone operators or vocational training programs e.g. hotel and catering staff or
some academic or professional study, e.g. engineering. We understand that the goal of
learning ESP is important and it is related to the learners‟ occupational requirement.

This definition is supported by Harmer (1983: 1), who defined ESP

as:”…situations where the student has some specific reasons for wanting to learn a
language. That is to say, in an ESP situation, the learner wants to learn the target
language in order to achieve specific ends.

Anthony (1997: 9-10), describes ESP as the teaching of English used in

academic studies or the teaching of English for vocational or professional purpose.

According to Robinson (1991:2), the learner of ESP doesn‟t learn English

because he is interested in the English Language or English culture as such, but

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because he needs English for study or work purposes. This denotes that the role of ESP
is to help language learners to build up the needed abilities in order to use them in a
specific field of inquiry, occupation, or workplace. In ESP, “language is learnt not for
its own sake or for the sake of gaining a general education, but to smooth the path to
entry or greater linguistic efficiency in academic or professional or workplace
environment” Basturkmen (2006: 18).

Hutchinson and Waters (1987:18) defined ESP as being an approach rather than
a product by which they mean that ESP does not involve a particular kind of language,
teaching materials or methodology.

„…. .The fact that language is used for specific purpose does not
imply that it is a special form of the language, different in kind from
other forms. Certainly, there are some features which can be
identified as „typical‟ of a particular context of use and which,
therefore, the learner is more likely to meet in the target situation. But
these differences should not be allowed to obscure the far large area
of common ground that underlies all English use, and indeed, all
language use‟. (Hutchinson and Waters 1987:18)

They suggest that the basic question of ESP is: - why does this learner need to
learn a foreign language? The answer to this question relates to the learners, the
language required and the learning context and thus establishes the primacy of needs
in ESP.

Strevens‟ (1988) makes a distinction between four „absolute characteristics‟

and „two variable characteristics' to define ESP. The absolute characteristics are:

 ESP is designed to meet specified needs of the learner,

 It is related in content (that is in its themes and topics) to particular
disciplines, occupations and activities,

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 Centered on language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis

discourse, semantics and so on, and analyses of the discourse
 In contrast with „general English‟

The variable characteristics are that ESP:

 May be restricted as to the learning skills to be learned (for example reading

only),
 May not be taught according to any pre-ordained methodology

Dudley-Evans (1998) was clearly influenced by Strevens‟ definition to which he

gave a larger version of ESP in terms of 'absolute' and 'variable' characteristics:

A. Absolute Characteristics
 ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners
 ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it
serves.
 ESP is centred on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of
grammar, lexis, register, study skills, discourse and genre.
B. Variable Characteristics
 ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines
 ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that
of General English
 ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level
institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners
at secondary school level
 ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students.
 Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language systems

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As mentioned, Dudley-Evans (1998) is clearly influenced by Strevens‟

definition (1988), he had presented more variable characteristics, even though he
removed the absolute characteristic that ESP is "in contrast with General English”
(Johns et al., 1991: 298). This distinction between the absolute and variable
characteristics of ESP is helpful to make difference between what is and is not ESP.

From the definition, we can see that ESP may not necessarily be concerned with
a specific discipline, nor does it have to be aimed at a certain age group or ability
range. ESP should be seen simple as an 'approach' to teaching, or what Dudley-Evans
(1998) describes as an 'attitude of mind'. This is a similar conclusion to that made by
Hutchinson et al. (1987:19) who state, "ESP is an approach to language teaching in
which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner's reason for
learning" as mentioned above.

The primacy of needs analysis was clear in Robinson‟s definition of ESP (1991).
Her definition is based on two keys defining criteria and a number of characteristics.
her keys criteria are that ESP is „normally goal directed‟, and that ESP courses develop
from a need analysis, which „aims to specify as closely as possible what exactly it is
that students have to do through the medium of English‟ (Robinson,1991: 3).
According to her the characteristics of ESP courses are constrained by a limited time
period, in which their objectives to be achieved, and are taught to adult in homogenous
classes in terms of the work or specialist studies that the students are involved in.

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Lesson 02

Objectives of the lesson:

By the end of this lesson, students will know the different types of ESP, its varieties in different
contexts, in addition to its classification and subdivision.
Time allocated to the session:
One hour and a half (01h30)

2 Types of ESP:
The growing need for specialized English in our modern world resulted in the
abound subdivisions in the field of ESP. Despite the range of types of ESP, it is
traditionally agreed the existence of two large subfields in literature: English for
Occupational Purposes (EOP) and English for Academic Purposes (EAP) that are
related to the motivation, position and status of the learners‟ reason for learning.

The classification of ESP created many divergences in the field and knew
multiple subdivisions because of the increasing needs of learners for specialized
languages to fit their expectations in different domains; categorization of ESP abounds
in literature and still flexible in order to accommodate emerging trends and
developments in ESP practices.

Strevens (1977) explains that EOP can be taught before or after the learner has
worked in a specific field (pre-experience or post-experience), or when the learner is
working (simultaneous), thus he shows that the Occupational and the Academic
English are divided according to when the learner learns. In same context, the
academic English is divided into discipline-based English in higher education and
school-subject English. The previous type of EAP may be taught when the student is
specializing (in-study) or intends to specialize (pre-study) in a particular subject.
School-subject EAP can be taught as a separate subject (independent) or can be the

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medium of instruction in other subjects (integrated). The different types suggested by

Strevens are shown in the following figure:

ESP

EAP EOP

discipline – based school subjet

independent integrated

pre-study in-study post-study

pre-experience simultaneous post-experience teacher‟s conversion

figure (01): Strevens’ Division of ESP Types

David Carter (1983) presents three types of ESP, they are:

 English as a Restricted Language

It is a reduced form of LANGUAGE, he explains that some REGISTERS are
extremely restricted in purpose. They employ only a limited number of formal items
and patterns; this is what represents the restricted language which is used with a
particular end in mind. This claim is supported by Mackay and Mountford (1978), who
illustrate the difference between, restricted language and language by the example of
the language of the international air traffic, the language used by the dining room
waiter and air hostess. Knowing a restricted language would not allow the speaker to
communicate effectively in novel situation or in contexts outside the vocational
environment.

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 English for Academic and Occupational Purposes:

Carter (1983) identifies the second type of ESP as English for Academic and
Occupational Purposes. In this subdivision, he refers to Hutchinson and Waters view
of ESP who divide it into three branches:

a) English for Science and Technology (EST)

b) English for Business and Economy (EBE)
c) English for Social Studies (ESS)

Each of them is further divided into two branches: English for Academic
Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). He illustrates by
considering English for Technicians as a branch of EOP in relation to EST and the
EAP is the English for Medical Studies.

 English with Specific Topics

In this third type Carter notes that the emphasis shifts from purpose to topic.
This type of ESP is concerned with anticipated future, for example, scientists requiring
English for postgraduate reading studies attending conferences or working in foreign
institutions.

Kennedy and Bolitho (1984) add more type of ESP according to the need of
scientists and technologists. This type is called English for Science and Technology
(EST). They clarify that EST (English for Science and Technology) is a branch of
ESP which deals with scientific content, they show its characteristics by clarifying that
EST is too general to be of great use in the design of ESP materials they add that EST
has often led to teaching materials with a scientific bias but which did not serve the
needs of the learners.

Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 17) identify three categories of ESP according to
the professional area: English for Science and Technology (EST), English for Business
and Economy (EBE) and English for the Social Sciences (ESS). Each course may be

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divided into two main types according to whether English is required for academic
study or for work/training: EAP and EOP as shown in the below figure:

Hutchinson & Waters (1987)

ELT

EFL ESL

ESP

EST EBE ESS

EAP EOP EAP EOP EAP EOP

E. for medical studies E. for economic E. for psychology

E. for technicians E. for secretaries E. for technology

Figure (02) Hutchinson and Waters’ Division of ESP Branches

Robinson (1991) considers ESP as a field of ELT divided into EAP and EOP.
Cutting across these is EST, which can refer to the English needed for both study and
work purposes. Her ESP “family tree” differs from Strevens‟ in that the English
needed in a particular discipline can also be taught after the student has specialized
(post-study).

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Robinson (1991)

ELT

ESP

EST Others

EAP EOP

Figure (03): Robinson’s Division of ESP Types

Dudley-Evans and St John (1998, p. 6) classify ESP by professional area. EAP

covers the areas of Science and Technology (EST, the main branch), Medicine and
Health Sciences (EMP), Law and Administration (ELP), and Business and Economics.
EOP covers two areas: (1) English for Professional Purposes (EPP), which has two
branches: Medicine (EMP) and Business (EBP); and (2) English for Vocational
Purposes (EVP), which has two subsections: pre-vocational English, which is
concerned with finding a job and interview skills; and Vocational English (VE), which
is concerned with the language of specific occupations.

Dudley-Evans & St. John (1998)

ESP

EAP EOP

EST EMP ELP E. for Management, Finance & Economics

EPP EVP

EMP EBP Pre-vocational English VE

Figure (04):Dudley-Evans & St. John (1998) Division of ESP Types

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The field of ESP has expanded very quickly emerging a wide variety of subdivisions,
each with its own acronym. We can find:

 English for Science and Technology (EST)

 Vocational English as a Second Language (VESL)
 English for Vocational Purposes (EVP)
 English for Specific and Academic Purposes (ESAP)
 English for Professional and Academic Purposes (EPAP)
 English as a Lingua Franca in Academic Setting ((ALFA)
 English for Occupational Purposes (EOP)
 English for Business and Communication (EBC)
 English for Sociocultural Purposes (ESCP)
 English for General Business Purposes (EGBP)
 English for Medical Purposes (EMP)
 English for Legal Purposes (ELP)
 English for Academic Legal Purposes (EALP)
 English for Research Publication Purposes (ERPP)

Without forgetting our modern life characterized by the digital technology, we

find new types of ESP like: - Electronic Business English (e-BE) and – Electronic
Medical English (e-ME).

All the above mentioned types of ESP are meant to provide the learners of
English with the knowledge that helps them understand and communicate in the
academic or working environment and enable them to learn and use specialized
vocabulary required in a specific situation.

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Lesson 03

Objective of the lesson:

By the end of this lesson students will be able to trace the origin of ESP, as well as explore the
history and evolution of ESP.
Time devoted to the session: one hour and a half (01h30)

1.1.4 The Emergence of ESP

Some researchers say that the origin of ESP goes back to the sixteenth century as
shown by Strevens (1977 cited in Robinson 1989: 399). Robinson (1989: 399)
investigated the origin of ESP by introducing the question of “how old is ESP?” and
suggested that the specific language was provided to diplomats, businessmen. Strevens
(1977) introduced the notion of special-purpose language teaching (SPLT) which
represents the early notion of specific purpose of the language. This notion was meant
for different languages like German, Russian, French or English; it was not specific to
English.

The SPLT knew a radical change during the Second World War, during which
very important programs were developed to face the enemies. The United States of
America trained its soldiers to learn other languages as intensive courses to be used in
the war needs (Strevens 1977: 151).

The reason of that training as explained by Strevens (1977: 151) was to gather
much information about specific war situations in a restricted period of time to use it
for a very specific goal. Strevens gives the example of the Royal Air Force personnel,
who went through a very specialized training for learning Japanese in a short period of
time, the aim of that training was to listen to the Japanese soldiers in the e Burmese

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jungle and understand the Japanese fighter aircraft talking to their ground control
stations, trying to identify their targets, and using this information to alert RAF
interceptor fighters. As can be understood from the above mentioned example, the aim
of learning Japanese was not general but very specific instead; it was based on
Listening and Speaking only. This doesn‟t allow those learner read or write.

When the Second World War ended, enormous changes were brought and
affected the teaching and learning of ESP. Hutchinson and Waters (1978) stated that
among the results of the SWW, the United States of America became the world‟s
strongest country in different fields, much information concerning engineering and
technological development, science, medicine and business management became
available mainly in English. This new situation pushed many countries in the world to
promote the teaching of English as foreign language to allow their people make
commercial transactions with the USA.

Thus, each category of learners had its own needs and needed specific language,
a new idea emerged which implies that language we write and speak changes from one
context to another. This new idea pushed to the emergence of specific groups of
learners who wanted to learn specific language related to a specific context, since the
needs of a student of engineering are different from those of commerce or medicine.
These different needs and attitudes have also affected the learners‟ motivation to learn.
Many of these reasons, in fact, pushed forward for increasing specialization in
language teaching and learning which gave birth later on to English for Specific
purposes (ESP) Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 6).

When the oil crises occurred in the early 1970‟s, English become big business
and there were a pressure on language teaching profession to deliver the required goals
(Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 6)

1.1. Stages of ESP Development:

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Teacher: Dr. Hassina Bouchareb

The ESP evolution can be distinguished by four major stages which are
characterized by changes in the linguistic approach to ESP and changes in ESP
teaching and learning. In this section we‟ll attempt to present a comprehensive view
and a clear description of the ESP evolution and the different phases of development
it‟s undergone through time from its beginning in the mid 60s up to date.

1. Mid-1960s - early 1970s

This period of ESP development was first concerned with the language
variation and register analyses (Halliday et al., 1964). Language varieties deal with
the different variation existing in language in relation to different contexts of use
known as register (which is a list of technical words used in specific context), at this
stage the aim of teaching English was mainly to identify grammatical and technical
features of the register which was the basis of course and syllabus design in ESP.

Consequently, the teaching of English “emphasized on statistical methods

which usually calculated the frequency of occurrence of certain speech elements and
established lists of items for teaching purposes” (Robinson, 1991: 23-24), the concern
early ESP courses was mainly grammar and vocabulary of scientific English (e.g.
Close, 1965; Herbert, 1965, Ewer and Latorre, 1969, Swales, 1971; Dudley Evans,
1977), There were no explanation supplied but it was only description. Ewer and
Latorre (1969, p.122) explain that the concern of scientific register gave birth to other
disciplines “It is to this essential framework that the large specialized vocabularies of
each discipline are added”.

We can mention some works that was based on register analyses which
contributed in the development of register analysis during this period like those
written by Strevens (1964), Ewer (1969) Swales (1971). In addition to some
contributions in new language varieties like medical English (e.g. Allwright &
Allwright, 1977; Candlin et al., 1978) and business English (e.g. Eckerley and
Knufmann, 1973).

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In this context, it is worth to mention that during this period there has been little
concern about teaching and learning ESP as stated by Sturtridge (1977) and Wheeler
(1977), there have been no attention given to the meaning but instead it was based
mainly on structure. However, the needs and the aims of the learners were taken into
consideration in syllabus design.

2. Mid-1970s – mid-1980s

After register analyses stage, which focused the sentence level, the interest
shifted from lexical items to discourse or rhetorical analyses, at this stage the attention
moved to understand how sentences were combined in discourse to provide meaning.
Discourse is here defined as a collection of connected sentences and paragraphs that
together make up a coherent and cohesive text.

Indeed, the shift within the ELT field towards a more communicative view of
language teaching and learning influenced EST materials production, the hypotheses
of this stage were expressed by Widdowson 1978 (as cited in Hutchinson & Waters,
1987). Allen (1978) and Widdowson (1983) explain that the attention shifted from the
structure of forms to their meaning and to the analysis of forms in context.

Therefore, the course of English provided to learners of specific needs should

contain practices not on how sentences are combined together to provide meaning
only, but also how they are used in communicative acts.

The syllabus based on grammar was replaced by another one built around
rhetorical functions like some textbook series of the time, the Focus Series, with nine
volumes from 1977 to 1983, where the emphasis was on key functions in scientific and
academic writing. In addition to the Nucleus series edited by Bates and Dudley-Evans
(Longman), which focused on the function of description and introduced semi-
technical scientific vocabulary.

The positive aspect of this approach is the use of language as a medium for
science and technology which must involve in the teaching of how scientists and

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technologists use the system of the language to communicate, and not just what
linguistic elements are most commonly used (Widdowson, 1978:13)

That is right that discourse or rhetorical analyses gave more importance to the
function of sentences in discourse but t it came to replace a grammatical lexical
register by an account of functions, it also left some questions without solutions, like
the criteria for the selection of communicative functions, the sequencing of functions
in teaching materials and the overlap of functions in many statements and texts. The
results of the research gave birth to a new era of teaching and learning Specific
English which is the focus on the learner‟s communicative needs.

The focus on the learner‟s communicative needs was set out by John Munby in
his Communicative Syllabus Design (1978). This stage was known as target situation
analyses in which the learner‟s need was placed at the centre of the course design
process.

3. Mid-1980s – 1990s

The main characteristics of the third stage is discourse and genre analysis, and
the learning-centered approach supported by Hutchinson and Waters 1987, it
considered the thinking processes that underlie language use not the language itself.
The genre analysis is considered as part of the discourse analysis; the latter involves
text analysis and a specific analytical method whereas genre analysis deals with the
study of the forms of discourse that particular discourse communities engage in their
communicative conventions and purposes, the role texts play in particular contexts,
their genre products, and the differences between the discourses within and of various
discourse communities. This trend in ESP teaching and learning was introduced by
many scholars in field like: Swales, 1986, 1988, 1990; Crookes, 1986; Dudley-Evans,

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1987, 1989; Hopkins & Dudley-Evans, 1988; Salager-Meyer et al., 1989; Swales &
Feak, 1994; Bhatia, 1993; and Eggins & Martin, 1997.

In relation to the learning centered approach, it was put forward by Hutchinson

and Waters (1987), which means “how learners learn”?. They maintained that the
above mentioned stages are based on description of language use but the concern
would be on language leaning. This new approach was concerned with language
learning, and the methodology put the emphasis on pair/group work and problem-
solving. The focus shifted from an end-product of needs to a process-oriented of
needs; which means the transfer was from the target needs, i.e. what the learner needs
to do in the target situation to learning needs, i.e. what the learner needs to do in order
to learn. A learning-centered approach is shown through the must to discover how
someone acquires the competence to perform. Learning is totally determined by the
learner. (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 72-73)

4. 2000s-present

The fourth stage of ESP has seen many developments like the recognition of the
influence of culture on the structure of genres (e.g. Melander, 1998, pp. 221-226); this
claim is defended by Dudley-Evans and St John (1998: 66) who says: “a sensitivity to
cultural issues and an understanding of our own and others‟ values and behaviors is
important in ESP”.

In this context it is worth to mention that the new technologies had an impact on
ESP pedagogy such as self-directed learning through online platforms (Luzón et al.,
2010). During this stage much work on ESP is devoted to academic and professional
discourse (e.g. Alcaraz, 2000; Hyland & Bondi, 2006; Sales, 2006; Alcaraz et al.,
2007) especially academic writing among the scholar who supported ESP writing we
find Hyland (2000, 2006) who had a great contribution in ESP writing.

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The important use of ESP in both academic and professional environment gave
birth to a new approach known as Content Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), its
aim is to integrate content and language in the domain-specific courses.

Collaborative learning; team teaching, and linked ESP and subject area, or
learning communities (Johnson, 2000; Johns, 2009) are considered as a combination
between the content teaching and the ESP teaching. They took place in different part
of the world as latest approaches to ESP. The literature in the domain of ESP has
grown still record about its development.

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Lesson 04

Objective of the lesson :

By the end of this lesson, the students will be able to differentiate ESP from General English
(GE), emphasizing its focus on specific needs and contexts and introduce the key types of ESP
(e.g., English for Academic Purposes (EAP), English for Occupational Purposes (EOP)).
Time allocated 01h30

General English VS ESP:

After defining ESP, the difference between ESP and General English appears to
be quite clear. Nevertheless we find different opinions and an overlapping connection
between them. The view points about the differences and similarities existing between
ESP and General English varied through time and changed from one stage of ESP
development to another.

Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 53) showed that there is difference between ESP
and General English in relation to practice but nothing can be mentioned in theory: "in
theory nothing, in practice a great deal". According to their view, GE and ESP share
the same principles of language teaching, having effective and efficient learning as a
main objective. The main difference between GE and ESP lies in the awareness of a
need. ESP learners are current or future specialists, who need English for their specific
area, and who are aware of their need; they know what exactly they need English for.
They know what ESP course should offer them (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987).

Widdowson (1983) clarified the relation between ESP and General English by
establishing some distinctive features of ESP and EGP. He explains that the most
important EGP features are that its focus is often on education. As learners‟ future

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needs are impossible to predict, the course content is more difficult to select and due to
this, it is important for the content in the syllabus to have a high surrender value.

On the other hand, the most relevant features of ESP are that the focus is on
training. As English is intended to be used in specific vocational contexts, the selection
of the appropriate content will be easier and the content will be given more value in
the design of the syllabus which may create a restricted English competence as an
ultimate aim. These distinctive features reveal the true nature of EGP and ESP.

According to Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998: 4-5) the learners and their
purposes for learning English constitute the major difference between ESP and EGP.
They explain that ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different
methodology from that of General English; this is explained by the fact that ESP
learners are usually adults who have some basic knowledge about General English and
they know perfectly what they want ESP for, thus, ESP is meant to meet specific needs
of the learners which is expressed through the ultimate goal of leaning ESP.

The above mentioned claim is supported by Strevens (1988: 1-2) who

distinguishes ESP by being designed to meet specified needs of the learner, it is also
restricted to the language skill to be learned for example reading or writing only
contrarily to General English which includes the four skills. It is related in content to
particular disciplines, occupations and activities that is the purpose if ESP learners.

The age of the EGP learners varies from children to adults and learning the
English language is the subject of the course. EGP courses are mostly focused on
grammar, language structure and general vocabulary. EGP courses are responsible to
the general language acquisition and, for the vast majority of learners, they are
extremely useful. EGP helps students to cope with any subject-matter course. It gives
them the ability to generate more language. EGP learners, if well-taught, can use
English to cope with the language in any undefined tasks. EGP courses deal with many
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different topics and each of the four skills is equally treated. Due to the general nature
of these courses no needs analysis is conducted.

Wright (1992) stresses Motivation as an important feature for ESP learners; he

explains that in ESP course, it is needs analysis that determines which language skills
are useful for the learners to be able to accomplish certain professional tasks (eg. For
someone who works as a tourists guide, the speaking skill should be emphasized).
English is related to the learners‟ real needs in a particular field and it is usable
immediately in the employment context. The learners are highly motivated as they are
aware of their specific purpose for learning English.

Many studies were conducted to show the difference existing between ESP and
EGP, Rosenberg (2004) attempted to show that difference by asking a group of
teachers of English language to brainstorm the differences and similarities between
ESP and Business English (which is part of ESP as explained in the previous sections).
The answers of the subject were gathered in the following table:

Business English General English

Specialised vocabulary free time activities

Motivation related to job more freedom in deviation from plan

Teach negotiation and presentation more time for games

Techniques more relaxed atmosphere

Students very goal-oriented songs, literature

More serious general writing skills

Business correspondence Social event

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In addition to the above mentioned points, the study resulted to some common points
between Business English and General English, theses are:

 Grammar and functions

 General vocabulary
 Anxiety about capabilities
 Every day English
 Small talk
 Travel vocabulary
 Survival English
 Tour skills
 Current events

Rosenberg (2004: 36) explained that there is a tendency to separate Business

English and English for Specific Purposes from General English, nevertheless the
majority of teachers are trained first as General English teachers and they feel that this
field should be thought in different way.

Rosenberg (2004) clarifies that motivation and goals of the students studying
English for Specific Purposes and General English are slightly different, teaching
methods can be transferred in both directions to giving the learners the opportunity to
acquire better skills in English language (e.i: the classes of English for Specific
Purposes from the classes of general English and vice versa).

Basturkmen (2005: 17) rejects the idea of the difference existing between GE
and ESP. She claims that there is no General English and Specific English for her all
English is specific:

„All languages are learned in some context or another. There is thus

no „basic‟ variety-less English, there is no General English or English

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for no Specific Purposes. All English exists as some variety or

another.‟ (Basturkmen, 2005 :17)

Basturkmen (2006) says that General English Language teaching starts from a
specific point to an indefinite one, while ESP aims to direct the learners to a known
destination in order to reach specific objectives.

Her idea agrees to a great extent with that of Bloor and Bloor (1986: 28) who
point out that English is learnt from different varieties, but it is the use of language
being geared to situation and participants, learned in appropriate contexts, this what
makes it specific.

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Lesson 05

Objectives of the lesson :

By the end of this lesson student will recognize the importance of Needs Analysis in the field of ESP.
they will also deal with the different approaches to Needs Analysis and its historical development
through time.

Time devoted to this session: 01h30 (one hour and a half)

Needs Analysis:

Key Notions and Concepts:

Need is considered as very important in the setting of ESP teaching and

learning, many studies discussed its essential role in the ESP context. Hutchinson and
Waters (1987:55) consider the Need as the reason for which the learner is learning
English, which will vary from study purposes to work purposes. These purposes are
regarded as the first steps and the departure points which determine the language to be
taught. They make a distinction between learner‟s need in general English courses and
that in ESP courses (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 54).

They show the importance of Needs Analysis in ESP syllabus design by

considering it as being the spinal column and very essential, they clarify that this need
for learning English determines what language should be taught, and consequently the
course designed: „tell me what you need English for and I will tell you the English that
you need‟. (Hutchinson and al, 1987: 08).

They also distinguish between „target needs (i.e. what the learner needs to do in
the target situation) and learning needs (i.e. what the learner needs to do in order to
learn)‟ (1987: 54). They consider the target needs as necessities, lacks and wants.
According to them Necessities are: 1. demands of the target situation, that is, what the
learner has to know in order to function effectively in the target situation; 2.

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knowledge of the linguistic features – discoursal, functional, structural, lexical – which

are commonly used in the situations identified.

The focus on necessities only is not sufficient since we do not know about the
learners‟ previous knowledge and we won‟t discover which of the necessities they
lack. Thus, we first need to find out what they know and after that to center the
attention on the necessities they lack. The learners‟ wants constitute target needs,
which according to Hutchinson and Water can conflict with the perceptions of other
interested parties: course designers, sponsors and teachers.

The importance of Needs Analysis is also stressed by Belcher (2006) who claims
that it is “a vital stage in designing ESP materials” (2006: 135).

This claim is supported by Brown (1995) who regards needs analysis as an

essential first step in the development of a curriculum; he presents needs analysis as
being the collection and analysis of information about a curriculum to satisfy students
(Brown, 1995:36)

He points out that the outcome of a needs analysis should be a list of goals and
objectives for the parties involved, which should “serve as the basis for developing
tests, materials, teaching activities, and evaluation strategies, as well as for
reevaluating the precision accuracy of the original needs assessment” (Brown,1995:
35).

Bosher & Smalkowski (2002) and Wilkins (1976) confirmed that a „needs
analysis‟ can best be implemented in curriculum development; they argued that needs
analysis helps in determining the objectives of any course or syllabus.

According to Dudley-Evans and John (1998) needs analysis should comprise a

number of learners‟ needs such as: the tasks and activities the learners are/ will be
using English for, personal information about learners, cultural information about the
students, their current language skills, their perceived language needs, etc. They made
a division between: present knowledge/required knowledge, objective/subjective

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needs, and perceived/felt needs (Dudley-Evans and St-John 1998) as explained in

following table:

The difference between present and the gap between present know-how and
required knowledge exigencies of the target situation

The difference between the nature of data based on the nature of

objective/subjective and perceived/felt sources used to collect the data required
needs for NA, using outsiders and/or insiders
views

Language leaning involves the combination of several components of the

learning and teaching setting, the selection of materials, methodology, assessment and
evaluation can be resulted from Needs Analysis which is the first stage in course
design. Dudley-Evans and St. John explain that these aspects of language learning
acquisition are not linear, but rather interdependent, overlapping activities in a cyclical
process and NA is often ongoing, feeding back into various stages (Dudley-Evans & St
John, 1998, p. 121).

Figure (05): Linear vs. Cyclical Processes of Needs Analysis. (Dudley-Evans & St
John, 1998: 121).

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Iwai et al. (1999) claim that needs analysis is relatively recent as known
nowadays but there have been informal needs analyses which were conducted by
teachers to assess their students‟ needs. They add that the term needs analysis
generally refers to the activities that are involved in collecting information that will
serve as the basis for developing a curriculum that will meet the needs of a particular
group of students

Brindley (1989) and Berwick (1989) explain that in using the concept of Need,
various problems and limitations emerge including ways in which we might usefully
distinguish between needs identified by analysts and those expressed or experienced
by learners.

West (1994) presented a thorough overview of needs analysis in language

teaching, including its history, theoretical basis, approaches to needs analysis, etc. He
explains “The type of information sought during a needs analysis is usually closely
related to the approach to teaching and learning and to syllabus design followed by the
analysts” (Robinson 1991: 11 – 12).

Smoak (2003) points out that „ESP is English instruction based on actual and
immediate needs of learners who have to successfully perform real-life tasks. It is
needs-based and task oriented‟ (2003: 27). According to her, an ESP teacher should
teacher the language that is used in the real life situations; consequently Need analysis
should include observations of the language use in context.

According to Dickinson (1991: 91) a distinction between needs, wants and lacks
must be done, accordingly the Needs are those skills which a learner perceives as
being relevant to him; wants are a subset of needs, those which a learner puts at a high
priority given the time available; and the lack is the difference a learner perceives
between his present competence in a particular skill and the competence he wishes to
achieve.

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Graves (1996: 12) clarifies the difference existing Needs analysis and Need
assessment which are generally referred to as being the same. He explains that
assessment involves obtaining data, whereas analysis involves assigning value to those
data.

Hyland (2007) deems needs analysis as being very crucial in ESP which refers
to the techniques for collecting and assessing information relevant to course design for
the setting up of a course. Needs incorporate learners‟ goals and backgrounds, their
language proficiencies, their reasons for taking the course, their teaching and learning
preferences, and the situations they will need to communicate in, it can involve what
learners know, don‟t know or want to know, and can be collected and analyzed in a
variety of ways‟ (2006: 73-74).

Development of Needs Analysis:

West (1994:1) presented a historical description about the origin of „Needs

Analysis‟, he explains that it first emerged in India in 1920, but then it was nearly
forgotten for about half a century; after, this concept reappeared in the Makerere
Conference in 1960 and since then the term “Need” became a “special language or
register” in linguistics (West, 1994: 2).

West (1994) states that the council of Europe in the early 1970‟s established a
formal analysis of needs where the curriculum development constituted its essential
theoretic basis, he said that needs analysis followed three tendencies: improving
teaching methods, adapting the teaching to the type of learning public and training the
learner how to learn. He showed that needs analysis have been rooted in the second of
these tendencies and more recently, the third.‟ (West, 1994: 2).

Needs Analysis went through different stages of development, the ones widely
discussed in literature include the sociolinguistic model (Munby, 1978) the systemic
approach (Richterich & Chancerel, 1977), the learning-centered approach (Hutchinson

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& Waters, 1987), the learner-centered approache (Berwick, 1989; Brindley, 1989) and
a task-based approach (Long 2005). These approaches to needs analysis had different
principals and basis.

Munby (1978) introduced the sociolinguistic model after the publication of his
book “Communicative Syllabus Design” in 1978. In this book Munby presented the
'Communication Needs Processor' (CNP) which is the basis of Munby's approach to
needs analysis. This model consists on the presentation of a profile of communication
needs which comprise communicative events like: discussing everyday tasks and
duties, dialects, education, mode, channel of communication, attitudinal tone…, on the
basis of this profile the communicative needs are developed into a syllabus. This
model can be used to specify valid „target situations‟ (Jordan, 1997, West, 1994) that
target communicative competence.

Munby‟s sociolinguistic model is important for effective communication since it

provides plenty of details, nevertheless it is time consuming, complex, inflexible and
impractical (West, 1994), “it collected data about the learner rather than from the
learner” (West, 1994:9), the learner‟s voice is not taken into account.

Richterich and Chancerel (1977) suggested a systemic approach which

recommends the use of more than one data collection methods for needs analysis like
surveys, interviews and attitude scales. The learner is considered as the centre of
attention whose present situations (Jordan, 1997) are thoroughly investigated and their
emergent needs are also taken into consideration. This approach gave more importance
to learners; their needs were approached by examining information before a course
starts and during the course by the learners themselves (Jordan, 1997). The systemic
approach filled the gap of the sociolinguistic model in terms of flexibility and shows a
distinct concern for learners nevertheless the over-reliance on learners became a
problem because many learners have no clear idea about their needs.

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The systemic approach has given more consideration to learner than it should be
and has neglected the learner‟s real-world needs. To solve this situation Jordan (1997)
suggested that a combination between the sociolinguistic model and the systemic
approach will be useful.

The learning centered approach was presented by Hutchinson & Waters (1987),
in their approach Hutchinson & Waters focused on the way or how learners learn
instead of focusing on language needs. They tackled learner needs from two ways: -the
target needs and learning needs. The target needs are grouped into three categories: -
necessities, lacks and wants. The learning needs represent different factors such as
socio-cultural background of learners, learning background, age, gender, background
knowledge of specialized contents, background knowledge of English, attitudes
towards English,

Learner-centered approaches were supported by Berwick (1989) and Brindley

(1989). They consider learner‟s needs from different perspectives, this approach
distinguishes between perceived vs. felt needs; product vs. process oriented
interpretations; and objective vs. subjective needs. „Perceived needs‟ are from the
perspective of experts while „felt needs‟ are from the perspective of learners (Berwick,
1989). In the product-oriented interpretation, learner needs are viewed as the language
that learners require in target situations. In the process-oriented interpretation, the
focus is on how individuals respond to their learning situation, involving affective and
cognitive variables which affect learning (Brindley, 1989). Finally, objective needs are
explored prior to a course, whereas subjective needs are addressed while the course is
underway.

Brindley (1989), sees the objective needs from another view; they can be
derived from various kinds of factual information about learners, their real-life
language use situations, their current language proficiency and difficulties. Subjective

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needs can be derived from information concerning their affective and cognitive factors
such as personality, confidence, attitudes, learning wants, learning expectations,
cognitive style and learning strategies.

The last approach to needs analysis is suggested by Long (2005), in this

approach he asks to take a task based approach not only to needs analysis but also with
teaching and learning. He argues that the important point of teaching and learning is
not structures or other linguistic elements (notions, functions, lexical items etc.). Long
(2005:3) explains that the learners are active and cognitive-independent participants in
the acquisition process in contrast with what we believed that what is though is what is
learnt. In this approach, tasks are the units of analysis and “samples of the discourse
typically involved in performance of target tasks are collected” (Long, 2005:3).

The concept of tasks is similar to that of communicative events as defined by

Munby (1978). The difference is that what is highlighted in the task-based approach is
the language variables rather than sociolinguistic variables.

Insights into Needs Analysis approaches:

Many scholars focused their efforts on showing and determining the importance
of needs analysis through different approaches. These are not exclusive but rather
complementary, because none of the approaches can be a reliable indicator of what is
needed to improve. Only combining several of them can give us a better picture of our
learners‟ needs. That is to say, the more detailed the NA is, the better the chances to
make the right decisions are.

In literature it is agreed that the work of John Munby‟s Communicative

Syllabus Design (1978) is considered as the most thorough and widely known work on
needs analysis. To identify the target situation needs, Munby presented a highly
detailed set of procedures and called it Communication Needs Processor (CNP).

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Through which he could collect information about the key communication variables
(topic, participants, medium etc.),

The Communication Needs Processor (CNP) consists of a range of questions

that can be used to identify the target language needs of any group of learners.
Munby‟s CNP was a reference for many researchers; based on CNP Chambers
introduced the concept of Target Situation Analysis in 1980, after that several other
terms have also been introduced like: Present Situation Analysis, Pedagogic Needs
Analysis, Deficiency Analysis, Strategy or Learning Needs Analysis, Means Analysis,
Register Analysis, Discourse Analysis, and Genre Analysis. These terms are presented
in this section:

Target Situation Analysis (TSA)

The Target Situation Analysis (TSA) was first introduced by Chambers in 1980;
it was based on Munby‟s Communicative Needs Processor (CNP) through which the
target needs and target level of performance are established by investigating the target
situation. It puts the learner‟s purposes in the central position within the framework of
needs analysis.
The model of Munby‟s is constituted of the following elements:

1. Participants: information about the identity and language of the learners: age, sex,
nationality, present command of target language, other languages known and extent of
command;
2. Communicative Needs Processor: investigates the particular communication needs
according to sociocultural and stylistic variables which interact to determine a profile
of such needs;
3. Profile of Needs: is established through the processing of data in the CNP;
4. In the Meaning Processor “parts of the socioculturally determined profile of
communication needs are converted into semantic subcategories of a predominantly
pragmatic kind, and marked with attitudinal tone” (Munby, 1978: 42);

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5. The Language Skills Selector: identifies “the specific language skills that are
required to realize the events or activities that have been identified in the CNP”
(Munby, 1978: 40);
6. The Linguistic Encoder: considers “the dimension of contextual appropriacy”
(Munby, 1978: 49), one the encoding stage has been reached
7. The Communicative Competence Specification: indicates the target
communicative competence of the participant and is the translated profile of needs.

Among the above mentioned elements of Munby‟s model, the Communication

Needs Processor (CNP) was broadly used and referred to by researchers which
constitutes the basis of Munby‟s approach to needs analysis. It establishes the profile
of needs through the processing of eight parameters, it presents a detailed description
of particular communication needs (Munby, 1978), they are:

• Purposive domain: this category establishes the type of ESP, and then the purpose

which the target language will be used for at the end of the course.

• Setting: the physical setting specifying the spatial and temporal aspects of the

situation where English will be used, and the psychological setting specifying the
different environment in which English will be used.

• Interaction: identifies the learner‟s interlocutors and predicts relationship between

them.

• Instrumentality: specifies the medium, i.e., whether the language to be used is

written, spoken, or both; mode, i.e., whether the language to be used is in the form of
monologue, dialogue or any other; and channel of communication, i.e., whether it is
face to face, radio, or any other.
• Dialect: dialects learners will have to understand or produce in terms of their spatial,
temporal, or social aspect.

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• Communicative event: states what the participants will have to do productively or

receptively.
• Communicative key: the manner in which the participants will have to do the
activities comprising an event, e.g. politely or impolitely.
• Target level: level of linguistic proficiency at the end of the ESP course which might
be different for different skills.

The Munbian model of the target situation Analysis inspired many researchers
which consists of a list of questions the analyst should find answers to. These
questions are presented in the below table as follows:
TARGET SITUATION ANALYSIS

Why is the language needed?

- for study;
- for work;
- for training;
- for a combination of these;
- for some other purpose, e.g. status, examination, promotion.
How will the language be used?
- medium: speaking, writing, reading etc.;
- channel: e.g. telephone, face to face;
- types of text or discourse: e.g. academic texts, lectures, informal conversations,
technical manuals, catalogues.
What will the content areas be?
- subjects: e.g. medicine, biology, architecture, shipping, commerce, engineering;
- level: e.g. technician, craftsman, postgraduate, secondary school.
Who will the learner use the language with?
- native speakers or non-native;
- level of knowledge of receiver: e.g. expert, layman, student;

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- relationship: e.g. colleague, teacher, customer, superior, subordinate.

Where will the language be used?
- physical setting: e.g. office, lecture theatre, hotel, workshop, library;
- human context: e.g. alone, meetings, demonstrations, on telephone;
- linguistic context: e.g. in own country, abroad.
When will the language be used?
- concurrently with the ESP course or subsequently;
- frequently, seldom, in small amounts, in large chunks

Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) explained that the Munby‟s model doesn‟t
show how to prioritize the above mentioned questions; Whereas West (1994) stressed
its complexity and being inflexible and time-consuming. He also added that it is
learner centered but the model collects data about the learner rather than from the
learner, in addition to the fact that it failed to provide a procedure for converting the
learner profile into a language syllabus.

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) agree that it is too time consuming to write a
target profile for each student based on Munby‟s model; moreover, it does not take
into account of the learning needs nor it makes a distinction between necessities,
wants, and lacks.

Present Situation Analysis (PSA)

Present situation analysis is considered as the starting point to be defined
through PSA. Robinson (1991) and Jordan (1997) explain that the present situation
analysis attempts to identify what the learners are like at the beginning of the language

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course. Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) clarify the PSA importance by showing the
strengths and weaknesses in language, skills and learning experiences.
Richterich and Chancerel (1980) are the first who suggested the term PSA
(Present Situation Analysis); Jordan (1997) argues that the PSA can be carried out by
means of placement tests. In this approach the sources of information are the students
themselves, the teaching establishment, and the user-institution, e.g. place of work.

Within the field of needs analysis we cannot rely on one approach only, as
shown earlier that each approach has shortcomings. Considering TSA only or PSA
won‟t be a reliable indicator. Therefore, other approaches to needs analysis have been
suggested like Pedagogic Needs Analysis.

Pedagogic Needs Analysis

This term was introduced by West (1998), He clarifies that the suggested term
“pedagogic needs analysis” completes the deficiencies of target needs analysis by
collecting data about the learner and the learning environment. The pedagogic needs
analysis includes: - deficiency analysis, - strategy analysis or learning needs analysis,
and - means analysis. These are explained below:

Deficiency Analysis
The lacks which were introduces by Hutchinson and Waters (1987) can be
associated with Deficiency analysis. Jordan (1997) shows that deficiency analysis is
the road to cover from point A (present situation) to point B (target situation), it can
form the basis of the language syllabus because it should provide data about both the
gap between present and target extra linguistic knowledge, mastery of general English,
language skills, and learning strategies

Strategy Analysis or Learning Needs Analysis

This approach to needs analysis deals with the strategies that learners employ in
order to learn a language. West (1998) shows that in the Strategy Analysis or Learning

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Needs Analysis the focus is on how the learners wish to learn rather than what they
need to learn, this fact is relatively new since none of the aforementioned approaches
take that into account. All the above-mentioned approaches to needs analysis, TSA,
PSA, and to some extent deficiency analysis, have not been concerned with the
learners‟ views of learning.

This claim is supported later by Hutchinson and Waters (1987), who adopted a
learning-centered approach in which learners‟ learning needs play a vital role, it
suggests what the learner needs to do in order to learn (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987).
Hutchinson and Waters‟ (1987) suggest a framework for analyzing learning needs
which consists of several questions, each divided into more detailed questions as
follow:

1. Why are the learners taking the course?

• Compulsory or optional;
• apparent need or not;
• Are status, money, promotion involved?
• What do learners think they will achieve?
• What is their attitude towards the ESP course? Do they want to
improve their English or do they resent the time they have to spend
on it?
2. How do the learners learn?
• What is their learning background?
• What is their concept of teaching and learning?
• What methodology will appeal to them?
• What sort of techniques bore/alienate them?
3. What sources are available?
• number and professional competence of teachers;
• attitude of teachers to ESP;
• teachers' knowledge of and attitude to subject content;

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• materials;
• aids;
• opportunities for out-of-class activities.
4. Who are the learners?
• age/sex/nationality;
• What do they know already about English?
• What subject knowledge do they have?
• What are their interests?
• What is their socio-cultural background?
• What teaching styles are they used to?
•What is their attitude to English or to the cultures of the English speaking world?

This approach to needs analysis as suggested by Allwright (1982) quoted in West

(1994) gives us a clear idea about the learners‟ conception of learning.

Means Analysis
Means analysis deals with logistics and pedagogy; the aspects that were forgotten
by Munby‟s model (West, 1998). Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) clarify that means
analysis provides us with “information about the environment in which the course will
be run” (1998: 125).

The main concern of means analysis as explained by Dudley-Evans and St. John
(1998) is cultural environment in which the course will be imposed; they believe that
what works well in one situation may not work in another. Jordan (1997) agrees with
this claim and says means analysis should provide us with a tool for designing an
environmentally sensitive course. In the same context Swales (1989, quoted in West,
1994) explains that if we want the course to be successful, curriculum specialists
should consider five factors which relate to the learning environment. These
considerations are:

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• classroom culture
• EAP staff
• pilot target situation analysis
• status of service operations
• study of change agents

Register, Discourse, and Genre Analysis

Register analysis
Register analysis or as Swales (1988) also called it “lexicostatistics” and
Robinson (1991) named it “frequency analysis” is considered among the earliest
studies carried out in this area focused on vocabulary and grammar (the elements of
sentence). This stage took place mainly in the 1960s and early 1970s and was
associated with the work of Peter Strevens, Jack Ewer, and John Swales. The main
motive behind register analysis was the pedagogic one of making the ESP course more
relevant to learners‟ needs (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987). Register analysis, also
focused on the grammar and “structural and nonstructural” vocabulary (Ewer and
Latorre, 1967: 223, quoted in West, 1998). The assumption behind register analysis
was that, while the grammar of scientific and technical writing does not differ from
that of general English, certain grammatical and lexical forms are used much more
frequently (Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998).

Register analysis received many critics for being restricted in the analysis to the
word and sentence level (West, 1998), Robinson (1991) considers it as being only
descriptive and not explanatory, in addition to the lack of authenticity as Dudley-
Evans and St. John (1998) showed.

Discourse Analysis
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) explain that in this approach the attention shifted
from word and sentence level to the level above the sentence to find out how sentences
were combined into discourse. West (1998) clarifies that the reaction against register

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analysis in the early 1970s concentrated on the communicative values of discourse

rather than the lexical and grammatical properties of register, this approach tended to
concentrate on how sentences are used in the performance of acts of communication
and to generate materials based on functions.

Discourse analysis was not without critics, according to West (1998) it provided
partial treatment and offering limited guidance on how functions and
sentences/utterances fit together to form a text. Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998)
claims that there is also the danger that the findings of discourse analysis, which are
concerned with texts and how they work as pieces of discourse, fail to take sufficient
account of the academic or business context in which communication takes place.

Genre Analysis
Genre was first introduced by Swales (1981, quoted in Robinson, 1991), he
considers genre as: "a more or less standardized communicative event with a goal or
set of goals mutually understood by the participants in that event and occurring within
a functional rather than a personal or social setting" (Swales, 1981: 10-11, quoted in
Robinson, 1991). Bhatia (undated) recognizes „genre analysis‟ as the study of
linguistic behavior in institutionalized academic or professional setting, Bhatia
distinguishes four, though systematically related, areas of competence that an ESP
learner needs to develop so as to get over his/her lack of confidence in dealing with
specialist discourse. These four areas are:

1. Knowledge of the Code which is the pre-requisite for developing communicative

expertise in specialist or even everyday discourse.
2. Acquisition of Genre Knowledge which is the familiarity with and awareness of
appropriate rhetorical procedures and conventions typically associated with the
specialist discourse community.
3. Sensitivity to Cognitive Structures, that is, since certain lexical items have
specialist meanings in specific professional genres, a number of syntactic forms may

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also carry genre specific restricted values in addition to their general meanings
codified in grammar books. Thus, it is imperative that the specialist learner become
aware of restricted aspects of linguistic code in addition to the general competence he
or she requires in the language.
4. Exploitation of Generic Knowledge, that is, it is only after learners have
developed some acquaintance or, better yet, expertise at levels discussed above, that
they can confidently interpret, use or even take liberties with specialist discourse.

Conducting a needs analysis process in ESP is very important in meeting the

learners‟ specific needs. It provides the researchers and course designers with the
needed and exact information required in designing any syllabus, therefore make the
ESP training successful through satisfying the learners‟ needs that is the ultimate goal
of any ESP course. Yet we cannot select one only to be applied in the learning process
but they are complementary and that each of them provides a piece to complete the
jigsaw of needs analysis.

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Lesson 06

Objective of the lesson :

By the end of this lesson students will be familiarized with the different types of syllabi (e.g., task-
based, skills-based, content-based).Understand how to align syllabus design with the outcomes of
needs analysis. Show the importance of Syllabus design in meeting the specific goals of ESP
learners and selecting, adapting, and sequencing materials accordingly.
Time allocated the lesson: 01h30

Syllabus Design:

Difference Between Curriculum and Syllabus:

It would be appropriate to clarify the difference between the terms “curriculum

and syllabus” before dealing with ESP course design, since many people get confused
when dealing with them. There are many definitions of the terms “curriculum” and
“syllabus” in literature. In fact, the Curriculum is considered as being a wider term as
compared with syllabus. Curriculum covers all the activities and the arrangement made
by institution throughout the academic year to facilitate the learners and the
instructors, whereas syllabus is limited to a particular subject to a particular class. The
view points about the difference existing between the two terms varied in literature.

Allen (1984, in Nunan 1988: 6) defines curriculum as “a very general concept

which involves consideration of the whole complex of philosophical, social and
administrative factors which contribute to the planning of an educational program”.
Graves (1996) represents the „curriculum‟ as a broad statement of the philosophy,
purposes, design, and implementation of the entire language teaching program.

In the same line of thought Dubin and Olshtain (1991: 34-35) explain that “a
curriculum contains a broad description of general goals by indicating an overall
educational cultural philosophy which applies across subjects together with a
theoretical orientation to language and language learning with respect to the subject

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matter at hand”. However, James Popham and Baker (1970: 48) note that curriculum is
all planned learning outcomes for which the school is responsible. Curriculum refers to
the desired consequences of instruction.

In the other hand, the syllabus according to Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 80) is
a document which says what will (or at least what should) be learnt. For Robinson
(1991: 34) the syllabus is “a plan of work and is thus essentially for the teacher, as a
guideline and context of class content”.

According to Basturkmen (2006:21) syllabuses can be „synthetic‟ in which the

“language is segmented into discrete linguistic items for presentation one at a time”.
Or it may be „analytic‟ wherein “language is presented whole chunks at a time without
linguistic control”.

Syllabuses according to Long and Crookes (1993) are classified into two
main categories: synthetic or analytic, the following figure shows that clearly:

Syllabi
Synthetic Analytic
(Product Oriented Syllabus) (Process-Oriented Syllabuses)
- Structural - Task-Based
- Functional-Notional - Procedural
- Lexical - Process
- Relational - Content-Based
- Skill-based - Learner centered
- Situational - Natural approach
- Topical
Figure (06): Classification of Syllabi (Long & Crookes, 1993)

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In differentiating the “curriculum” from “syllabus”, Richards (2001: 2) shows

that difference between the curriculum and the syllabus in terms of scope, he considers
the curriculum as the bigger picture which can incorporate three steps: (1) course
planning, (2) materials/methods, and (3) course evaluation; he presents the syllabus as
“a specification of the content of a course instruction (which) lists what will be taught
and tested” (Richards, 2001: 2) .

Richards & Rodgers (1986, cited in Davies, 2007: 89) show that the Curriculum
may encompass syllabus. Johnson (1989: 33) considers the curriculum all the relevant
decision-making processes of all the participants, whereas the syllabus is its results.

The difference existing between the terms “syllabus and curriculum” is shown
by Robertson, quoted by Yalden (1983: 18):

“… the curriculum includes the goals, objectives, content, processes, and means
of evaluation of all the learning experiences planned for pupils both in and of the
school and community through classroom instruction and related program … the
syllabus should be viewed in the context of an ongoing curriculum development
process”

Dubin and Olshtain (1991: 35) showed the difference the two concepts by
saying that “a single curriculum can be the basis for developing a variety of specific
syllabuses which are concerned with locally defined audiences, particular needs, and
intermediate objectives”.

Nunan (1988: 8) clarified that “curriculum is concerned with the planning,

implementation, evaluation, management and administration of education programs,
whereas syllabus focuses more narrowly on the selection and grading of content.”

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To conclude we can say as Graves (1996: 3) mentioned that syllabus design is

part of course development and a course is part of a curriculum. The following table
clarifies the difference existing between the two terms:
Table (01): The Difference Between Curriculum and Syllabus
Curriculum Syllabus
Curriculum is a complete teaching Syllabus is a part of curriculum, acts as a
process. guide for teachers and learners by
providing goals to be attained.

Curriculum is a wider aspect Syllabus is a theoretical aspect.

Educationists prepare curriculum Teachers prepare syllabus.

Curriculum is related to balances and Syllabus is related to cognitive aspect.

harmonious development of the child.

Curriculum is related to cognitive, Syllabus is related to content.

conative and affective level.

1.3. 2. ESP Syllabus Design:

Robinson (1991) says that syllabus design refers to the process of planning and
structuring a course to achieve the desired goals. According to her there are a number
of elements involved in creating a course: the results of the needs analysis, the course
designer‟s approach to syllabuses and methodologies and existing materials.

For Hutchinson and Water (1987: 65) it is considered as “an integrated series of
teaching-learning experiences, whose ultimate aim is to lead the learners to a particular
state of knowledge”.
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Richards (2001) regards syllabus design as a systematic data collection process

in which tasks and activities are developed, and data is collected to prepare effective
tasks and activities and to create the best possible setting for ESP learners to meet their
goals.
Munby (1978: 2) argues that ESP courses are: those where the syllabus and the
materials are determined by the prior analysis of the communication needs of the
learner. This suggests that the basis of the syllabus design is needs analysis which was
dealt with in the previous section.

Therefore, needs analysis is the step that precedes the course development,
which is followed by:
- Syllabus design
- Materials choice
- Methodology
- Assessment and evaluation

As already explained in the previous section about needs analysis, Dudley-Evans and
St John (1998) assume that these aspects do not work in a linear direction but they are
interrelated.

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Lesson 07

Objectives of the lesson:

By the end of the lesson , students will learn how to evaluate the effectiveness of an ESP course
in achieving its objectives. They will explore tools for formative and summative assessment
tailored to ESP [Link] will understand how to gather and use feedback from students,
teachers, and stakeholders to improve course quality as well.
Time allocated: 01h30

1. Evaluation and ESP Program Evaluation:

Before discussing Program Evaluation it is worth to speak about Evaluation first

to make distinction between the two concepts since behind every successful ESP
Program is evaluation; Evaluation is a whole process which begins with determining
what information to gather and ends with bringing about change in current activities or
influencing future ones.

1.1 Evaluation:

Evaluation as defined in Longman, Dictionary of Language Teaching and

Applied Linguistics is: „a systematic gathering of information for purposes of decision
making. Evaluation may use quantitative methods (tests), qualitative methods
(observation, rating) and value judgment‟ (Longman, Dictionary: 188). However, the
definitions about evaluation varied in literature, Kirkpatrick (1996) defined evaluation
as a determination of the effectiveness of a training program; gathering information
about it, and to assess the value of the training in the light of that information.

Williams (1976) identifies evaluation as the assessment of value or worth;

whereas Harper and Bell (1982) refer evaluation to the planned collection and analysis
of information to enable judgments about value and worth. According to Van Dyk et
al. (1997), the definition of Evaluation implies different aspects:

- Evaluation is an ongoing process. It is not done at the end of course only.

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- The evaluation process is directed towards a specific goal and objectives.

- Evaluation requires the use of accurate and appropriate measuring
instruments to collect information for decision making.
- Evaluation is a form of quality control.
- Evaluation is not only concerned with the evaluation of students but with the
wider training system as a whole.
For Beretta (1992: 276) evaluation has different goals, they are as follows:

- To decide whether a program has had the intended effect,

- To identify what effect a program has had,
- To justify future courses of action,
- To identify areas for improvement in an ongoing program

In the same perspective, Bramley and Newby (1984) identify five main purposes of
evaluation:

- feedback (linking learning outcomes to objectives, and providing a form of

quality control),
- control (using evaluation to make links from Training to organizational
activities, and to consider cost effectiveness),
- research (determining relationships between learning, training, transfer to the
job),
- intervention (in which the results of the evaluation influence the context in
which it is occurring),
- and power games (manipulating evaluative data for organizational politics).

1.4.2 ESP Program Evaluation:

Program Evaluation is defined as an evaluation related to decisions about the

quality of the program itself and decisions about individuals in the programs. The
evaluation of programs may involve the study of curriculum, objectives, materials and

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tests or grading systems. (Longman, Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied

Linguistics: 188).

Another definition suggested by Robinson (2003), through which she defines

program evaluation as forming judgment about the value of a particular program
through the collection, analyses, and interpretation of information. According to her
the purpose of such evaluation is to provide information on „perceptions of a
program‟s value‟, examining the extent of the objectives met, and giving suggestions
to the people concerned about necessary changes for improving the program
(Robinson, 2003: 199).

The researchers‟ views about program evaluation varied in literature, for

instance Marsden (1991) sees that there are some rationales for evaluating programs
e.g.: to validate needs assessment and methods, to revise solution options, to revise
training strategies, establishing trainee-trainer reaction, assessing trainees' knowledge
acquisition as well as trainers', and deciding whether or not the goals of the program
have been achieved. Another view is presented by Bartolome (1994), who suggested
that training programs should be evaluated in terms of EFL teachers' performance and
how well these programs can prepare teachers to perform in the socio-cultural context.
Rea-Dickins and Germaine (1998) emphasized systematic evaluation that should be at
the heart of any program. As for Brown (1995), he points out that the purpose of
program evaluation is to determine whether the objectives have been achieved and
whether the goals have been meet.

According to Alderson (1992), there is no agreement about the best way to

conduct an evaluation; this claim is supported by Turner (1999) who argues that there
are some aspects that determine program evaluation such as the purpose of evaluation,
the nature of the program, time frame and resources available for the target program.

Some researchers highlight that program evaluation has received less attention
like Hutchinson and Waters (1987) and Mc Ginley (1984). Swan (1986) mentioned
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that the reasons behind that are due to the short duration of ESP course and difficulties
in implementing the time consuming program evaluation processes.

From the literature reviewed and despite the importance of program evaluation
which is considered as an audit phase to examine the success and the failure of the
program, it also measures whether the goals of an ESP program have been met and
ensures the program‟s continuous improvement; we have noticed that a great
importance is directed towards needs analysis;. In the next section we‟ll examine
different frameworks of some scholars of ESP.

1.4.3 ESP Program Evaluation Framework:

a) Hutchinson & Water’s (1987) Framework

Among the works that contributed in establishing a framework of an ESP

program evaluation are Hutchinson and Waters (1987). They introduced two levels of
evaluation 1- course evaluation and 2- learner assessment (1987: 144).

Course evaluation highlights the data collected in order to understand how the
learning need is addressed and served. According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987)
evaluation is classified into four aspects as follow:

1. What should be evaluated?

2. How can ESP courses be evaluated?
3. Who should be involved in the evaluation?
4. When (and how often) should evaluation take place?
The table bellow provides more explanation

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Table (02): Framework of ESP Evaluation by Hutchinson and Waters

Aspects of Evaluation Explanation/ questions

1. What should be evaluated? The overall aim of the ESP course in meeting
two main
needs of learners:
a) Their needs as language learners
b) Their needs as language users

2. How can ESP courses be evaluated? Evaluation can be done in some ways such as:
a) Test results
b) Questionnaires
c) Discussion
d) Interviews
e) Informal means (unsolicited comments, casual
chats etc.)
3. Who should be involved in the evaluation? ESP teaching institution
ESP teachers
Learners
sponsors

4. When (and how often) should evaluation In the first week of the course
take place? At regular intervals throughout the course, for
example
every half term.
At the end of the course.
After the course.

Concerning learner assessment, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) suggested that

basic test types conducted for the learner, such as placement tests, achievement tests,
and proficiency tests.

a. Placement tests. Determine whether learners need the course and, if so, what
the learning needs are, placement tests can ensure that instructors do not have to teach
classes of mixed abilities and that students learn with those of similar proficiency
levels.

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b. Proficiency tests. Hutchinson & Waters (1987) argue that proficiency tests due
to their standardized nature; they are often used by program sponsors as an
independent measure to gauge students‟ progress and to measure the effectiveness of
program implementation.

c. Achievement (authentic) assessment. Hutchinson & Waters‟ (1987) identify

achievement tests as an important assessment tool, the proficiency tests evaluate
students‟ current capability, however, the achievement tests measure whether students
have learned the skills to meet a given standard.

b) Kawpet (2008) Framework:

This framework for ESP program evaluation uses six criteria to analyze learner needs:

1) giving priority to communication needs,

2) giving equal importance to learning needs,
3) taking „context‟ into account,
4) inviting multiple perspectives,
5) employing multiple data collection methods,
6) treating need analysis as ongoing activity.

The following figure explains how Kawpet‟s framework works:

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Figure (07): Framework of ESP Program Evaluation (Kawpet, 2009:216)

This framework considers the different parties involved in the ESP context
(stakeholders). These stakeholders are asked to express their needs through individual
interviews; those needs are collected from employers, lecturers, former students,
researcher and the current students and then are formulated into the curriculum
(syllabus and materials).

The next step in this framework and after the implementation of the formulated
curriculum is the observation of the process of teaching and learning which is done
periodically. The last stage will be the reevaluation of the needs already assessed in the
initial stage. Different tools of evaluation are used such as observation, collection of
students‟ work samples, focus group interviews, evaluation of instructional materials.

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c) Other Frameworks for ESP program evaluation

Watanabe, Norris, and Gonzales-Lloret‟s (2009) applied participatory model,
professional accountability, and teacher empowerment. In their framework they
involve stakeholders‟ need analysis such as: policy makers, program designers,
community members (the public and the parents), sponsors, instructors, and students.
Another framework is introduced by Tsou and Chen (2014) in the field of ESP
program evaluation, which aimed at completing the missing aspects about the previous
frameworks like: authenticity, learner autonomy, and learning transfer. In fact this
framework takes into account the course evaluation and the learners‟ assessment as
mentioned in Hutchinson and Water‟s (1987) in addition to teacher participation and
empowerment which was introduced by Watanabe, Norris & Gonzalez-Lloret (2009)‟s
framework. The following figure illustrates this new framework:

Figure (08): The Updated Framework for ESP Program Evaluation by Tsou and Chen
(2014)

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From the scheme we can understand the following:

a. Stakeholder analysis in this stage we analyze the stakeholders‟ needs, which could
be students, the English teachers, curriculum developers, senior management of the
faculties or sponsors. The collection of the data is done through the questionnaire and
interview. This evaluation is to decide the value and effectiveness of the program and
to locate any changes that can be done in curriculum design.

b. Course evaluation attempts to answer three questions: 1) have the learners‟ needs
are fulfilled?, 2) are the materials authentic?, 3) has the course fostered the learners‟
autonomy. This is conducted by perception survey and achievement survey (for
students), and the teacher questionnaire.

c. Learner assessment covers similar aspects as Hutchinson and Water (1987)

propose, namely: placement test, proficiency test, achievement test, and learning
transfer. The achievement assessment is evaluated its authenticity in a way that
authentic materials and actual target situations of tasks are met. Authentic tasks, such
as giving business presentation or making a short news video are some of examples of
authentic assessment. Meanwhile, learning transfer deals with the application of
knowledge in the specific context (such as in classroom context during the learning)
and a wider context (at the workplace). To meet these criteria, achievement survey,
standardized test (such as: TOEFL or TOEIC), and teacher questionnaire are used.

d. Teacher participations can be conducted in three perspectives: perceived

organizational support, decision making, and job satisfaction (Scherie, 2002). In this
criterion, teachers are asked their awareness of the organizational aims, organizational
support, and organizational decision/ rules regarding their aims. These criteria can be
evaluated through teacher surveys and interviews.

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Lesson 08

Objectives of the lesson

 Compare the roles and responsibilities of EFL teachers and ESP practitioners.
 Emphasize the specialized knowledge an ESP practitioner requires, such as familiarity
with the learners' professional or academic fields.
 Highlight the importance of collaboration with subject matter experts in ESP contexts.
 Discuss the ESP practitioner's need for flexibility, adaptability, and often more
personalized teaching approaches compared to general EFL contexts.
Time allocated: 01h30

EFL Teachers Vs ESP Practitioners:

The role of teachers in education is undisputable; their performance in the

classroom plays a key role in improving the quality of education of any nation, their
impact lasts for generations. Aggarwal (as cited in Afolabi et al., 2008) said that "the
destiny of a nation is shaped in its classroom and it is the teacher who is very
important in molding that destiny." (p. 99). The research in the field of education
stresses the role of the teacher for being very crucial for the acquisition; Shulman,
(1987) considers the role of the teacher as the most significant factor in the
achievement of the desired outcomes, whereas McGetrrick (1997) shows the essential
role of teachers in education by attributing the quality of education to the quality of
teachers in the schools.

However, the role of the ESP teacher differs from that of the General English
teacher. Swales (1985) selected the term ESP practitioners instead of ESP teachers to
reflect this specific scope. Several researchers regard ESP teaching as extremely
varied, and for this reason they use the term practitioners rather than teachers (as used
in general English teaching). Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) also used the term
practitioner to emphasize that the role of the ESP teacher involves much more than
teaching, in an ESP context the teacher plays several roles. In this section we will try
to contrast the EFL teacher to the of ESP practitioner to show the difference between
them.
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The EFL Teachers:

The qualities of the EFL teachers have a direct impact on the learners‟
acquisition; their abilities and experiences can make changes in the classroom and
consequently improve the educational environment. These abilities can be seen from
different perspectives; Strong et al (2004) explain that teachers are expected to acquire
high qualities as professionals as well as human beings due to the roles and
responsibilities which are associated with teaching. Rajput (2000) illustrates by the
fact that teachers must acquire knowledge of curriculum, the learners‟ characteristics,
learning resources, and at the same time they must be good communicators in the
subject area as well as of all the changes around.

A good selection of competent teachers can improve the teaching practices

through identifying specific qualities and features of the effective teachers (Adval as
cited in Panda and Mohanty, 2003). These qualities and skills can be demonstrated by
the effective teachers themselves (Levine, 1971; Prodromou, 1991). Enthusiasm for
the subject matter, good organization, effective communication, positive attitudes
toward students, fairness in evaluation and grading and flexibility in approaches to
teaching are some characteristics proposed by Wotruba and Wright (1975). While
Rosenshine and Furst (1971) introduced a range of qualities of effective teaching like:

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clarity, variability, enthusiasm, task-oriented and businesslike behavior , opportunity

to learn criterion material, use of learner ideas and general in directedness, criticism,
use of structuring comments, types of questions, probing, and level of difficulty of
instruction. The National Commission on Teaching and America‟s Future (NCTAF)
(2003) in emphasized the need for a high quality teacher in every classroom. It
identified list of characteristics of highly qualified teachers based on research studies.
This list includes:

• deep knowledge of the subjects they teach;

• evidence of a sound understanding of how students learn;

• application of teaching skills necessary to help all students achieve high standards;

• ability to create a positive learning environment;

• use of a variety of assessment strategies to diagnose and respond to individual
learning needs;
• demonstration and integration of modern technology into the school curriculum to
support student learning;

• collaboration with colleagues, parents and community members, and other educators
to improve student learning;

• reflection on practice to improve teaching and student achievement;

• pursuit of professional growth in content and pedagogy; and

• instilling in students a passion for learning. (p. 5)

The view point of learners can reveal a lot about the qualities of teachers.
Prodromou (1991) presented two long lists of the qualities of both the good and bad
language teacher after a study conducted to know how learners see their teachers:

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The good language teacher:

• Friendly
• Explained things
• Gave good notes
• Knew how to treat someone who sets at the desk for six hours
• Let the students do it by themselves
• Group work
• We did the lesson together
• Took out (elicited) things we know
• Talked about life
• Talked about problems of the school
• Talked about other subjects
• Played games
• Told jokes
• She was one of us
• Didn‟t push weak learners
• Asked students‟ opinions, there was a dialogue
• She was like an actress, pretended a lot
• She was forceful but not strict
• She was educated
• She knew psychology
• Used movements to make meaning clear
• She made sure everyone understood
• She was funny
• Read in tone that made meaning clear
• She got close to students
• She believed in me, made me believe in myself
• I wanted him to be proud of me
• He had a personality of his own
• Was very experienced

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• She made grammar clear

• They tried to communicate
• She gave advice
• He talked about personal problems
• She gave me a lot of books to read
• She used questions a lot
• She asked all students questions
• Social work – it was their job
• We cut up animals (=did experiments, practical work)
• Talked about the lesson
• She knew mathematics (i.e. subject matter)
• She was more like a comedian

The bad language teacher:

• Very strict

• Did not let us speak

• Gave us a text to learn and checked it

• Gave marks all the time

• She was fixed in a chair

• Always above our heads (dominates)

• Shouted (for no reason)

• Gave a lot of tests

• Forced us to do things

• Didn‟t discuss other problems

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• Started the lesson immediately

• Didn‟t smile
• She stared at you and you couldn‟t say a word
• His tests were too difficult
• We were not prepared for the test
• He just showed us a grammar rule and we forgot it
• Shouted when we made mistakes
• Very nervous (=bad tempered)
• Talked and talked
• She spoke flat
• She just said the lesson and nothing else
• There was a distance from us
• We didn‟t do experiments
• Believed students all knew the same things
• Like a machine
• Not prepared
• Treated kids like objects
• She was rigid
• Sarcastic and ironic
• Only lessons- didn‟t discuss anything else
• Avoided answering question
• You couldn‟t laugh, you couldn‟t speak

• He was the teacher, I was the student

• He had blacklist and said 'you, you, you'

• She had a little book with the marks in

• No communication, nothing

• She made me feel anxious

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• She said we weren‟t well prepared. (pp: 19-21)

After demonstrating the qualities of EFL teacher, we can say that the
characteristics and qualities of the EFL teachers affect to a great extent the efficiency
of language learning and teaching. Accordingly Qin (2006) suggested a number of
procedures which he considers pressing for teachers to acquire the basic components
of the quality of EFL teachers. These procedures are:

• tutorial explanations, reading or attending lectures related to EFL teaching;

• the observation of specially-devised demonstrations, both of specific techniques and

of complete lessons;

• the observation of actual classes;

• practice in the preparation of lesson plans;

• micro-teaching: the teaching of specific items or techniques, possibly with the use of
some teaching aids;

• peer -group teaching as a form of practice;

• Teaching real classes under supervision;

• post-class discussion of one‟s teaching;

• long-term attachment to an experienced teacher;

• in-service training courses of various kinds. (pp: 19-21)

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The ESP Practitioners

In the field of ESP teaching, teachers find difficulty to cope with the learners‟ field
of study. They have been trained as general English teachers but they find themselves in
a situation where they need to use special English that they are unfamiliar with; this
represents a very uncomfortable state. Strevens (1988) and Ellis & Johnson (1994)
explain that ESP teachers are primarily the teachers of General English and when
transferring from General English to ESP teaching, they might have encountered several
difficulties. One of these difficulties according to Strevens (1988) and Robinson (1991)
is a difference of attitude difficulty, between literature and science in particular. It is
recognized that English teachers are arts or humanities trained and they usually
psychologically reject science.

Strevens (1988) mentioned that another difficulty lies in the gap between the
learners‟ knowledge of the special subject and the teachers‟ unfamiliarity with it.
Robinson (1991) clarifies that there are two situations; when the English teachers is a
native speakers, in this case his/her training is more likely to be in literature than in
language. But when the English teachers are non-native speaking teachers of English,
they may not have confidence in their language competence. In addition, language
teachers fear that they may not be able to cope with students‟ area of specialism.

Another view about the ESP teachers is presented by Hutchinson & Waters
(1987), they show the difference between the ESP teacher and the General English
teacher in relation to their roles. They explain that ESP teachers have to manage the
needs analysis, syllabus design, materials writing, adaptation and evaluation, in addition
to the normal jobs of a classroom teacher. They add that even if most ESP teachers
originate from General English teaching and lack of training for a “specific/special
purpose”. Yet, they do not need to learn specialist subject knowledge, but rather be
interested in the subject matter. This claim is supported by Ellis & Johnson (1994) who
explain that the students are pre-experienced in their field; it is not the language
teachers‟ responsibility to teach subject matter.

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To remedy to this situation to becoming familiar with subject matter, Strevens (1988)
suggested three techniques for ESP teachers.

 Become familiar with ESP course materials.

 Become familiar with the language of the subject.
 Allow students to put you right.
Robinson (1991) also recommended the possible solutions such as:

 Developing professional competence, which involves specialising in a particular

discipline, or undergoing further training.
 Carrying out “action research” in the classrooms, which can give the teacher a
certain degree of control over his/her professional life.
 Research leading to publication.

The shift from being a general English teacher to an ESP teacher is considered
relatively hard for teacher but Robinson (1991) proposed that teachers should be
flexible to change to cope with different groups and different language levels of
students. Strevens (1988) stresses that compared with a General English teacher; an
effective ESP teacher requires more experience, extra training and effort.

Teaching ESP requires a variety of qualities that an ESP teacher should acquire.
As explained earlier the role of an ESP teacher differs from that of the general English
teacher. First, the term “teacher” is replaced by another; Swales (1985) and Dudley-
Evans and St John (1998) prefer to use the term “ESP practitioner” instead of ESP
teachers. This suggests that the work and role of an ESP teacher involve much more
than teaching. According to Dudley-Evans and St John (1998), the ESP practitioner
has several roles to play in an ESP context, they introduced five key roles:

1. The ESP practitioner as a teacher

ESP practitioner plays a normal role of a teacher of helping students to learn.

However, the teacher is not the primary knower of the carrier content of the material.

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The students may know more about the content than the teacher. Therefore, the ESP
practitioner should adopt appropriate opportunities for learning and teaching processes
as generating communication in the classroom. Moreover, the ESP practitioner should
choose the appropriate teaching methods that suits learners‟ needs; another important
aspect in relation to the role of the ESP practitioner as a teacher is the use of of
authentic materials to increase learners‟ motivation as well as to apply proper teaching
methodology. Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) suggest that the relationship that
needs to be established between the learners and ESP teacher should be based on
partnership. ESP teachers need to have considerable flexibility, and take some risks in
their teaching like take interest in the disciplines or professional activities the students
are involved in.

2 The ESP practitioner as course designer and material provider

The needs of the ESP learners differ from one field to another, as noticed in the
ESP context, it is rarely possible to use a particular textbook without the need for
supplementary material. The ESP practitioner should design his/her own syllabus,
which suits the learners‟ needs as well as organize the teaching materials.

3 The ESP practitioner as researcher

The ESP teachers should be clear about their goals related to the students‟
needs; accordingly they can collect the necessary knowledge for that and incorporate
the findings of the research, this allows them to follow the latest researches on the
subject matter and prepare the target materials which should cater the learners‟ target
situation.

4 The ESP practitioner as collaborator

To in-depth his/her knowledge and cope with the learners‟ field of specialism,
the ESP practitioner should collaborate with other counterparts in different locations.
This may involve cooperation with:

- The learners themselves since they know more than the ESP teacher in their
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field.
- Other ESP teachers who have larger experience than him/her.
- Another possible collaboration may involve researchers in the field to provide
him/her with latest results and knowledge related to the subject.
- The specialists are considered the primary provider of knowledge even if they
lack competency about English language but this can bridged through the ESP
teacher.
- Collaboration with the material designers can also be possible to meet the
students‟ needs.
- The fullest collaboration is where a subject expert and a language teacher team-
teach classes.
Other ways of collaboration at a higher level may be established such as the
authorities or the decision makers to decide about the perspective of the ESP teaching.

5 The ESP practitioner as evaluator

Evaluation is considered as necessary in English language teaching. In ESP we

can distinguish between course evaluation and teaching materials in addition to
learners‟ assessment. Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) mentioned that evaluation
should be an on-going process conducted throughout the teaching process; it is
conducted during the course; at the end of the course, and after the finishing of the
course. Therefore the ESP practitioner should manage well the process evaluation and
the learners‟ assessment.

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Lesson 09

Objectives of the lesson :

By the end of this lesson, students will know the importance of teacher training in improving the
performance of the ESP practitioner, and discover the different types of training in the field.

Time devoted: 1h30

The Training of ESP Teachers:

Teachers pay a crucial role in improving the quality of education and shaping
the mind of future generations; this role should be emphasized through the selection of
good teachers and the adoption of a good training to make them efficient in their work
and help them develop their skills and increase their effectiveness. The necessity for a
specialized training is becoming even more required with the massive changes in
communication and new technologies.

Teacher training is a process to help teachers improve their skills in teaching;

Furlong and Maynard (1995) define teacher training by the fact that it provides
teachers with the knowledge and skills of teaching including mastery of their own
subject knowledge and pedagogical knowledge that help them use appropriate
strategies of teaching in the different situations. Burke (1987) considers teacher
training as a continuous process that lasts till the retirement. Anderson (1998) clarifies
that some qualifications, skills and competencies can only be achieved by work
through teaching practice in a school environment.

To help teachers develop their classroom teaching practices and performance

Craft (1996) suggests that this could be achieved through in-service training programs
that respond to the teachers‟ needs, whereas Sapre (2000) asks the teachers to
recognize their roles as professionals and consequently take the responsibilities of their

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professional duties.

The difficulties any teacher meet while doing his job as a teacher become more
important when dealing with the ESP context. With the increasing interest ESP is
gaining, it becomes necessary to give more importance to the training of ESP
practitioners to help them cope with subject of specialism and develop their
professional skills and capacities. ESP teacher training received different attention and
attitude since the emergence of ESP, the viewpoints about its importance, its necessity
and its implication varied through time.

Ewer is considered among the first people who asked for a formal training for
ESP teachers in Chile in the mid 1970‟s, he argues that the training of ESP teachers
will at least reduce the teachers‟ difficulties to manageable in-service proportions and
lead to a substantial improvement in the efficiency of EST courses” (Ewer, 1976).

The training program suggested by Ewer consisted of four areas; they are: 1-
filling in students‟ conceptual vacuum, 2- an introduction to the special language
features of EST, 3- methodology of teaching, and last 4- a brief consideration of how
to organize and administer an EST program.

It should be mentioned that teacher training programs were spreading in a very

slow speed till the publication of Munby‟s “Communicative Syllabus Design‟ (1978);
the impact of Munby‟s work helped to a great extent the developing and the design of
training programs, as a result Teachers were trained and encouraged to design
communicative materials that could make classes interactive. ESP teachers were
trained to become confident with reference to students‟ subject areas; provide practice
in designing and using materials; and training them to use suitable methodology for
ESP and text-based activities. Some researchers like Hutchinson and Waters (1980)
wanted ESP teacher training programs to focus on sensitizing teachers towards the
needs of their students.

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Robinson (1981) questions whether people who designed and administered ESP
teacher training programs were themselves trained in ESP because according to her
view point ESP teacher training programs should aim at changing the attitude of
teachers towards science and some of the other subject specialisms. She affirmed that
it should be obligatory for teachers to be trained in producing “language materials
from a subject specialist text” and understanding “specialist text”.

Swales (1985) supported the development of realistic objectives for shorter in-
service training programs and transfer of necessary professional skills from more
experienced to less experienced practitioners. This claim was supported by Strevens
(1985) who suggested the idea of collaborative-teaching as a part of teacher training
programs, he insisted that General English teachers should seek assistance and get
training from the ones with “necessary experience” and help them bridge “the gap
between the learner‟s knowledge of the specialist subject and the teacher‟s ignorance
of it”.

Master (1997) mentioned that ESP practitioners need content based instruction;
he argues that an ideal ESP training program should include the following:
- General TESOL training History and development of ESP
- Major subdivisions of ESP
- ESP skills (e.g. oral presentation, writing, reading, grammar, etc.)
- ESP materials assessment and development
- ESP curriculum
- ESP assessment and evaluation
- ESP administration
- In-depth focus in at least one area of ESP (e.g. EST, EPP, socio-cultural ESP).
(Master, 1996: 36)

The approach of teacher training presented by Dudley-Evans (1997) was

different; he dealt with some arguments in a form of questions as follow:

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- (1) Does LSP (Language for Specific Purposes) have its own theory? Should
we teach this theory if it exists?
- (2) Has LSP developed its own methodology?
- (3) How important is text analysis (genre and discourse analysis) to LSP
teachers?
- (4) Is knowledge of subject content and disciplinary culture important for the
LSP teacher?
- (5) How important is an awareness of cultural differences to the LSP teacher?
(Dudley-Evans, 1996: 58).

Chen (2000) supported self-training for ESP teachers by a process of professional

reflection, problem-solving and decision-making. This claim may find some limitations
such as the lack vigorous motivation, support or self-training materials.

It will be difficult to cover all the aspects of the training programs related to ESP
teachers, but the important thing that should be taken into consideration while designing
any training course will “the ESP teachers‟ needs”.

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Practice

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ESP Writings:

Formal letters writing:

As already explained in the theoretical part, we have shown that ESP is designed

to meet the specific needs of learners which determine any purpose that could be

specified in academic or professional life. In both contexts whether academic life or

the occupational setting, writing is considered as the spinal column of the institutions.

In schools and universities, students and teachers are committed to write

different kinds of letters in different situations: it can be assignments that the teachers

ask their students to write, reports about projects/books, emails, research articles, PhD

dissertations or teacher‟s feedback…, among others.

In work place, every employee who wants to establish his career must learn the

conventions of writing related to the field. Who can imagine the workplace without

complain letters, asking for information, emails, deals‟ contracts, seeking promotion,

asking for pay rise, minutes of meetings, …etc.

In this section we will attempt to equip ESP learners with the necessary

knowledge about formal letters writing in terms of: how to layout the letter, how to

chose the letter‟s content, know about the opening and closing sentences, learn the

formal phrases and words to use, and how to plan the formal letter s(introduction,

content, and conclusion).

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Part 01: (Students’ knowledge about formal letters)

1 What are the different kinds of letters do you know?

2 Make a list of different types of formal letters you need to write?

At home At work or college

3 what are the differences between informal letters and the formal letters?

4 Can you write formal letters to? (Make “X” next to the type of letter you’re
able to write).

Give information Give advice Give instructions

Apologize Complain Get the job
Seek promotion Seek pay rise Place an order
Hurry up an order Ask for permission ask for information
Ask for advice Change an order Give an explanation

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The letter layout

1 In a formal letter you put your address on: (Circle the right answer)

The right hand side the left hand side the center of the page

2 In a formal letter you write the full date:

The right hand side the left hand side the center of the page

3 In a formal letter you put the name and address of the person you are writing to on:
The right hand side the left hand side the center of the page

4 the reference number or/and order number in a letters at work is written

a Under the date b under your address c under the receiver‟s

address

5 If you begin the letter by using the person‟s name, eg. Dear Mr. Drihmatt. Do you
end your letter?

a Yours sincerely b Yours faithfully

6 when you begin your letter using Dear Sir or Madame, you end your letter by:

a Yours sincerely b Yours faithfully

7 enumerate the following according to their position in the formal letter. (put 1 for the
first and 2 for the second, etc…)

Dear Opening sentence Signature

Reference number You name printed Main points

Their address Yours Closing sentence

date Your address

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Section 02: Opening Sentences

Here are some common ways of starting letters. Decide whether they are formal or
informal (write “F” next the formal ones and “I” next to the informal)
Further to our telephone I would like to apply for the post of
conversation of ….. …
In reply to your advertisement in I apologize for the delay in
replaying
It was good to hear from you I wrote to you on ….concerning..
I am contacting you regarding …. Thank you for your letter dated….
I am writing to complain …
In reply to your letter dated…. Thanks for your last letter
Thank you for your kind invitation Thank you for your letter dated
Sorry I haven‟t written for ages We were so pleased to hear from
you
How are you all
I wish to complain about
I would like to enroll on the We were so pleased to hear from
following course… you

Section 03: Closing Sentences

Here are some ways of endings letters. Decide whether they are formal or informal
(write “F” next the formal ones and “I” next to the informal)

Please give this matter your Pease contact me if you require

attention further details
I enclose a cheque for DZD 15.00 Looking forward to seeing you on
Sunday
I hope you can settle this matter to I look forward to hearing from you
my satisfaction at your earliest convenience
Love to everyone I would like to discuss this matter
as soon as possible. Please let me
know when it would be convenient
for you
Write soon Thanks once again for your lovely
present
Best wishes from us all I hope you will consider my
application
I hope you will consider my Please let me know if you require
application further details
Do give my regards to everyone I look forward to meeting you on …
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I should be grateful if you would Thank you for your co-operation

send me the information as soon as
possible
If you cannot settle this matter to Best wishes
my satisfaction, I shall be forced to
take legal action

Section 04: Letter Content:

1 To write a good formal letter you need to answer some questions that help you
decide what to write and how to write it. Please enumerate them according to the
development of the formal letter‟s content (put 1 for the first and 2 for the second,
etc…).

- Who am I writing to?

- Why am I writing?
- What do I need to tell them?
- What do I want them to do?

2 A good formal letter should be: Please order them according to their importance 1
(very important) to 4(not important)

- Clear -
- Concise -
- Courteous -
- Easy to follow -
- To the point -
- Polit -

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Part 02: Here‟s a blank letter. The parts of the letter are written bellow, put them in

the correct places.

Dear, your address, reference number, their address, opening sentence, your

name printed, yours, signature, date, main points, closing sentence.

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The answer:

Your address

Date

Reference number

Their address

Dear

Opening sentence

Main points

Closing sentences

Yours

Signature

Your name printed

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Exercise 02: set out the following letters in the correct format

Letter 01: To: the manager, Midland Bank, Colchester Way, Daventry DV 5 1TC

From: Ms. J. Rabat, 23 Kingham Way, Daventry DC 7 23 JU.

Letter 02: To: the Head of purchasing Dpt, Trust Company, Bab El Oued, Algiers

From: Mr. A. Tabbet, 02 AADL city, EL Malha, Algiers

Answer:

23 Kingham Way
Daventry DC
7 23 JU

26th May 2024

The manager,
Midland Bank,
Colchester Way,
Daventry DV 5 1TC

Dear Sir / Madam

Yours faithfully

J Rabat

Ms. J Rabat

Letter 02: answer

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02 AADL city,

EL Malha,

Algiers – 16000

26th May 2024

The Head of purchasing Dpt,

Trust Company,

Bab El Oued,

Algiers

Dear Sir / Madame

The main points

Yours faithfully

Mr. A. Tabbet

Mr. A. Tabbet

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The teacher’s guidance:

General advice about writing a formal letter:

- Put your address on the right hand side unless you‟re using headed notepaper.

- Write the date in full on the left hand side of the paper.

- Put the name and the address to the person you‟re writing to on the left hand

side of the paper.

- Letters at work usually need a reference number and/or order number, this goes

under the date.

- Both addresses should be blocked, i.e.: in line with the first letter of the line

above.

- If you begin by using the person‟s name, eg: Dear Mr. Philips, then end Yours

sincerely.

- If you begin using Dear Sir/Madam, then end Yours faithfully.

- Yours should have the capital letter, Faithfully and sincerely should have

small letter.

- Do not put a comma after Dear Sir / Madam or after Yours faithfully or

sincerely, this is called open punctuation.

- Sign your name. Write your name in capitals underneath your signature and

include your title.

- Leave a line of space between each paragraph.

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Always ask yourself before you begin to write:

- Who I am writing to?

- Why I am writing? Eg: to complain, to apologize etc…

- What tone will my reader expect?

- What must I include?

- What do I want to happen?

When you check your letter, ask yourself:

- Am I being brief and exact?

- Have I included only the necessary information?

- How could I improve my letter?

Don’t forget:

- List and order your points.

- Make a rough draft

- Check for tone and meaning

- Check for spelling and punctuation

- Make neat copy

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Activities on “Opening and Closing sentences”:

A Opening sentences: choose a suitable formal letter opening for these types of

letters:

- A letter applying for a job

Answer: I would like to apply for the post of …….

- A letter to order something from a newspaper

In reply to your advertisement in the (name of the newspaper) on (date of paper) for

(product or service) ……

- A letter replaying to one you have received

In reply to your letter dated ………………..

- A letter to confirm something you have already said on the phone

Further to our telephone conversation of ……

- A letter to accept an invitation

Thank you for kind invitation to …..

B closing sentences: now choose suitable last line for the following last letters :

- A letter applying for a job

I hope you will consider my invitation …..

- A letter to order something from a newspaper

I enclose a cheque for …..

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- A letter asking for a refund

I hope you can settle this matter to my satisfaction

- A letter asking for information which you want urgently

I should be grateful if you would send me the information as soon as possible.

- A letter to accept an invitation to a meeting

I look forward to meeting you on the (date)

03- Re-write these sentences, change the words that are underlined with a word or

phrase in the box.

1- I got your letter about my insurance policy

2- I have ordered the book as you asked

3- I would like to ask for a copy of your brochure

4- I took back the jacket and asked for my money back

5- Pease send me the right form

6- I am not happy with the repairs to my car

7- I have put in a cheque for £ 17.50

8- I want a new one

9- It was bought on 6th April…

10- I found that the heel was broken

requested received appropriate Discovered A refund

Am entitled to Replacement enclosed satisfied Concerning

Returned purchased request

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Answer:

1- I received your letter concerning my insurance policy.

2- I have ordered the book as you requested.

3- I would like to request a copy of your brochure.

4- I returned the jacket and asked for a refund

5- Please send me the appropriate form

6- I am not satisfied with the repairs to my car.

7- I have enclosed a cheque for £17.50

8- I am entitled to a replacement.

9- It was purchased on 6th April.

10- I discovered the heel was broken.

Activity: vocabulary building

Try to make the tone better using other words than “useless”, “got”, and “want”.

Would like

require

Want select

wish

prefer

entitled to

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acquired

contracted

received

got purchased

bought

collected

called

faulty

inefficient

badly made

uncooperative

Useless incomplete

unhelpful

irrelevant

Below standard

Defective

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Activity: replace the word “got” and “get” in the passage, make the necessary

changes if necessary

I got a ticket to travel to America. When I got on the plane I found I had got a

seat in the smoking area. I had asked for one in no-smoking area. I got the cabin

attendant and asked her to get me another seat. She refused and said, I would have to

get a form and make a complaint when I got to New York.

When I got off the plane in New York, I asked the receptionist in Customer

Services to get me a form and then I went to get my cases. I left the airport and got a

taxi to my hotel. When I got to my room, I found I had got the wrong cases.

Back in England the following week I found I had got a very bad dose of flu

from another passenger on the plane. I still haven‟t got my luggage.

The answer:

I purchased a ticket to travel to America. When I boarded the plane I found I

had been allocated a seat in the smoking area. I called the cabin attendant and asked

her to find me another seat. She refused and said I would have to complete a form and

make a complaint when I arrived in New York.

When I disembarked from the plane in New York, I asked the receptionist in

Customer Services to give me a form and then I went to collect my cases. I left the

airport and hired a taxi to my hotel. When I entered my room, I found I had acquired

the wrong cases.

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Back in England the following week I found I had contracted a very bad dose

of flu from another passage on the plane. I still haven‟t received my luggage.

Writing business letter:

You produce ten thousand copies of a clothing catalogue at very short

notice for a customer, SARL Drihmatt design. The terms of credit in the
contract of sale were for payment within thirty days of receipt of invoice.
You sent him the first reminder with a copy of the invoice when the
payment was four weeks overdue, then a second request for payment four
weeks after that. The account is now a further six weeks overdue

- Write a letter to Mr. Drihmatt asking him to pay his outstanding invoice.

To organize your letter here are some suggestions

- Review the situation with his account

- Make him think about his moral obligation and remind him of the terms
and conditions of your sales agreement
- Say what action you intend to make.

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Dear Mr. Drihmatt

Re : Invoice 3296 GM

I am writing to you once again regarding the above invoice, dated 11

February, for the exhibition equipment we supplied to you. This invoice is still
outstanding. According to our records, we have not yet received your
remittance or reply to our previous requests for payment, dated 18 March and
15 April.

Under the terms of our contract you undertook to settle within thirty days
of receipt of our invoice. We felt that as the owner of a small business yourself,
you would appreciate the effect that late payments have on our cash flow and,
therefore, had expected to receive your remittance some time ago. However,
as of today, your account is sixty days overdue.

We will, of course, be able to recover the debt through the courts, which
would involve you in additional legal costs. However, I am prepared to give you
a final opportunity to settle your account. Unless I receive full payment within
the next seven days, you will leave me no alternative but to put this matter into
the hands of my solicitor.

Yours sincerely

Signature

Your name printed

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ESP in work place

Presentations Skills

Being able to deliver effective presentations is a valuable skill in the business world. It
is about being able to speak confidently and clearly, using visual aids like slides, and
engaging the audience.

If you have to deliver a successful presentation to your colleagues, you should outline
the main points, create engaging slides with visuals, practice your speech, and be ready
to answer questions from the audience.

If you‟re giving presentation to potential client, you should adapt your presentation
style to make it more effective, you should search the clients needs and interests, tailor
the content to address those and use language that resonates with the client.

Effective presentation skills can make a significant difference in how your ideas are
received and can help you achieve your goals in the business world.

Presentation in business is very important, it can make a big difference in your career.
When you give a presentation, the first thing you should do to catch your audience‟s
attention is to start with a strong opening like a question or an interesting fact.

To engage your audience about a new product, you should start with an interesting fact
like: “Did you know our new product can save you both time and money”.

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A typical business presentation includes an introduction, where you engage the

audience, the main content with your key points, and a conclusion to wrap things up.

If you‟re in the middle of a presentation and you want to introduce a new topic
smoothly, you can use phrases like: “Now let‟s move on to the next topic”, “Now,
turning to our next point”.

In business presentations, it is essential to use visual aids like slides with texts, charts
and graphs to support your points.

During a presentation it is vital to maintain eye contact with your audience because it
shows you‟re engaged with the audience, it makes them feel more connected to what
you‟re saying.

Communication in workplace

Effective communication is essential in society and in the professional world as well.

Good communication skill can make a big difference in the professional life.

Communication is the exchange of information and ideas in a business context. There

are different ways of communication in professional life; like using emails.

We can start a polite email written to a colleague about a project update by writing
(Dear‟s Name), hope this message finds well.

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Generally, in writing an email or report it is essential to be clear and concise (to be

clear and to the point) to convey the information effectively.

Active listening is essential in workplace, which represents careful listening to what

others are saying and responding thoughtfully to ensure that everyone‟s ideas are herd
and considered.

If you‟re in a business meeting and someone disagrees with your idea it is essential to
respond professionally, handling disagreements in a respectful and considered way in
business communication context can be expressed using the word “manage”:,e.g: it‟s
important to manage disagreements with colleagues by addressing their concerns and
finding common ground.

In business communication we can also use terms like: “follow-up” which means
checking the progress of a task and “clarify” making things clearer and more
understandable. E.g: I will follow up with the team to clarify the details of the
project‟s next step.

To sum up, business communication involves exchanging information and ideas

through writing and speaking. It‟s important to be clear and concise, practice active
listening, and manage disagreements professionally.

Customer service is another channel of communication that helps build positive

relationship with customers. In customer service and communication it‟s important to
be friendly, actively listen to customers, and provide clear and helpful information.

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When a customer approach with a problem, I should listen carefully to their issue,
empathize with their situation, and provide a clear explanation of how I can help and
find a solution.

When responding to a customer via email, I should start with a polite greeting, address
the enquiry directly, provide all necessary information, and end with a friendly
closing.

In addition to emails, phone is another mean of customer communication. When

dealing with an upset customer on phone, I should remain calm, actively listen to his
concern, express empathy, and work towards finding a solution or offering assistance.

Leadership and management skills:

Developing leadership and management skills is crucial for success in professional

world, they are valuable in guiding teams and achieving the organizational goals.

Leadership involves inspiring and guiding, while management is about making

decisions and ensuring efficiency.

If you have been assigned a leadership role for a project, you need to inspire and
motivate your team to achieve their best, you should communicate the project‟s goals
clearly, recognize and appreciate the team‟s efforts, and provide support and
encouragement to overcome challenges.

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As a manager, you need to make a decision that affects the team; for that you should
gather relevant information, consider the potential impact on the team and the
organization, and involve the team in the team in the decision-making process when
appropriate.

If you face a challenging situation with the team member, you need to handle conflicts
and challenges effectively as a leader. For this you should address the issue calmly and
privately, listen to the team member‟s perspective, and work together to find a
resolution that benefits both parties and the team as a whole.

Time Management and Productivity

Managing your time effectively is key to being successful in work place, time
management and productivity are skills that can make a big difference in your career.

Time management means using your time widely to accomplish tasks efficiently and
not waste time on unimportant things.

In time management it is important to prioritize tasks, set goals, and avoid distractions.

You should use some strategies to manage your time effectively when you have a busy
day at work with several tasks to complete: like making a to do list, prioritizing tasks
based on importance and deadlines, and try to stay focused on one task at a time.

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Sometimes, you may find yourself getting distracted at work. To minimize distractions
and stay productive you can turn off notifications on your phones, find a quiet place to
work and set specific times for breaks to avoid checking social media or other
distractions

Cryptocurrency

It‟s part of business English that‟s gaining importance in today‟s world.

Cryptocurrency is like digital money, it is a form of currency that exists only in
electronic form; people use it to buy, invest, and trade. The most famous
cryptocurrency is bitcoin.

To get the cryptocurrency, you can either buy it with regular money or mine it. To
mine you need a powerful computer to solve complex math problems; miners are then
rewarded with cryptocurrency.

The cryptocurrency are fast, secure, and can be used globally, this makes them popular
for online transactions.

The cryptocurrencies can be volatile, which means their value can change quickly,
they are unstable. In addition, they are not regulated by government, so there‟s no
safety net if something goes wrong.

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ESP / Speaking:

Leveled Business English Conversation Practice:

Make the following sentences more advanced

1. I check mail:

Answer/ I sort and distribute incoming mail to ensure prompt and accurate

delivery to the appropriate department.

2. We sell books

We market a diverse selection of books, catering to a wide range of reading

preferences and academic needs.

3. He fixes chairs

He repairs office chairs to maintain a safe and comfortable working environment

for all employees.

4. I greet people.

I welcome visitors and clients, providing a friendly and professional first

impression of our company.

5. She enters data.

She inputs critical data into our database, ensuring precision and confidentiality

in handing sensitive information.

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6. We buy computers.

We invest in the latest computing technology to enhance our operational

efficiency and data management capabilities.

7. He waters plants.

He tends to office plants, contributing to a pleasant and vibrant workplace

atmosphere.

8. I arrange books.

I meticulously organize the library books according to genre and author to

facilitate easy access for research.

9. We meet deadlines.

We consistently achieve project deadlines, ensuring deliverables are completed on

time and to specifications.

10. She updates software.

She manages software updates across company systems to secure data and

improve user experience.

11. I answer phones.

I manage incoming calls, ensuring that all inquiries are addressed promptly and

routed to the correct departments.

12. We ship packages.

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We coordinate the logistics of package delivery, ensuring efficient and reliable

service to our customers.

13. He edits videos.

He produces and edits professional-quality videos to enhance our digital

marketing efforts.

14. I clean screens.

I maintain cleanliness of all digital display screens to ensure clarity and

functionality for presentations and daily use.

15. She schedule visits.

She organizes client visits, coordinating schedules to maximize time efficiency and

meet client needs.

16. We update clients.

We keep our clients informed with regular updates about their projects status

and any relevant changes.

17. I lock files.

I secure confidential files in a locked cabinet to protect sensitive information from

unauthorized access.

18. She scans documents.

She digitizes paper documents, creating electronic copies for archival and quick

retrieval.

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19. We review data.

We conduct thorough reviews of collected data to extract meaningful insights and

inform business decisions.

20. I turn on machines.

I ensure all office machinery is operational at the start of the day to support a

smooth workflow.

21. I make calls.

I initiate strategic calls to clients to discuss project updates and address any

concerns.

22. We count money.

We meticulously tally financial transactions to ensure accuracy in our accounting

records.

23. He installs apps.

He configures and installs business applications to enhance operational efficiency

across our network.

24. I tidy up.

I organize the workspace to maintain a professional and inviting environment for

productivity.

25. She writes letters.

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She composes formal correspondence to stakeholders to communicate important

company decisions.

26. We study markets.

We analyze market trends to tailor our strategies to meet evolving consumer

demands.

27. He changes lightbulbs.

He maintains lighting fixtures to ensure optimal lighting conditions in our office

space.

28. I collect information.

I gather detailed information from various sources to support our market

research efforts.

29. We design flyers.

We create compelling flyers that effectively communicate our marketing

messages to the target audience.

30. She books flights

She arranges travel itineraries for business trips, ensuring cost-effectiveness and

schedule adherence.

31. I record meeting.

I document key points during meetings to create thorough minutes that serve as a

reference for action items.

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32. We clean computers.

We maintain our computer systems by regularly cleaning hardware to prevent

overheating and ensure longevity.

33. He answers emails.

He responds to emails inquiries with detailed information to maintain high

standards of customer service.

34. I check windows.

I inspect windows regularly to ensure and properly sealed against environmental

elements.

35. She organizes events.

She plans and executes corporate events, overseeing all logistical aspects to ensure

they run smoothly.

36. We prepare meals.

We cater meals for office events, considering dietary preferences and ensuring

high-quality food service.

37. I greet visitors.

I warmly welcome and assist visitors, providing them with information and

directing them to the appropriate departments.

38. She updates schedules.

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She meticulously updates project schedules to keep all team members on track

with deadlines.

39. we fax documents.

We transmit documents via fax to ensure secure and immediate delivery of

sensitive information.

40. I switch off equipment.

I ensure all electronic equipment is turned off after hours to conserve energy and

reduce operational costs.

41. I buy snacks.

I procure a variety of snacks for office meetings and daily enjoyment, considering

dietary preferences and health guidelines.

42. We check tools.

We conduct regular inspections of our tools and equipment to ensure they meet

safety standards and are in good working condition.

43. He replaces parts.

He identifies and replaces worn or faulty parts in our machinery to prevent

downtime and maintain production efficiency.

44. I serve tea.

I prepare and serve tea to visitors and staff during meeting, providing a

hospitable and comfortable environment.

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45. She updates websites.

She regularly refreshes our website content, ensuring it reflects the latest

company news and product information.

46. We sort mail.

We efficiently organize incoming mail into categories to streamline processing

and ensure timely distribution.

47. He cleans desks.

He maintains a clean and organized desk environment to promote a productive

workspace for all employees.

48. I arrange files

I systematically organize files in our digital and physical archives to ensure easy

access and compliance with data management policies.

49. We prepare reports.

We compile detailed reports summarizing project outcomes and operational

performance to inform management decisions.

50. She calculates taxes.

She accurately computes corporate taxes, ensuring compliance with fiscal

regulations and effective financial planning.

51. I answer queries.

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I address client queries by providing detailed explanations and solutions to

ensure customer satisfaction and retention.

52. We discuss strategies.

We engage in strategic planning sessions to refine our business approach and

ensure alignment with our long-term goals.

53. He programs software.

He develops and programs software applications tailored to streamline business

processes and enhance user experiences.

54. I water plants.

I regularly tend to the office plants, ensuring they are healthy and contribute to a

pleasant office atmosphere.

55. She organizes seminars

She coordinates and manages educational seminars, handling logistics, speaker

invitations, and participant registrations.

56. We inspect products.

We conduct thorough inspections of our products to guarantee they meet our

quality standards before reaching the market.

57. I lock up.

I secure the premises at the end of the day, ensuring all security systems are

activated to protect company assets.

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58. She writes newsletters

She crafts engaging newsletters to keep our clients and stakeholders informed

about recent activities and achievements.

59. We install software.

We deploy new software across the company, ensuring proper installation and

functionality for all users.

60. I set alarms.

I program security alarms to maintain safety standards and alert staff in case of

unauthorized access.

61. I open windows

I ensure windows are opened daily to improve air circulation and create a

healthier office environment.

62. We check prices.

We regularly review and compare supplier prices to ensure we are receiving the

best value for our purchases.

63. He resets passwords.

He manages the reset of security passwords to safeguard our digital assets and

project sensitive information.

64. I sort packages.

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I organize incoming packages according to department and priority, ensuring

efficient distribution within the company.

65. She makes coffee.

She prepares coffee for the office, catering to individual preferences and

contributing to a welcoming atmosphere.

66. We write emails.

We compose detailed emails to clients and partners, ensuring clarity and

professionalism in our communications.

67. He cleans the kitchen.

He maintains the cleanliness of the office kitchen, adhering to health standars and

ensuring a pleasant communal space.

68. I book hotels.

I arrange hotel accommodations for business travel, considering location, budget,

and amenities to meet company needs.

69. We review documents.

We meticulously analyze documents for accuracy and completeness before final

approval and submission.

70. She organizes meetings.

She coordinates and schedules meetings, ensuring all participants are informed

and necessary resources are prepared.

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71. I fax papers.

I send documents via fax to ensure secure and immediate transfer of important

information.

72. We recruit staff.

We conduct comprehensive recruitment processes attract and select candidates

who best fit our organizational culture and skill requirement.

73. He updates databases.

He performs updates on our databases to enhance data integrity and endure real-

time accessibility.

74. I check lights.

I routinely inspect all lighting fixtures to ensure they are functioning properly

and efficiently.

75. She leads teams.

She directs team efforts, fostering collaboration and leadership skills to meet

project goals and deadlines.

76. We print flyers.

We produce high-quality flyers for marketing purposes, focusing on design and

message to target our audience effectively.

77. I restock shelves.

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I manage the restocking of shelves with inventory; ensuring products are

displayed attractively and are readily available.

78. She answers complaints.

She handles customer complaints with professionalism, aiming to resolve issues

and maintain customer loyalty.

79. We update software.

We implement software updates to enhance system capability and improve user

experience across departments.

80. I turn off alarms.

I deactivate security alarms at the start of the day ensuring controlled access and

safety of the office premises.

81. I open mail.

I meticulously open and sort incoming mail to ensure prompt distribution to the

appropriate departments.

82. We order paper.

We manage our paper supply by placing strategic orders to maintain office

efficiency and avoid shortages.

83. He repairs printers.

He troubleshoots and repairs office printers to minimize downtime and maintain

productivity.

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84. I clean offices.

I maintain the cleanliness of our office spaces to uphold a professional

environment and ensure compliance with health regulations.

85. She calls clients.

She engages with clients over the phone to discuss ongoing projects and

strengthen business relationship.

86. We analyze data.

We conduct detailed data analysis to extract actionable insight and inform our

strategic decisions.

87. He waters plants.

He cares for office pants, ensuring they are healthy and enhance the workplace

aesthetics.

88. I sort files.

I organize files systematically, both digitally and physically, to enhance data

retrieval and office efficiency.

89. We discuss ideas.

We hold brainstorming sessions to explore creative ideas that could potentially

improve our services.

90. She makes appointments.

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She schedules and coordinates appointments, optimizing the calendar to

maximize time management.

91. I send packages.

I manage the dispatch of packages, ensuring they are securely packed and sent to

the correct addresses.

92. We recruit employees.

We execute a rigorous recruitment process to identify and hire individuals who

will contribute positively to our company culture.

93. He updates websites.

He regularly refreshes our website content to keep it current, engaging, and SEO-

optimized.

94. I check supplies.

I monitor office supplies and reorder stock to prevent any disruptions in our

daily operations.

95. She trains staff.

She conducts training sessions to enhance the skills and competences of our staff,

supporting professional development.

96. We prepare presentations.

We develop compelling presentations to effectively communicate our ideas and

projects to stakeholders.

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97. I lock offices.

I secure the office premises at the end of the day, ensuring all confidential

materials are safeguarded.

98. She calculates costs.

She performs cost analyses to budget effectively and identify potential savings

across projects.

99. We review plans.

We critically assess our business plans to ensure they align with our strategic

objectives and market conditions.

100. I manage emails

I oversee email communications, ensuring that all messages are responded to in a

timely and professional manner.

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Digital marketing: Consider the following link of a video on digital

marketing:

[Link]

After you watch the video on digital marketing, define the following
notions:

1- Who are “the leads”?

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………..
2- Who are the “clients”?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………
3- Who are the “buyers?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………
4- What is the difference between them?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………..
5- Mention some strategies used in digital marketing according to the video?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

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………………………………................................................................................

6- What are the SMART digital marketing objectives?

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………
7- What are the four (4) “Ps” in marketing?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
8- What are the social advertising platforms? Show their use and benefits?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
9- Explain the marketing plan?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

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Essay writing:

Develop the following topics:

1- What is the difference between GE and ESP,

2- What are the several roles an ESP practitioner plays?
3- Show the importance of needs analysis in ESP,
4- A national company specialized in telecommunication wants to train its
employees in English, how would you proceed to design a syllabus that
can meet the needs of this company?
5- “the roads less taken” this expression is used to show the importance of
evaluation. Write an essay in which you explain the role of evaluation in
an ESP teaching/learning process.

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Bibliography:

 Alderson, J. K. (1992). Guidelines for Evaluation of Second Language

Education. In J. C. Anderson and A. Beretta (Eds.). Evaluating Second
Language Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Anderson, J. K. (1992). Guidelines for Evaluation of Second Language
Education. In J. C. Anderson and A. Beretta (Eds.). Evaluating Second
Language Education. (pp: 274-304). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
 Anderson, T. (1998). Do we Want Certified Teachers or Qualified Ones?
Modern Language Journal, 4, 231-235
 Anthony, L. (1998). Defining English for Specific Purposes and the Role of the
ESP Practitioner: Proceedings of the Japan Conference on English for Specific
Purposes. Retrieved 15/01/2012 from: [Link]
 Basturkmen, H. (2005). Ideas and Options in English for Specific Purposes.
Routledge.
 Belcher, D. (Ed.) (2009). English for Specific Purposes: Theory and Practice.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
 Bell, T. R. (2005). Behaviours and Attitudes of Effective Foreign Language
Teachers: Results of a Questionnaire Study. Foreign Language Annals, 38,
259– 270.
 Beretta, A. (1992). Evaluation of Language Education: An overview. In
Alderson, J. and A. Beretta, (Eds.) Evaluating Second Language Education.
Cambridge University Press.
 Berry, R. (1990). The Role of Language Improvement in In-Service Teacher
Training: Killing Two Birds with one Stone. System 18, 1, 97-105.
 Bhatia, V. K. (2008). Genre analysis, ESP and professional practice. English for
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