Chapter two

Circuit breakers
2.1. Introduction
• Circuit breaker is a mechanical switching device
capable of making, carrying and breaking currents
under normal circuit conditions and also making,
carrying for a specified time, and automatically
breaking currents under specified abnormal circuit
conditions such as those of short-circuits (faults).
 Cont’d
• The function of a circuit breaker is to isolate the
faulty part of the power system in case of abnormal
conditions such as faults.

• A protective relay detects abnormal conditions and

sends a tripping signal to the circuit breaker.

• After receiving the trip command from the relay, the

circuit breaker isolates the faulty part of the power
system.
 Cont’d
• The simplified diagram of circuit breaker control for
opening operation is shown in Fig. 2.1.

• When a fault occurs in the protected circuit (i.e. the

line in this case), the relay connected to the CT and
VT detects the fault, actuates and closes its contacts
to complete the trip circuit.

• Current flows from the battery in the trip circuit.

 Cont’d
• As the trip coil of the circuit breaker is energized, the
circuit breaker operating mechanism is actuated and it
operates for the opening operation to disconnect the
faulty element.

Fig.2.1. Simplified diagram of circuit breaker control for opening

operation
 Cont’d
• A circuit breaker main contact has two parts – a fixed
contact and a moving contact.

• The contacts are placed in a closed chamber

containing a fluid insulating medium (either liquid or
gas) which quenches (extinguishes) the arc formed
between the contacts.

• Under normal conditions the contacts remain in

closed position.
 Cont’d
• When the circuit breaker is required to isolate the
faulty part, the moving contact moves to interrupt the
circuit.
• On the separation of the contacts, an arc is formed
between them and the current continues to flow from
one contact to the other through the arc as shown in
Fig. 2.2.
• The circuit is interrupted (isolated) when the arc is
finally extinguished.
 Cont’d
• When the moving contact starts separating, the
insulating fluid between the two contacts experiences
a vary high electric stress.

Fig.2.2. Separation of the contacts of circuit breaker

 Cont’d
• The electric stress is almost inversely proportional to
the distance between two electrodes, i.e., between two
contacts.

• Thus, at the instant of contact separation, the insulating

medium between the contacts is subjected to extremely
high electric stress leading to breakdown.

• The breakdown of the insulating medium between the

contacts results in formation of a conducting channel or
an arc between the contacts.
 2.2. Arc and arc extinction

Formation of an Arc

• Under faulty conditions heavy current flows through

the contacts of the circuit breaker before they are
opened.

• As soon as the contacts start separating, the area of

contact decreases which will increase the current
density and consequently rise in the temperature.
 Cont’d

• The medium between the contacts of circuit breaker

may be air or oil.

• The heat which is produced in the medium is

sufficient enough to ionoise air or oil which will act
as conductor.

• Thus an arc is struck between the contacts.

 2.2.1. Arc Extinction
• The circuit breaker should be capable of
extinguishing this arc without damaging.
• Interruption of arc in case of d.c. circuits is much
more difficult than that in case of a.c. circuits.
• In a.c. currents the natural current zero point is
available where the arc vanishes and prevented from
restriking.
• The different methods adopted for the arc extinction
can be grouped into following two categories.
 i, High Resistance Interruption
• In this method of arc interruption, its resistance is
increased so as to reduce the current to a value
insufficient to maintain the arc.

• The various methods of high resistance and

interruption are,
1, Lengthening the arc

2, Splitting of arc

3, Cooling of arc
 ii, Current Zero Interruption
• This method is used only in case of a.c. circuit
breakers.
• At the natural current zero point of a.c. wave, the arc
is interrupted.
• The current is not interrupted at any point other than
the zero current instant, otherwise a high transient
voltage will occur across the contact gap.
• The current is not allowed to rise again after a zero
current occurs.
 Cont’d
• There are two theories to explain the zero current
interruption of the arc.
(A) Recovery rate theory

(B) Energy balance theory

 A. Recovery Rate Theory
• The arc is a column of ionised gases.

• To extinguish the arc, the electrons and ions are to be

removed from the gap immediately after the current
reaches a natural zero.

• Ions and electrons can be removed either by

recombining them into neutral molecules or by
sweeping them away by inserting insulating medium
(gas or liquid) into the gap.
 Cont’d
• The arc is interrupted if ions are removed from the
gap at a rate faster than the rate of ionisation.

• In this method, the rate at which the gap recovers its

dielectric strength is compared with the rate at which
the gap recovers its dielectric strength is compared
with the rate at which the restriking voltage (transient
voltage) across the gap rises.
 Cont’d
• If the dielectric strength increases more rapidly than
the restriking voltage, the arc is extinguished.

• If the restriking voltage rises more rapidly than the

dielectric strength, the ionisation persists and
breakdown of the gap occurs, resulting in an arc for
another half cycle.

• Figure 2.6 explains the principle of recovery rate

theory.
 Cont’d

Figure .2.6. Recovery rate theory

 B. Energy Balance Theory
• The space between the contacts contains some ionised
gas immediately after current zero and hence, it has a
finite post-zero resistance.

• At the current zero moment, power is zero because

restricking voltage is zero.

• When the arc is finally extinguished, the power again

becomes zero, the gap is fully de-ionised and its
resistance is infinitely high.
 Cont’d
• In between these two limits, first the power
increases, reaches a maximum value, then decreases
and finally reaches zero value as shown in Fig. 2.7.

• Due to the rise of restriking voltage and associated

current, energy is generated in the space between the
contacts.

• The energy appears in the form of heat.

 Cont’d

Figure. 2.7. Energy balance theory

• The circuit breaker is designed to remove this
generated heat as early as possible by cooling the gap,
giving a blast of air or flow of oil at high velocity and
pressure.
 Cont’d
• If the rate of removal of heat is faster than the rate of
heat generation the arc is extinguished.

• If the rate of heat generation is more than the rate of

heat dissipation, the space breaks down again
resulting in an arc for another half cycle.
 2.2.1 Fault Clearing Time of a Circuit
Breaker
• A circuit breaker is required in the power system to give
rapid fault clearance, in order to avoid overcurrent
damage to equipment and loss of system stability.

• The fault tripping signal to the circuit breaker is derived

from the protective relay via the trip circuit.

• After fault inception, the relay senses the fault and closes
its contacts to complete the trip circuit as shown in Fig.
2.1.
 Cont’d
• The relay takes some time to close its contacts.

• After closing of the contacts of the trip circuit, the trip

coil of the circuit breaker is energized and the operating
mechanism of the breaker comes into operation.

• The contacts of the circuit breaker start separating to clear

the fault.

• On the separation of the contacts, an arc is formed

between them and the current continues to flow through
the arc.
 Cont’d
• The fault is cleared when the arc is finally
extinguished.

• Figure 2.3 shows the various components of fault

clearing time of a circuit breaker.

• The fault clearing time is the sum of relaying time

and breaker interrupting time.
 Cont’d

Figure. 2.3. Fault clearing time of a circuit breaker

 Cont.…

• The various components of the fault clearing time of

the circuit breaker are defined as follows:
– Relaying time = Time from fault inception to the closure

of trip circuit of CB.

– Breaker opening time = Time from closure of the trip

circuit to the opening of the contacts of the circuit breaker.

 Cont.…

– Arcing time = Time from opening of the contacts of CB to

final arc extinction.

– Breaker interrupting time = Breaker opening time + arcing

time

– Fault clearing time = Relaying time + breaker interrupting

time
 Cont’d
• The relaying time for electromechanical relays can
vary from about one cycle to five cycles.

• Static relays are faster than electromechanical relays.

• Numerical relays give very fast operation and their

relaying time is within one cycle.

• The contact opening time of the circuit breaker may

be between about one and three cycles.
 Cont’d
• The arcing time is now generally between one and
two half-cycles, depending upon the instant in the
current half-cycles at which the contacts part.

• Therefore, fast relays and modern circuit breakers

make it possible to achieve fault clearance in as little
as about three cycles of 50 Hz current, but the time
varies considerably from system to system and in
some cases in different parts of one system.
 2.2.2. Arc Voltage
• Figure below shows the wave shape of arc voltage.

Figure. 2.4. Short circuit current and arc voltage

• The voltage drop across the arc is called arc voltage.

• As the arc path is purely resistive, the arc voltage is in
phase with the arc current.
 2.2.3. Restriking Voltage and Recovery Voltage

• The arc voltage becomes the system voltage when the

arc is extinguished.

• The arc is extinguished at the instant of current zero.

• After the arc has been extinguished, the voltage

across the breaker terminals does not normalize
instantaneously but it oscillates and there is a
transient condition.
 Cont.…
• The transient voltage which appears across the
breaker contacts at the instant of arc being
extinguished is known as restriking voltage.

• The voltage, which appears across the breaker

contacts after the arc is finally extinguished and
transient oscillations die out is called recovery
voltage.
 Cont’d

Figure. 2.5. Restriking and recovery voltage

2.2.4. Expression for Restriking Voltage and RRRV

• Figure 2.8(a) shows a short circuit (fault) on a feeder

beyond the location of the circuit breaker.
• Figure 2.8(b) shows an equivalent electrical circuit
where L and C are the inductance and capacitance per
phase of the system up to the point of circuit breaker
location, respectively.
• The resistance of the circuit has been neglected.
• During the time of fault a heavy fault current flows in
the circuit.
 Cont’d
• When the circuit breaker is closed, the fault current
flows through L and the contacts of the circuit
breaker, the capacitance C being short-circuited by
the fault.

• Hence, the circuit of Fig. 2.8(b) becomes completely

reactive and the fault current is limited entirely by
inductance of the system.
 Cont’d

Figure .2.8. (a) Fault on a feeder near circuit breaker (b) Equivalent
electrical circuit for analysis of restriking voltage
 Cont’d
• Fig. 2.8(b) is completely reactive, the voltage at the
instant of current zero will be at its peak.

• The voltage across the circuit breaker contacts, and

therefore across the capacitor C, is the arc voltage.

• In high-voltage circuits it is usually only a small

percentage of the system voltage.

• Hence, the arc voltage may be assumed to be

negligible.
 Cont’d
• For the analysis of this circuit, the time is measured
form the instant of interruption (arc extinction), when
the fault current comes to zero.

• Since the voltage is a sinusoidally varying quantity

and is at its peak at the moment of current zero, it is
expressed as ‘Vm cos ωt’.
 Cont’d
• When the circuit-breaker contacts are opened and the
arc is extinguished, the current i is diverted through
the capacitance C, resulting in a transient condition.

• The inductance and the capacitance form a series

oscillatory circuit.

• The voltage across the capacitance which is restriking

voltage, rises and oscillates, as shown in Fig. 2.5.
 2.2.5. Resistance Switching
• To reduce the restriking voltage, RRRV and severity
of the transient oscillations, a resistance is connected
across the contacts of the circuit breaker.
• This is known as resistance switching.
• The resistance is in parallel with the arc.
• A part of the arc current flows through this resistance
resulting in a decrease in the arc current and increase
in the deionization of the arc path and resistance of
the arc.
 Cont’d
• This process continues and the current through the
shunt resistance increases and arc current decreases.

• Due to the decrease in the arc current, restriking

voltage and RRRV are reduced.

• The resistance may be automatically switched in with

the help of a sphere gap as shown in Fig. 2.9.

• The resistance switching is of great help in switching

out capacitive current or low inductive current.
 Cont’d

Figure.2.9. Resistance switching

• The analysis of resistance switching can be made to

find out the critical value of the shunt resistance to
obtain complete damping of transient oscillations.
 Cont’d
• Figure 2.10 shows the equivalent electrical circuit for
such an analysis.

Figure.2.10. Circuit for analysis of resistance switching

2.3. Circuit breaker rating
• A circuit breaker has to perform the following major
duties under short-circuit conditions.
(i) To open the contacts to clear the fault

(ii) To close the contacts onto a fault

(iii) To carry fault current for a short time while

another circuit breaker is clearing the fault.
 Cont’d
• Therefore, in addition to the rated voltage, current
and frequency, circuit breakers have the following
important ratings.
(i) Breaking Capacity

(ii) Making Capacity

(iii) Short-time Capacity.

 I. Breaking Capacity
• The breaking capacity of a circuit breaker is two
types.
(A) Symmetrical breaking capacity
(B) Asymmetrical breaking capacity
 A. Symmetrical Breaking Capacity
• It is the rms value of the ac component of the fault
current that the circuit breaker is capable of breaking
under specified conditions of recovery voltage.
B. Asymmetrical Breaking Capacity
• It is the rms value of the total current comprising of
both ac and dc components of the fault current that
the circuit breaker can break under specified
conditions of recovery voltage.
 Cont’d

Figure. 2.11. Short-circuit current waveform

 Cont’d
• Figure 2.11 shows a short-circuit current wave.

• The short-circuit current contains a dc component

which dies out gradually as shown in the figure. In
the beginning, the short-circuit current is
asymmetrical due to the dc component. When dc dies
out completely, the short-current becomes
symmetrical.
 II. Making Capacity
• The possibility of a circuit breaker to be closed on
short-circuit is also considered.

• The rated making current is defined as the peak value

of the current (including the dc component) in the
first cycle at which a circuit breaker can be closed
onto a short-circuit.
 Cont’d
• The capacity of a circuit breaker to be closed onto a
short-circuit depends upon its ability to withstand the
effects of electromagnetic forces.
 III. Short-time Current Rating
• The short-time current rating is based on thermal and
mechanical limitations.

• The circuit breaker must be capable of carrying short-

circuit current for a short period while another circuit
breaker (in series) is clearing the fault.

• The rated short-time current is the rms value (total

current, both ac and dc components) of the current
that the circuit breaker can carry safely for a specified
short period.
 Rated Voltage, Current and Frequency
• In a power system, the voltage level at all points is
not the same.

• It varies, depending upon the system operating

conditions.

• Due to this reason manufacturers have specified a

rated maximum voltage at which the operation of the
circuit breaker is guaranteed.

• The specified voltage is somewhat higher than the

rated nominal voltage.
 Cont’d
• The rated current is the rms value of the current that a
circuit breaker can carry continuously without any
temperature rise in excess of its specified limit.

• The rated frequency is also mentioned by the

manufacture.

• It is the frequency at which the circuit breaker has

been designed to operate.
 Cont’d
• The standard frequency is 50 Hz.

• If a circuit breaker is to be used at a frequency other

than its rated frequency, its effects should be taken
into consideration.
 2.4. Circuit Breaker Types
• Depending on the arc quenching medium employed,
the following are important types of circuit breakers,

1, Air-break circuit breakers:

2, Oil circuit breakers

3, Air blast circuit breakers

4, Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) circuit breakers

5, Vacuum circuit breakers

 1, Air-Break Circuit Breakers

• Air-break circuit breakers are quite suitable for high

current interruption at low voltage.

• In this type of a circuit breaker, air at atmospheric

pressure is used as an arc extinguishing medium.

• As shows in the figure it employs two pairs of

contacts, main contacts and arcing contacts.
 Cont.…
• The main contacts carry current when the breaker is
in closed position.
 Cont.…
• They have low contact resistance.

• When contacts are opened, the main contacts separate

first, the arcing contacts still remain closed.

• Therefore, the current is shifted from the main

contacts to the arcing contacts.

• The arcing contacts separate later on and the arc is

drawn between them.
 Cont.…
• In air-break circuit breakers, the principle of high
resistance is employed for arc interruption.

• The arc resistance is increased by lengthening,

splitting and cooling the arc.

• The arc length is rapidly increased employing arc

runners and arc chutes.
 Cont.…

• The arc moves upward by both electromagnetic and

thermal effects.

• It moves along the arc runner and then it is forced

into a chute.

• It is split by arc splitters.

 2, Oil circuit breakers

• Mineral oil has better insulating properties than air.

• Oil has also good cooling property.

• In a circuit breaker when arc is formed, it

decomposes oil into gases.

• Hence, the arc energy is absorbed in decomposing the

oil.
 3, Air blast circuit breakers

• In air blast circuit breakers, compressed air at a

pressure of 20-30 kg/cm2 is employed as an arc
quenching medium.

• Air blast circuit breakers are suitable for operating

voltage of 132 kV and above.

• They have also been used in 11 kV–33 kV range for

certain applications.
 Cont.…
• At present, SF6 circuit breakers are preferred for 132
kV and above.

• Vacuum circuit breakers are preferred for 11 kV–33

kV range.

• Therefore, the air blast circuit breakers are becoming

obsolete.
 4, Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) circuit breakers

• Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) has good dielectric

strength and excellent arc quenching property.

• It is an nontoxic, nonflammable and heavy gas.

• At atmospheric pressure, its dielectric strength is

about 2.35 times that of air.

• SF6 gas is an electronegative gas and has an high

tendency to absorb free electrons.
 Cont.…
• When a free electron comes in collision with a neutral
gas molecule, the electron is absorbed by the neutral
gas molecule and a negative ion is formed.

• As the negative ions so formed are heavy they do not

attain sufficient energy to contribute to ionisation of
the gas.

• This property gives a good dielectric property.

.
 5, Vacuum circuit breakers
• A vacuum circuit breaker is a kind of circuit breaker
where the arc quenching takes place in vacuum
medium.
• The dielectric strength and arc interrupting ability of
high vacuum is superior to those of, oil, air and SF6 at
atmospheric pressure.
• The life time vacuum circuit breaker is much longer
than other types of circuit breakers.
• The formation of arc in high vacuum is not possible
due to the formation of electron avalanche.
 2.5. HVDC Circuit Breakers
• At present, HVDC transmission lines are used for
point to point transmission of large power over long
distances.

• Such lines have many advantages over ac

transmission lines such as lower cost, less stability
problem and less corona loss etc.
 Cont.…
• HVDC circuit breakers are not essential for single
HVDC transmission lines which are used for point to
point transmission.

• The current in HVDC lines is controlled by

controlling the firing circuits of the thyristor
employed in rectifiers and inverters.

• Switching operations are performed from ac side with

the help of ac circuit breakers.
 Cont.…
• In ac circuits, current passes through natural current
zeros, and hence it is possible to design ac circuit
breakers to interrupt large currents.

• This feature is not available in dc.

• If a high current is suppressed abruptly in dc, a very

high transient voltage appears across the contacts of
the circuit breakers.
 Cont.…
• Therefore, in dc circuit breakers, some external
circuits have to be provided to bring down the current
from full value to zero.

• The additional circuit creates artificial current zeros

which are utilized for arc interruption.