K.D.

Bailey defines interviews as a form of social interaction subject to similar rules and
restrictions as other social interactions. Besides biases and errors from the questionnaire or
sampling design, the social nature of interviews introduces the potential for various biases,
Inconsistencies, and inaccuracies. T.R. Williams - cultural norms and situational meanings
complicate data interpretation derek phillips survey method itself can distort or manufacture
data - less reflective of reality

Errors or biases from respondents can include:

Deliberate lying : sensitive question - not willing to give socially undesirable answer

Unconscious mistakes. : resp believing he or she is giving an accurate answer when they are
not

Accidental errors (misunderstanding or misinterpreting questions)

Memory failures (inability to remember or uncertainty)

The interviewer's physical appearance and manner can influence the first two errors most
significantly. An interviewer perceived as prestigious, high-status, formal, or intimidating may
induce caution in respondents' answers. The third and fourth errors are more likely due to faulty
questionnaires, although an interviewer's behaviour, such as unclear speech or speaking softly,
can contribute to misunderstandings, particularly if the respondent struggles to understand.

There are also at least four types of error that can be made by the Interviewer, as listed by
Hyman:

asking errors

• probing errors

• recording errors

flagrant cheating

Although the literature has given most attention to the possible effects of the interviewer's social
and physical characteristics on the respondent's reaction, it should be clear that the interaction
goes both ways.

The interview as a secondary relationship:

In interviews, individuals' behaviours are influenced by their perceptions of the interviewer

and the sensitivity of the topic. Goffman (1959) emphasizes the significance of first
impressions, highlighting how respondents judge interviewers based on appearance and
sponsorship.

Despite the brief nature of the interaction, individuals engage in impression management,
primarily for self-conception, influenced by Cooley's "looking-glass self" concept. (suggests that
our self-concept develops based on how we imagine others perceive us.) People adapt their
behaviour based on others' evaluations, particularly for sensitive topics like sex, religion, or
race, where the interviewer's characteristics significantly impact responses. Matching
interviewer characteristics with those of the respondent is advisable to effectively navigate
sensitive issues.

Advantages of Interviews:

Advantages of Interview Studies:

1. Flexibility: Interviews allow for real-time adjustments to questions or prompts based on

the flow of conversation.
2. Response Rate: Personal interaction increases the likelihood of participants completing
the study.( Mailed questionnaire )
3. Nonverbal Behavior Observation: Researchers can capture valuable nonverbal cues
such as body language or tone.
4. Control Over the Environment: Interviews can be conducted in controlled settings to
minimize external distractions.
5. Question Order Control: Interviewers can ensure questions are presented in a logical
and planned sequence.
6. Spontaneity: Respondents can provide unrehearsed and more authentic answers
during live interactions.
7. Ability for Respondents to Answer Alone: Participants can respond in private,
allowing for potentially more honest answers.
8. Completeness of Responses: Interviewers can seek clarification or elaboration to
ensure thorough responses.
9. Timing Flexibility: Interviews can be scheduled at convenient times for participants.
10. Complexity of the Questionnaire: Interviewers can guide participants through intricate
or challenging questions.

Disadvantages of Interview Studies:

1. Cost: Conducting interviews can be expensive due to travel, resources, and personnel
needs.
2. Time Consumption: Interviews require significant time for scheduling, conducting, and
analyzing data.
3. Interview Bias: Researchers may unintentionally influence participants’ responses
through tone or phrasing.
 4. Lack of Opportunity to Consult Records: Respondents may not have immediate
access to documents or data they might need to reference.
5. Inconvenience: Participants may find it difficult to accommodate the time or location of
the interview.
6. Reduced Anonymity: Face-to-face interaction may discourage respondents from
sharing sensitive information.
7. Less Standardized Question Wording: Variability in how interviewers phrase or
present questions may affect consistency.
8. Limited Accessibility to Respondents: Some participants may be hard to reach due to
geographic, logistical, or social barriers.

Effects of interviewer characteristics:

Race and Ethnicity in Interviews:

In a study by J.A. Williams (1964), bias in data was found to be inversely related to the social
distance between the respondent and the interviewer. White interviewers exhibited more bias
towards lower-class black respondents compared to upper-class black respondents. Another
study by Duhrenwend et al. involved white interviewers who were rated after interviews based
on their preferences for certain types of subjects (e.g., men, women, poor people, rich people,
whites. blacks, old people, and young people). They found that interviewers who preferred
young respondents and rejected old people also tended to reject poor people and blacks..

Furthermore, blacks interviewed by whites were more likely to express warmth and closeness
toward whites compared to blacks interviewed by other blacks.

*Sex

Studies have shown that the sex of the interviewer can influence the respondent's reaction.
Benney et al. (1956) asked interviewers to rate each respondent's honesty in answering. In a
survey of political attitudes, male interviewers reported that 68% of male respondents and 56%
of female respondents were "completely frank and honest," while female interviewers reported
70% honesty for respondents of each sex.

Freeman and Butler (1976) later investigated variation within interviews by sex, finding more
variation for males than females in terms of both interviewer accuracy and respondent candour.

In a comprehensive study by Groves and Magilavy (1986) on interviewer effects in a telephone

survey, they examined effects by the gender of both interviewer and respondent.

Social Status:

Interviewers are predominantly middle-class, white-collar workers, whereas lower-class

individuals often serve as respondents. Bradburn and Sudman (1979) found that interviewers
with higher education made fewer errors in question asking. Campbell (1981) discovered that
status interacted with race, with low-status respondents showing greater deference to
interviewers of the opposite race.

Age:

Benney et al. (1956) investigated age and sex congruence between interviewers and
respondents on perceived honesty. While age similarity didn't consistently correlate with
honesty ratings, young female interviewers tended to rate young male respondents higher for
honesty compared to older. male respondents.

Clothing and Grooming:

Although little systematic study exists, the interviewer's attire and grooming can impact
interactions. Derek Phillips (1971) speculated on the effect of interviewer "props" like
briefcases. Dressing similarly to the respondent is advisable, though often not explicitly
addressed in interviewer training.

Approaching the Respondent:

Interviewers play a pivotal role in establishing rapport and creating a comfortable atmosphere
akin to a cover letter. Adaptability, friendliness, and encouragement of openness in respondents
are crucial. Unlike impersonal cover letters, interviewers face the challenge of physical presence
but strive to alleviate perceived threats, promoting genuine responses.

Dealing with refusals

Several reasons may lead respondents to refuse interviews, including expressing disinterest,
anti-establishment sentiments, or scepticism towards surveys. Language barriers, perceived.
antagonism towards the interviewer, busy schedules, or previous negative experiences with
survey organizations can also contribute to refusals. It's the interviewer's responsibility to
determine the reason for refusal and attempt to address it.

Conducting the Interview:

Ask Questions as Worded: Standardized questionnaires ensure uniformity in questioning across

respondents, facilitating comparison and computation of statistics. Questions should be asked
exactly as worded to maintain consistency and minimize clarification.

Ask Questions in Order: Maintaining question sequence is crucial for questionnaire design. If a
respondent declines to answer, the refusal should be recorded, and the interview should
proceed.
Avoid Leading Respondents: Interviewers should refrain from biasing or leading respondents by
reading questions as stated. It's important to create an environment where respondents don't
feel examined or on trial.

Respondents may alter responses based on perceptions of job contingencies or personal

feelings. Interviewers can pretest interviews to identify and mitigate unintentional facial
expressions or body language that may influence respondent behaviour.

Less Structured Interviews:

Open-ended Questions:

These allow respondents to provide detailed responses, requiring the interviewer to transcribe
lengthy statements.

Probes:

Follow-up questions are used to elicit fuller responses or structure answers, ensuring all
relevant topics are covered.

Semi-Structured Interview:

Provides a flexible framework with predetermined topics, allowing for unanticipated responses
while maintaining focus.

Focus Groups:

Guided discussions among a group offering qualitative insights on a specific topic, emphasizing

qualitative understanding over quantitative data.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Focus Groups:

Advantages:

Quick data collection

low cost

qualitative insights on beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours

depth of coverage.

Disadvantages:
Lack of quantitative data

limited generalizability

small sample size

higher nonresponse rates.

Clinical Interview:

Used by professionals to inquire about specific aspects of an individual's life history in a flexible,
unstructured manner.

Unstructured Interview:

Relies heavily on neutral probes to explore respondents' deepest feelings, offering a potentially
more valid approach in certain situations according to Gorden.

Reliability and Validity of Unstructured Interviews: Gorden argues that unstructured

interviews can be more valid than highly structured ones in certain situations, particularly when
communication would be impeded by rigidity or when the universe of discourse varies among
respondents.

Projective Methods:

These methods, originating in clinical psychology, elicit inner feelings through indirect
questioning, employing open-ended, unstructured approaches with stimuli like pictures to
prompt responses.

Telephone Interview:

Advantages:

Non-intrusive

speedy

cost-effective

allows probing for answers

benefits from technological advancements like random digit dialling and computer-
assisted telephone interviewing.

Limitations:

Lack of visual aids

Lack of nonverbal data

No control over the respondent's environment

alongside challenges such as respondent distrust and abrupt call terminations.

Random Digit Dialing (RDD):

Revolutionized sampling for telephone interviews by randomly dialling phone numbers,

bypassing directories and potential biases, although high dross rates remain a challenge.

Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI):

method where interviewers use computer systems to conduct surveys over the phone.

Utilizes computer terminals for displaying survey questionnaires and inputting responses directly
onto disks, streamlining the process and reducing skip-error issues.

Comparison with Face-to-Face Interviews:

Telephone surveys are cheaper but yield lower response rates. Efforts to increase rapport,
motivation, and trust between interviewer and respondent are crucial.

Other Issues in Telephone Surveys:

Interviewer characteristics such as voice pitch and speech rate influence outcomes, highlighting
the importance of training and monitoring.

Computer or Electronic Survey:

Offers advantages like cost and time savings, use of complex questionnaires, and anonymity,
but may suffer from biased sampling and lack of non-verbal cues.

Fax Surveys: Provide advantages like money and time savings but lack flexibility and
non-verbal communication, limiting their effectiveness.

Interviewer Training:
Interviewers must understand questionnaires and study objectives while remaining unaware of
specific hypotheses to prevent bias.

Entering the Field:

Accessing research sites, especially in lower-class neighbourhoods, can be challenging.

requiring close monitoring of interviewers to address unforeseen issues.

Panel Study:

Involves reinterviewing the same respondents at multiple points, allowing for longitudinal
analysis, although changes in data may not always reflect trends.

Validity and Reliability:

The error can arise from socially desirable responses and inaccuracies in recalling past events,
with recent events recalled more accurately than distant ones, affecting response reliability..

Criticism

Many social scientists, including T. R. Williams, express scepticism about the survey method,
especially in interviews, due to concerns about biased data collection. They doubt the possibility
of achieving unbiased results, citing institutionalized discrepancies between words and actions
in certain societies. William critiques surveys for assuming universal and context-free terms,
while Derek L. Phillips and others highlight how the survey method itself can introduce biases or
even produce fabricated data, leading to results that may not accurately reflect the population
but instead mirror the method's limitations.

Conclusion:

Bailey discussed the interview as an instance of social interaction between two people, and as
such governed by certain norms regulating social interaction. The success of this. interaction,
and thus the successful completion of the interview, can hinge upon the characteristics and
actions of the participants.