Curious Coaching Classes 8.

NOTES
STD: 8th
SUBJECT: SCIENCE
8. POLLUTION
Many problems have been arisen on the earth due to human interference in the nature.
Industrialization, increasing population, mining, transportation, indiscriminate use of pesticides and fertilizers
are causing pollution on the earth.
It is affecting human beings.

Pollution : Contamination of natural environment that will be harmful to ecosystems is called as pollution.

Pollutants : Factors affecting natural functions of ecosystem and causing harmful effects on abiotic and biotic
factors are called as pollutants.
Pollutants make the environment poisonous and unhealthy.
Pollutants may be natural or man made.
Natural pollutants are destroyed in due course of time by nature’s rule; however, man made pollutants are not.

A. Air Pollution :

Contamination of air by harmful substances like poisonous gases, smoke, particulate matter, microbes, etc. is
called as air pollution.
 Worst ever industrial accident had been occurred in Bhopal on the night of 2nd Dec.1984. Eight thousand people
had been died due to accidental gas leakage. Collect more information about Bhopal gas accident discuss the
nature of accident, reasons, aftereffects, preventive measures.

Effect of air pollution on plants and animals :

Depletion in Ozone layer :
1. Earlier, we have studied that ozone layer is present below the stratosphere, at the height of 48 kilometres from
earth’s surface.
2. It protects the living world of the earth from ultraviolet rays (UV-B) radiating from the Sun.
3. However, nowadays, ozone layer is getting depleted due to following reasons.

Green house effect and Global warming :

1. Though CO2 is present in very less quantity in atmosphere, it plays very important role of absorption of solar
heat.
2. Over the last 100 years, proportion of CO2 has been increased due to industrialization.
3. Effect of this CO2 on the earth’s temperature is nothing but green house effect.
4. Similar to CO2, nitrous oxide, methane and CFC also trap the heat. Collectively, these are called as green house
gases.
Global temperature is gradually increasing due to
green house effect.
Due to this, atmosphere is changing, causing
disturbances in agricultural yield, distribution of
wild animals.
Icebergs and glaciers are melting causing increase
in sea level.
 Acid Rain :
1. Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen are released into atmosphere through burning of coal, timber and fuel oils.
2. Those oxides mix with rain water and form acids like sulphuric acid, nitric acid, nitrous acid, etc. These acids
mix with rain drops and snowflakes and come down as rain, called as acid rain. Effects of acid rain: 1. Acidity
of soil and water bodies increases due to acid rain. It harms the aquatic organisms, plants and entire forest
life. Total ecosystems are adversely affected. 2. Erosion of buildings, busts, historical monuments, bridges,
metal idols, wire fences, etc. occurs due to acid rain. 3. Heavy metals like mercury and cadmium are
absorbed up by plants and thereby enter the food chain indirectly due to acid rain. 4. Due to acidification of
water in water bodies and pipes, leaching of metal and plastic material occurs in water and thereby serious
health problems arise.

Effect of air pollution on plants and animals :

Depletion in Ozone layer :
1. Earlier, we have studied that ozone layer is present below the stratosphere, at the height of 48 kilometres from
earth’s surface.
2. It protects the living world of the earth from ultraviolet rays (UV-B) radiating from the Sun.
3. However, nowadays, ozone layer is getting depleted due to following reasons.

Green house effect and Global warming :

1. Though CO2 is present in very less quantity in atmosphere, it plays very important role of absorption of solar
heat.
2. Over the last 100 years, proportion of CO2 has been increased due to industrialization.
3. Effect of this CO2 on the earth’s temperature is nothing but green house effect.
4. Similar to CO2, nitrous oxide, methane and CFC also trap the heat. Collectively, these are called as green house
gases.
Global temperature is gradually increasing due to
green house effect.
Due to this, atmosphere is changing, causing
disturbances in agricultural yield, distribution of
wild animals.
Icebergs and glaciers are melting causing increase
in sea level.
 Curious Coaching 3.1
Classes
NOTES STD: 8th
SUBJECT: SCIENCE
3. FORCE AND PRESSURE

Contact and Non contact forces :

A force is seen to act through a direct contact of the objects or via one more object. Such a force is called
‘Contact force’.
Muscular force is an example of contact force and is applied to objects with the help of our muscles. It is applied
in several cases such as lifting, pushing, pulling.

A force is applied between two objects even if the two objects are not in contact, such a force is called a
‘Non contact force’.
The forces like magnetic force, gravitational force, electrostatic force act without a contact. Therefore, these are
the examples of non contact forces.

Friction:
1. When a ball is kept on a table and pushed a little, it moves ahead and gets slow and stops.
2. A car running on a plane road travels some distance and stops after the engine is switched off.
3. This is because of the force of friction between the ground surface and the object in motion.
4. In the absence of frictional force, the object would have remained in motion.
5. Frictional force is very useful in daily life. While walking, we push the ground behind with our feet.
6. In the absence of friction, we will slip and will not be able to walk. All the objects in motion have a frictional
force acting on them which is acting in the direction opposite to the direction of motion.
7. You must have seen that, one tends to slip over banana peel on the street. Similarly one can slip due to mud.
Both these examples occur due to reduced friction.

Balanced force:
The effective force equal to zero acting on a object in opposite directions, is called balanced force.

Unbalanced force:
When unequal forces are applied to an object in opposite direction, an unbalanced force acts on an object
resulting in motion of an object, is called unbalanced force.

Example:
Children playing tug of war pull the rope in their respective directions. If the pull of the force is equal on the two
sides, the rope does not move.
If the force is more on one side, the rope moves in that direction.
This means that initially, the two forces are balanced. The rope moves in the direction of higher force when the
forces become unbalanced.

1. If several forces are applied on an object in the same direction, a force equal to their addition acts on that
object.
2. If two forces are applied on one object in directions opposite to each other, a force equal to their difference
acts on the object.
3. A force is expressed in magnitude and direction. Force is a vector quantity.

When a force is applied on a stationary object it moves, its speed and direction change.
Similarly, a force is required to stop an object in motion.
An object can change its shape due to force.
While kneading a dough made from flour, the dough changes its shape when a force is applied.

Inertia:
We have seen that an object changes its state of motion due to force.
In the absence of a force, objects exhibit a tendency to remain in the existing state of motion. this is called inertia.
Pressure: 3.2
The force exerted perpendicularly on a unit area is called ‘pressure’.
Pressure = Force / Area

Unit of pressure :
The SI unit of force is Newton (N). Area is measured in m2 .
Therefore, the SI unit of pressure is N/m2 . It is known as Pascal (Pa).
In atmospheric science, the unit for pressure is bar. 1 bar = 105 Pa.
Pressure is a scalar quantity.
If area increases, pressure reduces for the same force.
If area decreases, pressure increases for the same force.

For example, due to natural adaptation the bottom surfaces of camel’s feet are broad. Hence the camel’s weight is
exerted on a large area and the pressure on the sand is reduced. This is why camel’s feet do not penetrate into the
sand and it becomes easy to walk.

Pressure on Solid: Pressure of Liquid:

When a weight is kept on a solid, pressure is At any one level, the liquid pressure is
exerted on it. This pressure depends on the value
the same. Also, the pressure increases
of the weight and the contact area between the
two. as the depth of the liquid increases.

Gas Pressure:
1. Like a liquid, gas also exerts pressure on the wall of the container in which it is enclosed.
2. All gases and liquids have a common name ‘fluid’.
3. Fluids in a container exert pressure from within, on the walls and the bottom of the container.
4. A fluid enclosed in a containers exerts its pressure equally in all directions at a point within the fluid.

Atmospheric Pressure:
1. Air surrounds the earth from all sides. This layer of air is called atmosphere.
2. The atmosphere exists to about 16 km height. It further extends up to about 400 km in a very
dilute form.
3. The pressure created due to air is called the atmospheric pressure.
4. Imagine that a very long hollow cylinder of unit cross-sectional area is standing on the surface of
the earth, and it contains air as shown in figure.
5. Weight of this air is the force applied in the direction of the centre of the earth.
6. This means that atmospheric pressure is the ratio of this weight divided by the area of the
surface.
7. The air pressure at the sea level is called 1 Atmosphere pressure.
8. Air pressure decreases as one goes up in height from the sea level.
9. If air exists in a closed container, the air molecules in random motion continuously hit the walls
of the container. In this interaction a force is exerted on the walls of the container. Pressure is
created due to this force.

1 Atmosphere = 101 x 10³ Pa = 1 bar = 10³ mbar

1 mbar »10² Pa (hecto pascal)
 We constantly bear the atmospheric 3.3
pressure on our heads. However the
cavities in our body are also filled with air
and arteries and veins are filled with
blood. Therefore we do not get crushed
under water and due to atmospheric
pressure, as the pressure is balanced.

Buoyant Force :
1. The empty plastic bottle floats on the surface of water.
2. On the contrary, the bottle full of water floats inside water but does not
go to the bottom.
3. The weight of the empty bottle is negligible as compared with the
weight of the water inside. Such a bottle with water neither floats on
the surface, nor does it go to the bottom.
4. This means the force due to gravity acting downwards (fg ), must have
been balanced by an opposing force in the upward direction (fb ) on the
bottle filled with water.
5. This force must have originated from the water surrounding the bottle.
6. The upward force acting on the object in water or other fluid or gas is
called Buoyant force (fb ).

An iron nail sinks in water, but why does the massive steel ship float on it?
When an object is dipped in a liquid, a buoyant force acts on it and hence
it appears that the weight of the object is reduced.

1. It becomes easier to swim in sea water than in fresh water.

2. This is because the density of sea water is higher than the density of fresh water, due to salts dissolved in
sea water.
3. In this book you have seen that lemon sinks in a glass filled with water but it floats when we stir in two
spoons of salt in the water.
4. In salty water, the buoyant force exceeds the gravitational force. What is understood from these examples?
Buoyant force depends on two factors.
Volume of the object - The buoyant force is more if the volume of the dipping object is more.
Density of liquid - More the density of liquid, more is the force of buoyancy.

Archimedes Principle :
1. When the stone is sunk in water, a buoyant force acts on it in the
upward direction.
2. The weight of the stone acts downwards. Therefore, the force which
acts on it in the downward direction is effectively reduced.
3. How much is the magnitude of the buoyant force? Is it the same for all
the liquids? Is the buoyant force of equal magnitude for all objects?
4. The answers to these questions are embodied in Archimedes
Principle.
5. This principle states that : When an object is partially or fully
immersed in a fluid, a force of buoyancy acts on it in the upward
direction. This force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by
the object.
6. The use of Archimedes Principle is very wide. This principle has been
used in the construction of ships and submarines. The instruments
such as lactometer, hygrometer are based on this principle.

NOTES
 Curious Coaching 4.1
Classes
NOTES STD: 8th
4. CURRENT ELECTRICITY SUBJECT: SCIENCE

AND MAGNETISM
Electric current:
1. We have seen that electric current is produced due to the flow of charged particles.
2. Electrical charge flowing through a wire in 1 second can be called unit current.
3. The SI unit of electric current is Coulomb per second OR Ampere.
4. 1 Ampere = 1A = 1 Coulomb/1 second = 1 C/s
5. Electric current is a scalar quantity as it only has a magnitude not a direction.

Electric cell :
1. A source is required to produce a uniform flow of charges in a circuit.
2. Such a general device is an electric cell.
3. Various types of electric cells are available today. These are used in a range of machines from wrist
watches to submarines.
4. The main function of various electric cells is to maintain a constant potential difference between its two
terminals.
5. The electric cells work on the electric charges to maintain a constant potential difference.

Dry cell:
1. Take a lead dry cell and remove its outer coating.
2. Inside you will find a whitish, metal layer. This is the Zinc (Zn) metal layer.
This is the negative terminal of the cell.
3. Now, carefully break open this layer. There is another layer inside. An
electrolyte is filled between these two layers.
4. The electrolyte contains negatively charged and positively charged ions.
These are the carriers of electricity.
5. The electrolyte is a wet pulp of Zinc chloride (ZnCl2 ) and Ammonium
chloride (NH4Cl).
6. There is a graphite rod at the centre of the cell. This is positive terminal of
the cell.
7. A paste of Manganese dioxide (MnO2 ) is filled outside the rod.
8. Because of the chemical reactions of all these chemicals, electrical charge
is produced on the two terminals (graphite rod and zinc layer) and an
electric current flows in the circuit.

1. Due to the wet pulp used in this cell, the chemical reaction proceeds very slowly.
2. Hence a large electric current can not be obtained from this.
3. Compared to the electric cells using liquids, the shelf life of dry cells is longer.
4. Dry cells are very convenient to use as these can be held in any direction with respect to ground.
5. It can be used in mobile instruments.

Lead-Acid Cell :
1. The lead-acid cell contains a lead electrode and a lead dioxide electrode.
2. Both are dipped in dilute sulfuric acid. PbO2 carries a positive charge, while the
Pb electrode carries a negative charge.
3. The potential difference between these two is nearly 2V.
4. Because of the chemical reaction between the substances in the cell, electrical
charge is produced on both the electrodes and electric current flows through the
load (e.g. bulb).
Uses:
1. This kind of electric cells have a capacity to deliver large current.
2. Lead-acid cells are used in cars, trucks, motorcycles and uninterrupted power
supplies (UPS)This type of cell can be recharged after getting electrically
discharged.
Ni-Cd cell : 4.2
1. These days, a variety of gadgets are available, which are required to be carried to different places. Such
gadgets use Ni-Cd cells.
2. The cells deliver 1.2 V potential difference and are rechargeable.

Electric Circuit :
1. When a cell holder, an electric bulb and a plug key are connected by
connecting wires and a dry cell is fitted in the holder, then the bulb
lights up by closing the plug key.
2. This means that a current flows through the circuit and bulb lights up.
3. On the removal of the cell, the electric current flowing through the
circuit stops as indicated by the bulb which will not glow.
4. This type of connection of electrical components is called an electrical
circuit.
5. The cell is shown by the symbol

Connecting cells :
1. You must have seen more than one electric cells connected in an
electrical circuit.
2. In the transistor radio, 2-3 dry cell are seen to be connected in series.
3. The purpose of doing this is to obtain more potential difference than
that of a single cell. Therefore, it is possible to obtain higher current.
4. If the cells are connected, the connection of cells is known as a Battery
of cells.
5. In this series connection, the positive terminal of one cell is connected to
the negative terminal of second cell and the positive terminal of the
second cell is connected to the negative terminal of the third one.
6. Therefore, if each cell has a potential difference of 1V the total potential
difference of 3 cells will be 3V.

Magnetic effects of electric current :

1. We know that a magnetic needle is indeed a magnet.
2. You have seen that the magnetic needle changes its direction when a bar
magnet is taken near the magnetic needle.
3. Also, you have observed that the magnetic needle changes its direction
when a current starts flowing in the circuit.
4. This means that magnetic field is created when an electric current flows in
a wire.
5. Hans Christian Oerstead made this observation first. Briefly we can say
that when an electric current passes through a wire, a magnetic field in
produced around that wire.

Electro magnet:
1. When the electric current flows in the wire, magnetism is produced in the coil
around the screw and because of that the screw also attains magnetism.
2. As soon as the current is stopped, this magnetism vanishes.
3. The system of coil and the screw is called an electromagnet.
4. Electromagnets are used to produce strong magnetic field useful in scientific
research.

NOTES
Electric Bell : 4.3
1. We see that there is an electromagnet inside the electric bell.
2. Let us understand the working of the bell. A copper wire is wound around an iron
piece.
3. This coil acts as an electromagnet. An iron strip along with a striker is fitted near
to the electromagnet.
4. A contact screw is in touch with the strip. The electric circuit is connected as
shown in fig.
5. The current flows in the circuit when screw is in contact with the strip, and hence
the coil becomes a magnet and attracts the iron strip towards it.
6. Therefore, the striker hits the gong and the sound is created.
7. However, at the same time, the contact screw loses the contact with the strip and
the current in the circuit stops.
8. In this situation, the electromagnet loses its magnetism and the iron strip moves
back and comes in contact with the contact screw. The electric current is then
immediately restored and again the striker hits the gong by the above process.
9. This action repeats itself and the bell rings.

NOTES
 Curious Coaching 5.1
Classes
NOTES STD: 8th
SUBJECT: SCIENCE
5. INSIDE THE ATOM

Dalton’s atomic theory :

According to this,
1. theory matter is made of atoms
2. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible.
3. All atom of an element are alike while different element have
different atom with different mass.
4. atom described by Dalton, is a hard, solid sphere with no
internal structure.
5. According to Daltons atomic theory the mass is distributed
uniformly in an atom.

Rutherford’s nuclear model of atom (1911):

According to this,
1. Rutherford studied the inside of atom by his scatterring experiment.
2. Rutherford took a very thin gold foil (thickness : 10-4mm) and bombarded it with positively charged a -
particles emitted by a radioactive element.
3. He observed the path of a - particles by means of a fluorescent screen around the gold foil.
4. It was expected that the a- particles would get reflected from the gold foil if the positively charged
mass were evenly distributed inside the atoms.
5. Unexpectedly, most of the a - particles went straight through the foil.
6. A small number of a - particles get deflected from the original path through.
7. A small angle, a still smaller number of a- particles get deflected through a larger angle.
8. Surprisingly one a - particle out of 20000 bounced back in the direction opposite to the original path.
9. The large number of the a - particles that went straight through the foil indicates that there was no
obstacle in their path. It meant that there must be mainly an empty space inside the atoms in the
solid gold foil.
10. The small number of a - particles that get deflected through a small or a big angle must have faced an
obstacle in their path. It meant that the positively charged and heavy part causing obstruction would
be in the centre of the atom.

1. There is a positively charged nucleus at centre of an atom.

2. Almost the entire mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
3. Negatively charged particles called electrons revolve around the nucleus.
4. The total negative charged on all the electron is equal to the positive charge on the nucleus. As the opposite
charges are balanced the atom is electrically neutral.
5. There is an empty space between the revolving electron and the atomic nucleus.
Bohr’s stable orbit atomic model: 5.2
The important postulates of Bohr’s atomic model are as follows.
(i) The electrons revolving around the atomic nucleus lie in the concentric circular orbits at certain distance from the
nucleus.
(ii) Energy of an electron is constant while it is in a particular orbit.
(iii) When an electron jumps from an inner orbit to an outer orbit it absorbs energy equal to the difference of its
energy level.
e-

e- e-
p&n

Atomic structure:
1. An atom is formed from the nucleus and the extranuclear part.
2. These contain three types of subatomic particles namely, Proton, Neutron & Electron.
3. Nucleus The atomic nucleus is positively charged.
4. Almost entire mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
5. The nucleus contains two types of subatomic particles together called nucleons.
6. Protons and neutrons are the two types of nucleons.

Proton (p):
1. Proton is a positively charged subatomic particle in the atomic nucleus.
2. The positive charge on the nucleus is due to the proton in it.
3. A proton is represented by the symbol ‘p’.
4. Each proton carries a positive charge of +1e.
5. When total positive charge on the nucleus is expressed in the unit ‘e’ , its magnitude is equal to the number of
proton in the nucleus.
6. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is the atomic number of that element and is denoted by the ‘Z’.
7. mass of one proton is approximately 1u (1 Dalton). (1u = 1.66 ´ 10-27 Kg) (The mass of one hydrogen atom is also
approximately 1 u.)

Neutron (n):
1. Neutron is an electrically neutral subatomic particle.
2. It is denoted by the symbol ‘n’.
3. Atomic nuclei of all the elements except hydrogen, contain neutrons.
4. The mass of a neutron is approximately 1 u, which is almost equal to that of a proton.

Extranuclear part:
1. The extranuclear part in the atomic structure includes electrons
2. electrons revolving around the nucleus.
3. There is an empty space in between the nucleus and the electron.

Electron (e-):
1. Electron is a negatively charged subatomic particle.
2. It is denoted by the symbol ‘e- ’.
3. Each electron carries one unit of negative charge (-1e).
4. Mass of an electron is 1800 times less than that of a hydrogen atom.
5. Therefore the mass of an electron can be treated as negligible.
6. Electron in the extranuclear part revolve in the specific orbits around the nucleus.
7. The orbits being three dimensional in nature.
8. A term ‘shell’ is used in stead of the term ‘orbit’.
9. The energy of an electron is determined by the shell in which it is present.
10. The number of electron in the extranuclear part is equal to the number of proton in the nucleus.
11. Therefore electrical charges are balanced and the atom is electrically neutral.
 1. The mass of an electron being negligible, therefore the mass of an atom is mainly due to the protons 5.3
and neutrons in its nucleus.
2. The total number of protons and neutron in an atom is called the atomic mass number of that element.
3. The mass number is denoted by the symbol ‘A’.
4. The convention to denote atomic symbol, atomic number and mass number are together is shown as
follows.
For example, the conventional symbol given along side,
means that the atomic number, that is, the proton
number of carbon is 6 and the mass number of carbon
is 12.
From this it is also learnt that the nucleus of carbon
contain (12-6) i.e. 6 neutrons.

Distribution of electron:
1. As per Bohr’s atomic model, electrons revolve in stable shells.
2. These shells have a definite energy.
3. The shell nearest to the nucleus is called the first shell.
4. The next shell is called the second shell. A symbol ‘n’ is used for the order number of a shell.
5. The shells are referred to by the symbols K, L, M, N,.... corresponding to the ordinal numbers n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
6. The maximum number of electron a shell can contain is obtained by the formula ‘ ’.
7. As the magnitude of ‘n’ increases, the energy of an electron in that shell increases.

Electronic configuration of elements :

1. We have seen that 2, 8, 18, 32.... electrons can be accommodated in the shells K, L, M, N .... respectively. This is
the maximum capacity of that shells.
2. The electrons in an atom are distributed in the shells according to their maximum capacity.
3. The shell-wise distribution of the electron in an atom of an element is called the electronic configuration of
that element.
4. Each electron has a definite energy as per the shell in which it is present. Energy of an electron in the first
shell (K shell) is the lowest.
5. Energy of electron in the subsequent shells goes on increasing with the ordinal number of the shell.
6. The electronic configuration in the numerical form contains numbers separated by commas.
7. Here the numbers indicate the electron number in the shells with increasing order of energy for example the
electronic configuration of sodium is 2, 8, 1. It means that the total 11 electrons in sodium are distributed as
2 in the shell ‘K’, 8 in the shell ‘L’, and 1 in the shell ‘M’.

Valency:
The combining capacity of an atom is called valency
OR
The number of chemical bonds formed by an atom is called valency.

1. Valency of an atom is determined by the configuration of its outermost shell.

2. The outermost shell is called valence shell.
3. The electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electrons.
4. It can be seen that the valency of an atom is related to the number of valence electrons in that atom.
5. Let us first look at the elements helium and neon. Atoms of both these gaseous element do not combine with
any other atom. These elements are chemically inert. It means that their valency is ‘Zero’.
6. Atom of all the elements except inert gases have tendency to combine with other atoms, meaning that they
have a non zero valency.
7. You have seen from the formulae of the molecules formed by combination with hydrogen (for example HCl)
that valency of hydrogen is ‘one’.
8. The electronic configuration of hydrogen shows that there is ‘one’ electron less than the complete duplet
state.
9. This number ‘one’ matches with the valency of hydrogen which is also ‘one’. Moreover it is learnt that the
electronic configuration of sodium (2, 8, 1) has ‘one’ electron in the valence shell and the valency of sodium is
also ‘one’ as seen from the molecular formulae NaCl, NaH, etc.
10. It means that there is some relation between the valency of an element and the number of electron in its
valence shell.
 1. Helium atom contains two electrons which are accommodated in the first shell ‘K’. 5.4
2. Helium has only one ‘K’ shell that contains electron and the same is also the outermost
shell. He

3. The electron capacity of ‘K’ shell is ‘two’.

4. This indicates that the outermost shell of helium is completely filled.
5. It is said that helium has an electron duplet.

1. Neon, the another inert gas. The electronic configuration of neon contain two
shell ‘K’ and ‘L’. Ne
2. ‘L’ is valence shell of neon. The electron capacity of ‘L’ shell is ‘eight’.
3. Figure shows that, the valence shell of neon is completely filled.
4. It is said that neon has an electron octet.

1. Argon is an inert gas having electron in the shells ‘K’, ‘L’ and ‘M’.
2. The electron capacity of the ‘M’ shell is 2 x 32 = 18.
3. However in argon, there are only 8 electron in the valence shell ‘M’.
4. It means that there are eight electron in the valence shell of inert Ar
gases, that is an electron octet.
5. From this it is understood that the valency is ‘Zero’ when electron
octet (or duplet) is complete.

Q.1. Write down the number of electron

present in the outermost shell of each of
them.

Q.2. The number of electrons of some

elements is given here. By using it write the
electronic configuration, number of valence
electron and valency of the respective
elements.

NOTES
Isotopes : 5.5
1. The atomic number is a fundamental property of an element and its chemical identity.
2. Some elements in nature have atoms with same atomic number(no. of electrons) but different mass number
(no. of protons & neutrons).
3. Such atom of the same element having different mass number are called isotopes.
4. For example, carbon has three isotopes, namely, C - 12, C - 13, C - 14.
5. The mass number of isotopes is also represented by another method as , and . The isotopes have
same proton number but different neutron number.

Uses of isotopes :
1. Isotopes of some elements are radioactive. They are used in various fields such as industry, agriculture,
medicine, research field.
2. Uranium - 235 is used for nuclear fission and production of electricity.
3. Some radioactive isotopes like Cobalt - 60 are used in the medical treatment of fatal diseases like cancer.
4. Iodine -131 is used in the treatment of goiter, disease of thyroid gland.
5. The radioactive isotopes are used for detection of cracks (leakage) in the underground pipes. eg. Sodium -24.
6. Radioactive isotopes are used for food preservation from microbes.
7. The radioactive isotope C-14 is used for determining the age of archeological objects.

Nuclear Reactor :
1. Nuclear reactor is a machine that generates electricity on large scale by using atomic energy.
2. In a nuclear reactor, the nuclear energy in atom is released by bringing about nuclear reactions on the nuclear
fuel (radioactive element).
3. Let us understand a nuclear reaction with example of a nuclear fuel, namely, Uranium - 235.
4. On bombardment with slow speed of neutrons, the nucleus of the isotope Uranium - 235 undergoes nuclear
fission to form nuclei of two different elements Krypton - 92 and Barium - 141 and 2 to 3 neutrons.
5. On decreasing the speed these neutrons bring about fission of more U-235 nuclei.
6. In this way a chain reaction of nuclear fission takes place.
7. A large amount of nuclear energy is released during a chain reaction of fission.
8. The chain reaction is kept under control to prevent the probable explosion.
9. To control the chain reaction in the nuclear reactor it is necessary to decrease the speed and number of
neutrons.
10. For this purpose the following provision is made in a nuclear reactor.
Moderator :
Graphite or heavy water is used as moderator for reducing the speed of neutrons.
Controller :
1. To reduce the number of neutron by absorbing them rods of boron, cadmium, beryllium etc. are used as
controller. The heat produced in the fission process is taken out by using water as coolent.
2. Water is transformed into steam. By means of this steam, turbines are driven and electricity is generated.
 Curious Coaching 6.1
Classes
NOTES STD: 8th
SUBJECT: SCIENCE
6. COMPOSITION OF MATTER

There are two methods of classification matter.

1. According to the state of matter
2. According to the chemical composition of matter

1. According to the state of matter:

Solid:
An intermolecular force of attraction acts between the particles (atom or molecules) of matter.
The extent of the particle movement is determined by the strength of this force.
The particles of solid are very close to each other and vibrate at their fixed positions.
Due to this, solids get properties like definite shape and volume and also high density and non-compressibility.

Liquid:
The strength of intermolecular force is moderate in the liquid state.
Though it is not strong enough to fix the particles in definite position, it is strong enough to hold them together.
As a result, liquids have definite volume. However they have fluidity and their shape is not definite but changes in
accordance with the container.

Gas:
The intermolecular force is very weak in gases.
Therefore the constituent particles of gases move freely
Gas particles occupy all the available space.
Consequently gases have neither definite shape nor definite volume.
Following figure shows the characteristics of the states of matter..

2. According to the chemical composition of matter:

1. Matter is classified into three types ‘element’, ‘compound’ and ‘mixture’ by considering whether the smallest particles of
matter are similar or different and what are they made of.
2. All the smallest particles (atoms/ molecules) in an element or a compound are alike, however, the smallest particles in a
mixture are of two or more types.
3. The smallest particles of an element contain identical atoms. For example, each molecule of oxygen contains two oxygen
atoms in bonded state.
4. The smallest particles (molecules) of a compound are formed by joining two or more types of atoms to each other. For
example, each molecule of water contain two hydrogen atoms joined to one atom of oxygen.
5. The smallest particles of a mixture are atoms/molecules of two or more elements/compounds. For example, the main
constituent molecules of the mixture namely, air are N2 , O2 , Ar, H2O, CO2 .
6. Similarly, the mixture (an alloy) brass contain atoms of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn), while bronze contain atoms of the
elements copper (Cu) and tin (Sn).
 6.2

Water :
Pure water is a compound formed by chemical combination of the elements hydrogen and oxygen.
Whatever may be the source of water, the proportion of its constituent elements oxygen and hydrogen by weight is always
8:1. Hydrogen is an inflammable gas while oxygen gas supports combustion.
However, the compound water formed by chemical combination of the gaseous elements hydrogen and oxygen is a liquid. It
is neither inflammable nor does it support combustion. On the contrary it helps to extinguish fire.

Milk :
Milk is a mixture of water, lactose, fats, protein and a few more natural substances.
The proportion of various ingredients of milk is different as per its source.
The proportion of fats in cow milk is 3-5 %, while it is 6-9 % in buffalo milk.
The ingredient water is naturally present in large proportion in milk. Therefore milk exists in liquid state.
The sweetness of milk is due to the ingredient called lactose. In other words, the properties of the constituent substances are
retained in milk.

Types of Element:
1. Element has different physical properties like lustre/paleness, malleability/ brittleness.
2. According to that elements are classified. In early times, elements were classified into 'Metals, Non metals & metalloid'.

Types of compound:
1. On heating strongly some compounds give residue while others do not give any residue or give a blackish residue.
2. The black residue is mainly made of carbon.
3. In case their combustion is not complete, black coloured carbon remain behind as residue. These compounds are called
organic compounds or carbon compounds. For example materials like, carbohydrates, proteins, hydrocarbons (for
example, petrol, cooking gas) are made of organic compounds.
4. The camphor, sugar, glucose and urea used in the above activity are organic compounds.
5. On the other hand the compounds that decompose on strong heating to leave a residue behind are inorganic compounds.
Common salt, soda, rust, blue vitriol, limestone are inorganic compounds.
6. In addition there is one more type of compounds, namely complex compounds.
7. The molecules of compounds have a complex structure formed by many atoms and in the centre of this structure metal
atoms are also included. Chlorophyll that contains magnesium, hemoglobin that contain iron, cyanocobalamine (vitamin B-
12) that contain cobalt are some examples of complex compounds.
8. Various atoms in the molecules of compounds are joined by chemical bonds. We are going to look at that later.
Types of Mixture: 6.3
1. The part of matter having uniform composition is called phase.
2. When all the components of a mixture form one phase, it is called homogeneous mixture.
3. When the components of a mixture are distributed into two or more phases it is called a heterogeneous mixture.

Solution :
1. A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances is called solution.
2. A homogeneous mixture of water and salt is formed. It is called a salt solution.
3. A component of a solution which is present in the largest proportion is called solvent.
4. The other components which are in less proportion than the solvent are called solute.
5. The process of forming a solution by mixing solutes in a solvent is called dissolution.
6. According to the states of the components solution can be of many types.
7. Solid in liquid: The solution such as sea water, blue vitriol dissolved in water, salt dissolved in water are of the
type .
8. Liquid in liquid: For example, vinegar, dilute sulphuric acid).
9. Gas in gas: (for example, air)
10. Solid in solid: (for example, alloys like brass, steel, stainless steel, etc).
11. Gas in liquid: (for example, chlorinated water, hydrochloric acid).
12. The composition of a homogeneous mixture, that is to say solution, is uniform throughout the bulk.
13. If solvent is a transparent liquid, the solution is also transparent and it passes through a filter paper.

Suspension :
1. Heterogeneous mixture of water and saw dust is formed. It is a mixture of a liquid and a solid.
2. Heterogeneous mixture of a liquid and a solid is called a suspension.
3. The diameter of the solid particles in a suspension is larger than 10-4 m. Therefore light cannot transmit through
it.
4. More over, these solid particles remain on an ordinary filter paper as residue and therefore the liquid and solid
components of a suspension get separated by filtration.

Colloid :
1. The mixture of water and milk is translucent. It means that, when light is incident on the surface of this mixture,
it is partly transmitted and partly scattered.
2. This is because the tiny particles of milk phase in this heterogeneous mixture are dispersed evenly in water
phase.
3. The diameter of these particles is around 10-5m. Such a heterogeneous mixture is called a colloid.
4. However as the pores of an ordinary filter paper are larger than colloid, the heterogeneous mixture, cannot be
separated by filtration. Milk is itself a colloid.
5. In it, the solid and liquid particles of proteins, fats, etc. having a diameter around 10-5m are dispersed in the
aqueous medium.
6. Apart from this, there are some more types of colloids such as ‘solid in gas’ (for example, smoke), ‘liquid in gas’
(for example, fog, cloud), etc.

Molecular formula and valency :

1. Molecular formula indicates the number of atom of each of the constituent elements present in one molecule of
a compound.
2. A molecular formula includes the information regarding the symbols of the all the constituent elements and
their respective number as subscripts.
3. The ability of joining to another atom with a chemical bond is a chemical property of each atom.
4. This ability is indicated by a number and this number is called valency of that atom.
5. The combining capacity of atom is called valency of an atom.
6. An atom forms as many chemical bonds with other atom as its valency.
7. Means, valency = no. of chemical bond

Valencies of the constituent elements can be deduced from the known molecular formula of a compound. The
basis for this is the univalency of hydrogen. On the other hand, the molecular formula of a compound can be
written from the known valencies of the constituent elements by the method of cross multiplication.

NOTES
Step 1 :
To write symbols of constituent elements.
6.4
C O

Step 2 :
To write the valency below the respective element.
C O
4 2

Step 3 :
To cross multiply to obtain the number of atom of the constituent elements in the molecule of the compound.
C O
4 2

Step 4 :
To write the formula of the compound obtained by cross multiplication.

Step 5 :
To write the final molecular formula of the compound. The number of constituent atoms in the final molecular
formula should be the smallest possible whole numbers. For getting this, divide the formula obtaind in step 4 by a
suitable number. Formula obtained by cross multiplication :

Final molecular formula obtained by dividing by ‘2’

:

Practice:
Q. 1. Deduce the molecular formulae of the compounds formed from the following pairs of elements.
(i) H (valency 1) and O (valency 2)
(ii) N (valency 3) and H (valency 1)
(iii) Fe (valency 2) and S (valency 2)

Q.2. The valencies of the atom H, O and N are 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The molecular formulae of these gaseous
elements are H2 , O2 , and N2 respectively. How many chemical bonds are there in each of these molecules?

NOTES
 Curious Coaching 7.1
Classes
NOTES STD: 8th
SUBJECT: SCIENCE
7. METALS AND NONMETALS

All the objects or materials in the world are made from elements, compounds or their mixtures.
Scientists classified all the elements into three general types which are metals, nonmetals and metalloids.

Metals :
1. Gold, silver, iron, copper, aluminum, magnesium, calcium, sodium, platinum are a few metals.
2. Metals have lustre.
3. The metals are hard.
4. Wire or sheet can be from them made metal.
5. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
6. Metals lose their valence electrons to produce positively charged ions, that is, cations.

Physical Properties of Metals:

Physical State:
Under ordinary temperature metals stay in solid state.
However metals like mercury and gallium are exception, which are in liquid state even at room temperature.

Lustre:
Light gets reflected from the cleaned or freshly cut surface of metal and the metal looks lustrous.

Hardness:
Generally metals are hard, not soft.
Exception : Sodium and potassium are soft and can be easily cut by a knife.

Ductility :
When a metal is pulled through a hole its wire is formed. This property of metal is called ductility.

Malleability :
Take an iron nail. Place it on a platform and keep on hammering it. After sometime you will see a thin sheet
forming. This property is called malleability of metals.

Conduction of Heat :
Metals are good conductors of heat. Silver, copper and aluminum are the best conductors of heat.

Conduction of Electricity :
Metals are good conductors of electricity.
Lead is an exception, which is neither a good conductor of heat nor a good conductor of electricity.

Density :
Metals have high density.
Sodium, potassium and lithium are exception, having lower density then water.
The density of lithium is only 0.53 g/cc.

Melting point & Boiling Point :

Generally metals have high melting points and boiling points.
Exceptions : Hg, Ga, Na, K.

Sonority :
Metals are sonorous.
They produce sound on striking.
Nonmetals :
Carbon, Sulphur, Phosphorus are a few nonmetals. Generally nonmetals are brittle and nonlustrous.
7.2

Physical Properties of non-metals :

Physical State :
At ordinary temperature nonmetals occur as solids, liquids and gases. For example : Solids : C, S, P; Liquids : Br2 ;
Gases : H2 , N2 , O2.

Lustre :
Nonmetals do not have lustre, except diamond and iodine crystals.
Some nonmetals are colourless while others have different colours.

Brittleness :
Solid nonmetals are brittle. Some nonmetals are soft.
Diamond (an allotrope of carbon) is an exception, which is the hardest natural substance.

Ductility & Malleability :

Non metals are neither ductile nor malleable.

Conduction of Heat & Electricity :

Non metals are bad conductors of heat and electricity, except graphite (an allotrope of carbon) which is a very
good conductor of electricity.

Density :
Nonmetals have low densities.

Melting & Boiling Point :

Nonmetals have low melting and boiling points. Exceptions : the solid nonmetals carbon and boron melt at high
temperature.

Metalloids :

Some elements such as arsenic (As), Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Antimony (Sb) have properties which are
intermediate between metals and nonmetals. Such elements are called metalloids.

Chemical properties of Metals:

a. Electronic configuration :
Electronic configuration is the basis of chemical behavior of elements.
Majority of metals have upto three electrons in their outermost shell.

b. Formation of ions :
Metals have a tendency to lose their valence electrons to form positively charged ions, that is, cations.

(2,8,1) (2,8) (2,8,2) (2,8)

Sodium Sodium Magnesium Magnesium
ion ion

c. Reaction with oxygen :

Metals combine with oxygen to form their oxides.
Metal + Oxygen Metal oxide

The metal oxides are basic in nature. Metal oxides react with an acid to form salt and water.
d. Reaction with acid :
Most of the metals react with dilute acids to form metal salts while hydrogen gas is released. 7.3
Metal + dilute Acid Salt + Hydrogen gas.

e. Reaction with water :

Most metals do not show any observable and fast reaction with cold water.
But some metals like sodium and potassium react with cold water to produce their hydroxides and hydrogen
gas.
magnesium metal requires steam to give similar reactions.

Chemical properties of non-metals:

a. Electronic configuration : c. Reaction with oxygen :

Most of the nonmetals have 4 to 7 electrons in Nonmetals combine with oxygen to form their oxides.
their valence shells. Nonmetal + oxygen Nonmetal oxide

The oxides of nonmetals are acidic in nature.

d. Nonmetals do not react with dilute acids.

b. Formation of ions :
Non metals have a tendency to accept electrons
in their valence shell to form negatively charged
ions called anions.

(2,8,7) (2,8,8) (2,6) (2,8)

Chlorine Chlorine ion Oxygen Oxygen ion

Noble Metal :
1. Some metals like gold, silver, platinum, palladium and rhodium are noble metals.
2. They occur in nature in the elemental state.
3. Gold which is 100 percent pure is called 24 carat gold.
4. Pure gold is soft. As a result the ornaments made from pure gold bend or break due to pressure.
5. Therefore goldsmiths mix it with certain proportion of copper or silver.
6. Ornaments are made from 22 carat gold or gold with still smaller carat value.

Uses of Noble metals :

1. Gold, silver and platinum are used to prepare ornaments.
2. Silver used in medicines. (It has antibacterial property).
3. Gold and silver also use to make medals.
4. Gold and silver also used to make few electronic devices.
5. Platinum, palladium metals are used as catalyst.

Purity of Gold :

1. Gold is a noble metal, in nature it occurs in element form.

2. 100% pure gold is 24 carat. Pure gold is soft. Therefore gold
ornaments prepared by pure gold may break or bend due to pressure.
3. Hence gold-smith add specific amount of copper or silver in pure gold.
4. To prepare ornaments 22 carat gold is used.

NOTES
Corrosion : 7.4
1. Gases in the air react with metals in presence of moisture to form metal compounds. The metals get affected
by this process and undergo what is called corrosion.
2. There is a statue of Liberty in the sea near New York city in America. The original surface of their statues was
made of copper. But now it, looks green.
3. This is because green coloured copper carbonate has been formed by a reaction of copper with the carbon
dioxide and moisture in the air. This is an example of corrosion.
4. A reddish coloured deposit is formed on iron by reaction with oxygen gas.
5. A greenish coloured deposit is formed on copper by reaction with carbon-dioxide gas.
6. A blackish coloured deposit is formed on silver by reaction with hydrogen sulphide gas.

How to Prevent Corrosion :

1. To prevent corrosion of metals, layers of oil, grease, varnish and paint are applied on them.
2. Also plating with another noncorroding metal is done.
3. Iron is arrested by zinc plating. Due to these processes the contact of metal surface with air is lost and
corrosion cannot occur as the chemical reaction cannot occur.

Alloy :
1. A homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or a homogeneous mixture metal with nonmetals is called
alloy.
2. Alloys are made by mixing the constituent elements in as per the requirement.
3. For example, the stainless steel utensils used at home are made of an alloy of iron with carbon, chromium and
nickel.
4. The alloy bronze is formed from copper and tin.

NOTES