CHAPTER-22
CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION
Endocrine Glands
Endocrine glands have no ducts and their secretion gets absorbed into the immediate surrounding blood
circulation to reach the specific organs to initiate a particular metabolic change.
The endocrine glands secrete chemicals called hormones. Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals which act
as intercellular messengers and are produced in trace amounts.
Human Endocrine System
The endocrine glands and hormone-producing tissues/cells are in different body parts.
The Gastrointestinal tract, kidney, liver and heart also produce a small quantity of hormones to control and
coordinate the function of respective organs.
The hypothalamus contains several groups of neurosecretory cells called nuclei which produce hormones.
These hormones control and regulate the synthesis and secretion of pituitary hormones.
The hormones released from the hypothalamus reach to pituitary gland through the portal circulatory
system and regulate the function of the anterior pituitary. The posterior pituitary is under direct control of
the hypothalamus.
The pituitary Gland is located in a body cavity called sella turcica and is attached to the hypothalamus by a
stalk.
The pituitary is divided into adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis. Adenohypophysis consists of two
parts: pars distalis or anterior pituitary secreting growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL), thyroid stimulating
hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) and pars intermedia secreting melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH).
Neurohypophysis (pars nervosa) known as posterior pituitary releases two hormones: oxytocin and
vasopressin.
Oversecretion of GH (growth hormone) causes overgrowth of the body leading to gigantism and low
secretion causes stunted growth called dwarfism.
Prolactin stimulates the growth of the mammary gland and the secretion of milk. TSH stimulates and
regulates thyroid hormone secretion from the thyroid gland.
LH and FSH stimulate gonadal activity. In males, LH stimulates the synthesis and secretion of androgen
hormone from the testis. In females, LH induces ovulation of a fully mature ovum from the ovary.
Oxytocin helps in the contraction of the uterus during childbirth and milk ejection from mammary glands.
Vasopressin stimulates the absorption of water and electrolytes in the kidney. Vasopressin is also known as
Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH). Deficiency of ADH leads to diabetes insipidus.
Pineal gland: It is located on the dorsal side of the forebrain and releases melatonin hormone that helps in
the regulation of the 24-hour rhythm of the body like the sleep-wake cycle and body temperature.
Thyroid gland—Composed of two lobes on either side of the trachea connected by an isthmus. Iodine is
essential for the synthesis of thyroid hormones. Deficiency of iodine leads to hyperthyroidism (Goitre).
Exophthalmic goitre is a form of hypothyroidism. It is characterised by enlargement of the thyroid gland. It
is also known as Grave’s disease.
During pregnancy, hypothyroidism may cause stunted growth of the baby and mental retardation.
Parathyroid gland—It is located on the back side of the thyroid gland, and secretes a peptide hormone
called parathyroid hormone (PTH). PTH regulates the circulating level of calcium ions. It also helps in
reabsorption of calcium from renal tubules and digestive tracts.
Thymus—It is located on the dorsal side of the heart and the aorta. This gland releases peptide hormone
thymosins that help in the differentiation of T-lymphocytes. It also promotes the production of antibodies
to provide humoral immunity.
Adrenal gland— It is located on the anterior part of each kidney, composed of two types of tissues—
central adrenal medulla and outside adrenal cortex. The adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline and no-
adrenaline hormones, together called emergency hormones. The adrenal cortex secretes many hormones
together called corticoids which are involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates and maintaining water
and electrolyte balance. Underproduction of adrenaline leads to Addison’s disease.
Pancreas—It acts as both endocrine and exocrine glands. The endocrine pancreas consists of “Islets of
Langerhans” which contain α-cells and β-cells. The α-cells secrete hormone glucagon and β-cells secrete
insulin. Both hormones are involved in the maintenance of blood sugar levels.
Glycogen is a peptide hormone that stimulates glycogenolysis resulting in increased blood sugar
(hyperglycemia).
Insulin is a peptide hormone that plays a major role in the regulation of glucose homeostasis. The rapid
movement of glucose to hepatocytes and adipocytes results in decreased blood glucose levels
(hypoglycemia).
Testis— It performs dual functions as a primary sex organ as well as endocrine glands. Leydig cells or
interstitial cells produce androgen mainly testosterone which regulates the regulation and maturation of
primary sex organs.
Ovary—Produces two groups of steroid hormones called estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen is
synthesized and secreted by growing ovarian follicles. After ovulation, a ruptured ovum called the corpus
luteum secretes progesterone. Estrogen produces a wide range of actions like the growth of female
secondary sex organs. Progesterone regulates pregnancy.
The atrial wall of the heart secretes a peptide hormone called atrial natriuretic factor ( ANF) that causes
dilation of blood vessels. The juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney produce erythropoietin hormone which
stimulates erythropoiesis.
TOPIC-2
Mechanism of Hormone Action
Hormone produces their effects on target tissues by binding to specific proteins called hormone receptors
located in the target tissue.
The binding of hormones to receptors leads to the formation of hormone receptor complexes. This binding
leads to a change in the target tissue.
Based on their chemical nature, hormones are grouped as:
Peptide, polypeptide and protein hormones: Insulin, glucagon, pituitary hormone, hypothalamus
hormones.
Steroids: Cortisol, testosterone, progesterone.
Lodothyronines: Thyroid hormones.
Amino acid derivatives: Epinephrine.
The hormones that bind with membrane-bound receptors (steroid hormones) normally do not enter the
target cells but generate a second messenger which in turn regulates cellular metabolism.
The hormones (protein hormones) which interact with membrane-bound receptors mostly regulate gene
expression or chromosome function by interaction with the hormone receptor complex with the genome.
The biochemical effect results in physiological and developmental effects.
Hypo and Hyperactivity of hormones.
Deficiency of hormones leads to hypoactivity of the hormones.
Excess secretion of the hormones increases hormones' action which is called hyperactivity of the
hormones.
Hypoactivity or hyperactivity of the hormones can cause disorders.
Pituitary dwarfism is caused by the deficiency of growth hormone (GH) from childhood. It is characterised
by a small but proportionate body and sexual maturity. Gigantism is caused by an excess of growth
hormone from an early age. It is characterised by a disproportionate increase in the size of the bones of
the face, hands and feet.
Cretinism is caused by a deficiency of thyroid hormone in infants. It is characterised by slow body growth
and mental development with a reduced metabolic rate.
Goitre is caused by a deficiency of iodine in the diet because iodine is needed for the synthesis of
thyroxine. It causes thyroid enlargement.
Exophthalmic goitre is a thyroid enlargement (goitre) in which the thyroid secretes an excessive amount of
thyroid hormone. It is characterised by exophthalmia, i.e., protrusion of eyeballs, loss of weight, rapid
heartbeat, nervousness and restlessness.
Diabetes mellitus is caused by the failure of the beta-cells in the islet of Langerhans situated in the
pancreas to produce an adequate amount of insulin. Some of the glucose is excreted in the urine. This
causes excess thirst and the person becomes very weak.
Addison’s disease is caused by the deficiency of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids. Its symptoms
include low blood sugar, low plasma Na+, high K+ plasma, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, etc.