BCLE216L WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

MODULE 2
Global and Indian Scenario for Water Resources
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

Surface Water and Groundwater Global and Indian

Scenario-Quality of water resources- Water use and
sustainable reuse methods-Usable water resources by
continent and country-Water footprint.

Dr. S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
VIT, VELLORE
[Link]@[Link]
 Surface Water and Groundwater Global Scenario
UNESCO world water resources report 1998
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT
Global stock of water
 Earths hydrosphere contains a huge amount of
water about 1386 million cubic kilometres.
However, 97.5% of this amount is saline waters
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and only 2.5% is freshwater (Refer previous

table) The grater portion of freshwater 68.7% is in
the form of ice and permanent snow cover in the
Antarctic, the Artic and in the mountainous
regions. 29% exist as fresh groundwater, only
0.3% of the total amount of freshwater on earth is
concentrated in lakes, reservoir and river systems
were they are most easily accessible for our
economic needs and absolutely vital for water
ecosystem
 Hydrological turnover of the freshwater
Total evaporation = 577,000 km3
Water which is evaporated is likely to fall as the precipitation
Total Precipitation = 577,000 km3
Freshwater runoff from land = land precipitation – Evaporation
= 119000-74200
119,000 Km3
458,000 Km3 = 44,800 km3 per year
In this surface runoff 42,700 km3 and groundwater runoff 2100 km3 per
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

502,800 Km3 year

74,200 Km3

Evaporation from
Evaporation from
sea
land

Thus river and stream water representing

runoff is of great importance in the global
hydrological cycle and for the supply of
water to humankind
 Spatial variability of Global freshwater over continent, region and country
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

The mean value of available fresh water 42700 km3 per year is extremely variable
with respect to space (location) and time (daily, monthly, yearly etc).

Table (continental distribution of water) shows the continent wise distribution of water.
Asia and America is having a largest volume whereas, Europe, Australia and Oceania
is having a smallest quantity.

Table on Temporal variation of renewable freshwater shows the actual run-off from
1920 every ten years. Cycles of dry and wet years are observed from the above table.
Deviation from the average annual runoff (42700) differ considerable in both duration
and magnitude.
 GLOBAL WATER USE
• Write notes from first module… Domestic,
Industrial and Industrial requirement
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT
 Indian water quantity scenario
[Link]

India is a water rich country with 4% of world’s water resources(India-

WRIS wiki 2015). India receives about 4000 Km3 of average annual
precipitation along with snowfall, of which 3000 Km3 is received in the
monsoon season (June-September). Only 60% of the water is available
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

for use.

• Other than rivers and canals, other inland water resources include
numerous reservoirs, tanks and ponds, beels (Wet lands),
• Oxbow lakes (There is no stream or spring feeding the lake, and it
doesn't have a natural outlet),
• derelict water (Polluted abandoned water) and
• brackish water (water that is more saline),
which cover almost 7 mha of area. They are unevenly distributed over
the country with Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka and West
Bengal possessing more than 50% of these inland water resources.
 Surface water resources of India
• In the country, there are about 10,360 rivers
and their tributaries longer than 1.6 km each.
• Average flow in the river is estimated to be 1870 km3, but 30%
(690 cubic km) is utilizable.
• Precipitation is relatively high in the catchment areas of the Ganga
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

(Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West

Bengal), the Brahmaputra (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, West Bengal, and Sikkim.) and the
Barak rivers (Manipur, Mizoram and Assam), these rivers,
although account for only about one-third of the total area in the
country, have 60 per cent of the total surface water resources.
• Much of the annual water flow in south Indian rivers like the
Godavari (Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and
Odisha in addition to smaller parts in Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka and Union territory of Puducherry), the Krishna
(Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana),
and the Kaveri has been harnessed (controlled use by dams and
check dams)
 Groundwater resources of India
• The total replenishable groundwater resources in the
country are about 432 cubic km.
• Ganga and the Brahamaputra basins, have about 46 per
cent of the total replenishable groundwater resources.
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

• The level of groundwater utilisation is relatively high in

the river basins lying in north-western region and parts
of south India.
• The groundwater utilisation is very high in the states of
Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu.
• However, there are States like Chhattisgarh, Odisha,
Kerala, etc., which utilize only a small proportion of
their groundwater potentials.
• States like Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tripura and
Maharashtra are utilizing their ground water resources at
a moderate rate.
 • In a country like India where there is significant
mismatch of spatial distribution of available water
with the population, the situation becomes
alarming; ironically less water is available where
more people live.
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

• While, as per the international norms, countries

with per-capita water availability less than 1700
m3 per year is categorized as water stressed, with
per capita available water of 1545 m3 India is
definitely water stressed country (India-WRIS wiki
2015, Census, 2011).
• Studies shows that the projected per capita water
availability will become 1401 m3 and 1191 m3 by
2025 and 2050 respectively and eventually India is
likely to become a water scarce country (India-
WRIS wiki 2015, Gangwar 2013).
 Indian water use
Domestic and municipal use

Domestic sector utilises 6% of this freshwater. Groundwater (80%) is a major source of

drinking water in urban and rural India
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

Water for Industrial use

Industrial sector utilises 5 % of this freshwater. With increasing population pressures,
industrial growth the ground water is extracted from lower and lower level with much faster
rate than rainfall can even replenish.

Water for agriculture in India

Being an agrarian country, irrigation by far is the largest user of India’s water reserve with
hooping usage of 78% of total water reserve. 45% of total irrigation water come from
ground water reserve.
India has abundant ground water reserve which gets replenished every year mostly by
monsoon precipitation. However, in some states viz. Delhi, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar
Pradesh over exploitation of ground water has led to water scarcity. States like Rajasthan
and Gujarat arid climate leads to water stressed condition, while in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
and Andhra Pradesh poor aquifer properties are responsible for water scarcity.
 WATER QUALITY
• Rainwater is fresh in nature. During hydrological
cycle, it attains certain physical, chemical and
biological characteristics. The nature of these
water quality in an area depend on the
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

anthropogenic and geogenic activities of that

region.

• When these water characteristics are within the

standard set by WHO or Country wise standards
for drinking, irrigation and industrial purposes
there is no problem in using the water for the
required purposes.

• Whereas, when water characteristics exceeds these

limits it causes threat.
 Global water quality
[Link]
• The United Nations General Assembly (RES/64/292(link is external)) in
2010 recognized – “access to safe and clean drinking water and
sanitation as a human right” – essential for our lives and well-being
• Water quality is one of the main challenges that societies will face during
the 21st century, threatening human health, limiting food production,
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

reducing ecosystem functions, and hindering economic growth.

• Many developing countries are lacking adequate wastewater

infrastructure with only 10% of the wastewater being processed through
appropriate treatment and most sewage not being collected.

• The availability of the world’s scarce water resources are limited due to
the worsening pollution of freshwater resources caused by the disposal of
large quantities of insufficiently treated, or untreated, wastewater into
rivers, lakes, aquifers and coastal waters.

• Furthermore, newly emerging pollutants like personal care products and

pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and industrial and household chemicals, and
changing climate patterns represent a new water quality challenge, with
still unknown long-term impacts on human health and ecosystems.
 Water Quality Facts around globe
• One in nine people (1 in 9) worldwide uses drinking water from
unimproved and unsafe sources
• 2.4 billion people live without any form of sanitation
• Lack of sanitation is one of the most significant forms of water
pollution.
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

• 90% of sewage in developing countries are discharged untreated

directly into water bodies which affects aquatic life
• Every day 2 million tonnes of sewage and other effluents drain into
the world’s water
• Industry discharges an estimated 300-400 megatonnes of waste into
water bodies every year
• Non-point source pollution from agriculture and urban areas often
greatly increases the total pollutant load together with industrial point
source pollution
• A reduction of about one-third of the global biodiversity is estimated
to be a consequence of the degradation of freshwater ecosystems
mainly due to pollution of water resources and aquatic ecosystems
• Re-use of wastewater in agriculture is important for livelihoods, but is
associated with serious health risks
 Water quality – Sustainable Development Goal
The 2030 Agenda and Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) bring water quality issues to the forefront of
international action by setting Goal 6 specifically aiming to
“ensure availability and sustainable management of water
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

and sanitation for all” to respond to the pressing

challenges posed by water quality issues.
• Water quality is addressed also under other SDGs such
as the goals on health, poverty reduction, ecosystems
and sustainable consumption and production,
recognizing the links between water quality and the key
environmental, socioeconomic and development issues
(Goals 1, 3, 12, 15 and Targets 1.4, 3.3, 3.9, 12.4, 15.1).
The clear focus on water quality in the SDGs
demonstrates growing attention on the urgent need to
improve water quality worldwide.
 Quality of water in India
• Rise in demand and development pressure changing the
characteristics of water in India.
• The groundwater is more depleted and less available and
surface water is getting more and more polluted and
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

unsuitable for human use.

• About 70% of surface water resource in India are
polluted.
– The major contributing factor for water pollution are
wastewater from different sources, intensive agriculture,
industrial production, infrastructure development, untreated
urban runoff and wastewater.
– According to WHO half of India’s morbidity (suffering from
a disease or medical condition) is water related (Murty and
Kumar 2011).
– Municipal wastewater treatment capacity developed so far in
India accounts for only 29% waste generated in urban
habitations having population more than 50,000 and the gap
is projected to increase.
 – Domestic effluents contributes a substantial proportion of water pollution
in India. More than 70% of domestic untreated effluents are disposed off
to environmental media.

– Water quality data from Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) shows
that organic and bacterial contamination are becoming increasingly
critical in water bodies leading to gradual degradation of water quality.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) for most of the rivers of India are
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

increasing and exceeding the standards (Bhardwaj 2005).

• Arsenic and fluoride contamination in groundwater is another

challenge that India has to combat.
– Parts of Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and West Bengal are
suffering from contamination of arsenic in ground water above
permissible limit. (0.05 mg/l, beyond this limit water is toxic and
causes cancer)
– Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana,
Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Odisha,
Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal are
known to have fluoride contamination along with (Central Ground
Water Board 2010). (1 to 1.5 mg/l, Low fluoride level are linked with
dental carries above 1.5 it may cause skeletal fluorosis)
 Water Quality issues in India
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

Arsenic Fluoride
96 districts in 12 States have been Fluoride were reported in 230 districts
affected by high arsenic contamination of 20 States of India
in ground water

Geogenic sources
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

Salinity in coastal Aquifer

 Safeguarding the future
The critical situation with water supply will require enormous
financial and material expense to eliminate the deficit of pure
freshwater found under different physiographic condition. At the
present time and for the foreseeable future, the most realistic and
efficient measures will be
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

• Economy in the use of water

• High protection of water resources by a drastic decrease in
specific water consumption especially in irrigated land use and
industry
• Reduction or complete cessation (stopping of something) of
waste water discharge into hydrological systems;
• More use of made of local waters through seasonal and long-
term river run-off regulation
• More use of salt and brackish waters
• An active influence on precipitation-farming
• Use of secular storage in lakes, underground aquifers and
glaciers
• Spatial and temporal redistribution of water resources
 Water use and sustainable reuse methods
What is the need for sustainable reuse?
Water sustainability: Ensuring an adequate and
continual supply of clean water for human uses and
ecosystems.
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

Though the available global fresh water for consumption is

42700 km2, the problem of water scarcity arises because
this water is unevenly distributed in the world and worse
still, the distribution is totally unrelated to the areas of
human habitation.
Worsening the scarce situation of water there is
wasteful use of water in agriculture, industry and
municipalities, lack of sanitation and unpredictable
pollution of water. Hence, it appears that water resources
position is unsustainable and calls for radical reform in the
water management system supported by infrastructure
development to rectify spatial and temporal distribution
maladies.
 Sustainable Water Use
Sustainable water use in agricultural sector

• All excess water that remains wetting the soil shall be returned to the
underground to help recharging the aquifer (Aquifer is a geological
formation which can store good amount of water as it will have more voids)
• The applied water must not be allowed to evaporate, hence practice night
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT

time irrigation
• Formers should have a form pond to store water during rainy season which
can be used for irrigation purpose
• All the agricultural pumping system should be licenced. License will be
granted only when there is recharging facility in the farm land
• Modernising agro irrigation
• Water applied to the land should be channelized to drain the excess water
and it should be connected to a recharge structure such a pond and
recharging well
• Continuous recharge must be adopted in rivers, lakes, canals and pond
• In order to reduce the evaporation canals should be covered with solar panels
• *** You can add points for municipal and industry from first module
 Sustainable reuse methods
[Link]

• Water reuse (also commonly known as water

recycling or water reclamation) reclaims water
from a variety of sources then treats and reuses
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it for beneficial purposes such as agriculture

and irrigation, potable water supplies,
groundwater replenishment, industrial
processes, and environmental restoration. Water
reuse can provide alternatives to existing water
supplies and be used to enhance water security,
sustainability, and resilience.
 Types of Water Reuse
Sources of water for potential reuse can include
• Municipal wastewater,
• Industry process and cooling water,
• Storm water,
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• Agriculture runoff and return flows,

• These sources of water are adequately treated to meet

“fit-for-purpose specifications” for a particular next use.
• "Fit-for-purpose specifications” are the treatment
requirements to bring water from a particular source to the
quality needed, to ensure public health, environmental
protection, or specific user needs.
• For example, reclaimed water for crop irrigation would need
to be of sufficient quality to prevent harm to plants and soils,
maintain food safety, and protect the health of farm workers.
In uses where there is a greater human exposure water may
require more treatment.
 Uses of Recycled Water
• Irrigation for agriculture
• Irrigation for landscaping such as parks, rights-of-ways,
and golf courses
• Municipal water supply
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• Process water for power plants, refineries, mills, and

factories
• Indoor uses such as toilet flushing
• Dust control or surface cleaning of roads, construction
sites, and other trafficked areas
• Concrete mixing and other construction processes
• Supplying artificial lakes and inland or coastal aquifers
• Environmental restoration
 WATER FOOT PRINT
Virtual water measures how much water is used in the production and
trade (voluntary exchange of goods) of food and consumer products.
Virtual water has major impacts on global trade policy and research,
especially in water scarce regions
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Example: The water is said to be virtual because once the wheat is

grown, the real water used to grow wheat is no longer in the form water,
water is converted as wheat. (900 to 1000 liters of water is required to
grow 1 kg of wheat, here 900 litre is there in the form of wheat)

The concept of virtual water helps us realise how much water is

needed to produce different goods and services. In arid (receives
little precipitation less than 250 mm/year) and semi arid regions
(receives little precipitation between 250 mm to 500mm/year)
knowing the virtual water value of a goods can be useful towards
determining how best to use the scarce water available.

US, Argentina and Brazil “export” billions of litres of water each year,
while others like Japan, Egypt and Italy “import” billion litres.
 Virtual water footprints in different products
Agricultural and Food product
The majority of the water we consume is embedded in food.
• 1 kg of wheat - 1000 litres of water
• 1 kg of eggs – 3300 litres of water
• 1 kg of broken rice – 3400 litres of water
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• 1 kg of beef – 15,500 litres of water

• It takes between 1 and 3 tonnes of water to grown 1kg of cereal.
Household products
• Jeans ( 1000g) – 10,850 liters of water
• Construction of house – 6 million liters
• A cotton shirt (500g) – 4,100 liters of water
• Bed sheet (900g) – 9750 liters of water
Industrial products
• 1.1 tonne passenger car – 4,00,000 liters of water
• Australian cars – 1 million litres of water
 GLOBAL WATER FOOT PRINT
Products are not always consumed in their country of origin.
International trade of agricultural and industrial products in effect
creates a global flow of water.
The internal water footprint is the amount of water used from own
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(ex. India) water resources; the external water footprint is the

amount of water used in other countries to produce goods and
services (Ex. for Indians) imported (by India) and consumed by the
inhabitants (Ex. Indians) of the country.
 • The external part of a nation's water footprint
varies strongly from country to country. Some
African nations, such as Sudan, Mali, Nigeria,
Ethiopia, Malawi and Chad have hardly any
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external water footprint, simply because they

have little import. Some European countries on
the other hand—e.g. Italy, Germany, the UK
and the Netherlands—have external water
footprints that constitute 50–80% of their total
water footprint.
• The agricultural products that on average
contribute most to the external water footprints
of nations are: bovine meat, soybean, wheat,
cocoa, rice, cotton and maize
 The top 10 gross virtual water exporting nations
• United States (314 Gm3/year)
• China (143 Gm3/year)
• India (125 Gm3/year)
• Brazil (112 Gm3/year)
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• Argentina (98 Gm3/year)

• Canada (91 Gm3/year)
• Australia (89 Gm3/year)
• Indonesia (72 Gm3/year)
• France (65 Gm3/year)
• Germany (64 Gm3/year)

Together account for more than half of the global

virtual water export
 The top 10 gross virtual water importing
• United States (234 Gm3/year),
• Japan (127 Gm3/year),
• Germany (125 Gm3/year),
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• China (121 Gm3/year),

• Italy (101 Gm3/year),
• Mexico (92 Gm3/year),
• France (78 Gm3/year),
• The United Kingdom (77 Gm3/year),
• The Netherlands (71 Gm3/year)
S. PARIMALA RENGANAYAKI, SCE, VIT
Indian water foot print