Chapter 2 (his)

Introduction

• Modern nationalism was associated with the formation of

nation-states.

• In India like many other colonies, the growth of modern

nationalism is connected to the anti-colonial movement.

The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation

• The First World War (1914-1918) created a new political and

economic situation.

• India faced various problems during war period:

→ Increase in defence expenditure.
→ Prices increased through the war years.
→ Forced recruitment in rural areas.

• During 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failure in many parts of

India.

• Hardships did not end after the war was over.

The Idea of Satyagraha

• Satyagraha is a novel way of fighting the colonial rule in India.

→ It is a non-aggressive, peaceful mass agitation against
oppression and injustice.

• Satyagraha means insistence on truth.

• It is a moral force, not passive resistance.

• In January 1915, Mahatma Gandhi returned to India.

• Gandhiji organised Satyagraha Movements in Champaran, Bihar
(1916), Kheda district of Gujarat (1917) and amongst cotton mill
workers in Ahmedabad (1918).

The Rowlatt Act (1919)

• This act gave the government enormous powers to repress

political activities and allowed detention of political prisoners
without trial for two years.

Jallianwala Bagh massacre

• On 13th April 1919, a huge crowd gathered in the enclosed

ground of Jallianwalla Bagh.

• Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, and opened fire
on the crowd, killing hundreds.

• As the news spread, strikes, clashes with the police and attacks
on government buildings started.

• The government responded with brutal repression.

• Gandhi called off the Rowlatt satyagraha as the violence spread.

Khilafat Movement

• Khilafat Movement was led by two brothers Shaukat Ali and

Muhammad Ali.

• Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919 to

defend the Khalifa’s temporal powers.
• Gandhiji convinced the Congress to join hands with the Khilafat
Movement and start a Non-Cooperation Campaign for Swaraj.

• At the Congress session at Nagpur in December 1920, the Non-

Cooperation programme was adopted.

Differing strands within the movement

• The Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in January 1921.

The Movement in the Towns

• It started with middle class participation in cities.

• Students, teachers, lawyers gave up studies, jobs, legal

practices and joined movements.

• Council elections were boycotted.

• Foreign goods were boycotted.

• Liquor shops were picketed.

Movement in the countryside

• Peasants and tribals took over the struggle which turned violent
gradually.

Peasant Movement in Awadh

• The peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra in Awadh against

landlords and talukdars.
• In 1920, the Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up headed by Jawaharlal
Nehru, Baba Ramchandra and a few others.

Movement of Tribals in Andhra Pradesh

• Alluri Sitaram Raju led the guerrilla warfare in the Gudem Hills
of Andhra Pradesh.

• The rebels attacked police stations.

• Raju was captured and executed in 1924.

Swaraj in the Plantations

• For the plantation workers, Swaraj means moving freely.

• They protested against the Inland Emigration Act (1859) which

prevented them from leaving the plantation without permission.

• Each group interpreted the term swaraj in their own ways.

Towards Civil Disobedience

• In February 1922, Mahatma Gandhi decided to withdraw the

Non-Cooperation Movement.

• Many leaders such as C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the

Swaraj Party within the Congress to argue for a return to council
politics.

• Younger leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra

Bose pressed for more radical mass agitation and for full
independence.
Factors that shaped Indian politics towards the late 1920s

• The Worldwide Economic Depression

→ Agricultural prices collapsed after 1930 as the demand for
agricultural goods fell and exports declined.

• Simon Commission
→ It was constituted by the Tory government of Britain to look into
the demands of the nationalists and suggest changes in the
constitutional structure of India.
→ The Commission arrived in India in 1928.
→ The Congress protested against this commission.

• In December, 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru,

the Lahore session of Congress formalized the demand of “Purna
Swaraj”.

The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement

• Gandhiji chose salt as the medium that could unite the nation as
it is consumed by all the sections of the society.

Salt March

• Salt or Dandi March began on March 12, 1930.

→ On 6th April 1930, Gandhiji reached Dandi, a village in Gujarat
and broke the Salt Law by boiling water and manufacturing salt.
→ Thus, it began the Civil Disobedience Movement.

• It was different from Non-Cooperation Movement as people

were now asked not only to refuse cooperation but also to break
colonial laws.
• Boycott of foreign goods, non-payment of taxes, breaking forest
laws were its main features.

• The British Government followed a policy of brutal repression.

• British government arrested all the leaders including Gandhiji

and Nehru.

• Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact

• On 5 March, 1931, Lord Irwin, the Viceroy, signed a pact with

Gandhi.

• • In December, 1931, Gandhiji went to London for the Second

Round Table Conference but returned disappointed.

• Gandhi relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement but by

1934 it lost its momentum.

How Participants saw the Movement

Rich peasants

• Rich peasant communities expected the revenue tax to be

reduced, when the British refused to do so, they did join the
movement.
→ They did not rejoin the movement as the movement was called
without revising the revenue rates.

Poor Peasants
• The poor peasants wanted rents of lands to be remitted.
→ The Congress was unwilling to support the “no rent” campaigns
due to the fear of upsetting the rich peasants and landlords.

Business Classes

• After the war, their huge profits were reduced, wanted

protection against import of foreign goods.
→ The spread of militant activities, worries of prolonged business
disruptions, growing influences of socialism amongst the young
Congress forced them not to join the movement.

Women

• Women also participated in protest marches, manufactured salt,

and picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops.
→ Congress was reluctant to allow women to hold any position of
authority within the organisation.

Limits of Civil Disobedience

• The Dalits or the Untouchables did not actively participate in the

movement, they demanded reservation of seats, separate
electorates.

• Dr B.R. Ambedkar, the leader of the Dalits, formed an

association in 1930, called the Depressed Classes Association.

• He clashed with Gandhiji.

• Poona Pact between the Gandhiji and B.R. Ambedkar (1932)

gave reserved seats in Provincial and Central Councils but were
voted by general electorate.
• The leader of the Muslim League M.A. Jinnah wanted reserved
seats for Muslims in Central Assembly.

→ Large sections of Muslims did not participate in the Civil

disobedience movement.

The Sense of Collective Belonging

• The sense of collective belonging came partly through the

experience of united struggles.

• History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and

symbols, all played a part in the making of nationalism.

• By 1921, Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag. It was again a

tricolour (red, green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the
centre.

end

minerals and energy resources

Topics in the Chapter

• Minerals
• Mode of Occurrence of Minerals
• Classification of Minerals
→ Metallic minerals
♠ Ferrous minerals
♠ Non-Ferrous minerals
→ Non-Metallic minerals
• Conservation of Minerals
• Energy Resources
• Conservation sources of Energy
• Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
• Conservation of Resorces

Minerals

• Mineral as a “homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a

definable internal structure.

• These are found in varied forms in nature, ranging from the

hardest diamond to the softest talc.

Mode of Occurrence of Minerals

• Minerals are usually found in 'ores'.

→ The accumulation of any mineral mixed with other elements is
called ore.

• Minerals generally occur in these forms:

→ In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in the

cracks, crevices, faults or joints. The smaller occurrences are
called veins and the larger are called lodes. Example: tin, copper,
zinc and lead etc.

→ In sedimentary rocks, a number of minerals occur in beds or

layers. Example: Coal, iron, gypsum, potash salt, sodium salt etc.

→ Minerals also found in the decomposition of surface rocks, and

the removal of soluble constituents, leaving a residual mass of
weathered material containing ores. Example: Bauxite.

→ Minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors

and the base of hills known as ‘placer deposits’. Example: Gold,
silver, tin and platinum etc.
→ The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals. Example:
Common salt, magnesium and
bromine etc.

Classification of Minerals

• Minerals can be classified into three types:

→ Metallic Minerals
→ Non-Metallic Minerals
→ Energy Minerals

Metallic Minerals

• These minerals contain metals.

• These are of three types:

→ Ferrous minerals
♠ These minerals contain iron.
♠ It accounts for about three- fourths of the total value of the
production of metallic minerals.
♠ They provide a strong base for the development of
metallurgical industries.

Iron Ore

• It is the basic mineral and the backbone of industrial

development.
• Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a very high content of iron
up to 70 percent.
• Hematite ore is the most important industrial iron ore in terms
of the quantity used, but has a slightly lower iron content than
magnetite. (50-60 percent).
• India is rich in good quality iron ores.
• The major iron ore belts in India are:
→ Odisha-Jharkhand belt
→ Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra
→ Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkur belt in Karnataka
→ Maharashtra-Goa belt in Goa and Ratnagiri district of
Maharashtra.

Manganese

• It is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-

manganese alloy.
• It is also used in manufacturing bleaching powder, insecticides
and paints.
• Orissa is the largest producer of manganese ores in India.

→ Non-Ferrous Minerals

♠ These minerals do not contain iron.

♠ They play role in a number of metallurgical, engineering and
electrical industries.
♠ Example of Non-ferrous minerals includes copper, bauxite,
lead, zinc and gold.

Copper

• It is malleable, ductile and a good conductor, therefore, copper

is mainly used in electrical cables, electronics and chemical
industries.
• The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh, Khetri mines in
Rajasthan and Singhbhum district of Jharkhand are leading
producers of copper.

Bauxite

• It is a clay-like substance from which alumina and later

aluminium is obtained.
• Aluminium is an important metal because it combines the
strength of metals such as iron, with extreme lightness and also
with good conductivity and great malleability.
• In India, mainly found in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills
and the plateau region of Bilaspur-Katni.

Non-Metallic Minerals

• These minerals do not contain metal.

Mica

• It is a mineral made up of a series of plates or leaves.

• It can be clear, black, green, red yellow or brown.
• Mica is one of the most indispensable minerals used in electric
and electronic industries due to its excellent di-electric strength,
low power loss factor, insulating properties and resistance to high
voltage,
• Leading producer are northern edge of the Chota Nagpur
plateau. Koderma Gaya – Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand.
• Also produce in Ajmer, Rajasthan. Nellore mica belt of Andhra
Pradesh.

Limestone

• Limestone is found in association with rocks composed of

calcium carbonates or calcium and magnesium carbonates.
• It is the basic raw material for the cement industry and essential
for smelting iron ore in the blast furnace.

Conservation of Minerals

Why to conserve minerals?

• Mineral deposits are present in very less quantity in the world

i.e. one per cent of the earth’s crust.
• The geological processes of mineral formation are so slow while
the consumttion rate is very fast therefore, mineral resources are
finite and non-renewable.

• So, we have to conserve minerals so that it is available for

future generation.

How to conserve minerals?

• A joint effort has to be made in order to use our mineral

resources in a planned and sustainable manner.

• Improved technologies need to be constantly evolved to allow

use of low grade ores at low costs.

• Recycling of metals, using scrap metals and other substitutes.

Energy Resources

• Energy is needed to cook, to provide light and heat, to propel

vehicles and to drive machinery in industries.
• It can be generated from fuel minerals like coal, petroleum,
natural gas, uranium and from electricity.

• Energy resources can be classified as

→ Conventional sources: include firewood, cattle dung cake, coal,
petroleum, natural gas and electricity
→ Non-conventional sources: include solar, wind, tidal,
geothermal, biogas and atomic energy.

Conventional sources of Energy

• Coal
→ It is the most abundantly available fossil fuel.

→ It is used for power generation, to supply energy to industry as

well as for domestic needs.

→ Coal is formed due the compression of plant material over

millions of years.

→ There are various types of coals (on the degrees of

compression and the depth and time of burial):
♠ Peat: Low carbon and high moisture contents and low heating
capacity.

♠ Lignite: Low grade brown coal, which is soft with high moisture
content.
♠ Bituminous: Buried deep and subjected to increased
temperatures. Most popular coal in commercial
use.
♠ Anthracite: Highest quality hard coal.

→ In India, coal occurs in Gondwana and tertiary rock stages.

→ The major resources of Gondwana coal are located in

♠ Damodar valley (West Bengal-Jharkhand).
♠ Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro
♠ The Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys.

→ Tertiary coals occur in the north eastern states of Meghalaya,

Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.

• Petroleum
→ It provides fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for machinery
and raw materials for manufacturing industries.

→ Petroleum refineries act as a “nodal industry” for synthetic

textile, fertiliser and numerous chemical industries.

→ About 63 per cent of India’s petroleum production is from

Mumbai High, 18 per cent from Gujarat and 16 per cent from
Assam.

• Natural Gas

→ It is used as a source of energy as well as an industrial raw

material in the petrochemical industry.

→ It is considered an environment friendly fuel because of low

carbon dioxide emissions.

→ Natural gas have been discovered in the Krishna- Godavari

basin, Mumbai High and allied fields, Gulf of Cambay. Andaman
and Nicobar islands.

• Electricity

→ It has a wide range of applications in today’s world.

→ Electricity is generated mainly in two ways:

♠ by running water which drives hydro turbines to generate hydro
electricity
♠ by burning other fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas
to drive turbines to produce thermal power.

→ Hydro electricity is generated by fast flowing water

♠ It is a renewable resource.
♠ Multi-purpose projects like the Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley
corporation, the Kopili Hydel Project etc. produce hydro
electricity.

→ Thermal electricity is generated by using coal, petroleum and

natural gas.
♠ The thermal power stations use non-renewable fossil fuels for
generating electricity.

Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

• Nuclear or Atomic Energy

→ It is obtained by altering the structure of atoms.

→ It is used to generate electric power.

→ Uranium and Thorium are available in Jharkhand and the

Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan.

→ The Monazite sands of Kerala is also rich in Thorium.

• Solar Energy

→ India is a tropical country, therefore it has enormous

possibilities of tapping solar energy.

→ Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into

electricity.

→ Solar energy is fast becoming popular in rural and remote areas

which help in minimising the dependence of rural households on
firewood and dung cakes that will contribute to environmental
conservation and adequate supply of manure in agriculture.

• Wind Power
→ India has great potential of wind power.

→ Largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from

Nagarcoil to Madurai.

→ Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and

Lakshadweep have important wind farms.

→ Nagarcoil and Jaisalmer are well known for effective use of wind
energy in the country.

• Biogas

→ Shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste are used to

produce biogas for domestic consumption in rural areas.

→ Biogas plants using cattle dung are known as ‘Gobar gas plants’
in rural India.

→ Biogas provide twin benefits to the farmer in the form of energy

and improved quality of manure.

• Tidal Energy

→ Oceanic tides can be used to generate electricity.

→ In India the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf of Kuchchh in Gujarat on

the western coast and Gangetic delta in Sunderban regions of
West Bengal provide ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy.

• Geo Thermal Energy

→ The heat and electricity produced by using the heat from the
interior of the Earth is called Geo thermal Energy.
→ Groundwater in high tempratures area absorbs heat from the
rocks and becomes hot.
♠ It is so hot that when it rises to the earth’s surface, it turns into
steam.
♠ This steam is used to drive turbines and generate electricity.

→ Two experimental projects have been set up in India to utilize

geothermal energy:
♠ Parvati valley near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh
♠ Puga Valley, Ladakh.

Conservation of Resources

• Energy is a basic requirement for economic development.

• There is an urgent need to develop a sustainable path of energy

development.

• There are two ways for adopting the path of sustainable

development of energy:
→ Promotion of energy conservation
→ increased use of renewable energy sources

• Some steps in this direction are:

→ Using public transport systems instead of individual vehicles
→ Switching off electricity when not in use
→ Using power-saving devices
→ Using non-conventional sources of energy.

end