18.

3 Hormone Activity
Chemical Classes of Hormones
● Hormones can be divided into two classes: lipidsoluble and water-
soluble.
● The two classes exert their effects differently.
1. Lipid-Soluble Hormones
● Lipidsoluble hormones include:
1. steroid hormones,
2. thyroid hormones,
3. nitric oxide, and
4. eicosanoid hormones.
● Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol, allowing for a large diversity
of functions.
● Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) are lipid-soluble due to the presence of
benzene rings.
● Nitric oxide (NO) is both a hormone and a neurotransmitter.
● Eicosanoid hormones are derived from arachidonic acid and play important
roles as local and circulating hormones (e.g: including most prominently the
prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes, lipoxins, resolvins, and eoxins)
2. Water-Soluble Hormones
● Water-soluble hormones include:
1. amine hormones: are synthesized from certain amino acids and include
epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, histamine, serotonin, and
melatonin.

2. protein/peptide hormones: are amino acid polymers.

● Examples of peptide hormones are antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin.
● Examples of protein hormones are growth hormone and insulin, some of
which are glycoprotein hormones.
Hormone Transport in the Blood
● Water-soluble hormones circulate in the blood plasma in a free form.
● Lipid-soluble hormones are bound to transport proteins.
● Transport proteins increase solubility, slow hormone loss in the urine, and
provide a ready reserve of hormone in the bloodstream.
● A small fraction of lipid-soluble hormones is not bound and can diffuse out
of capillaries to bind to receptors.
18.6 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
Introduction
● The pituitary gland is a key endocrine gland
● It controls other endocrine glands
● The hypothalamus is the master of the pituitary gland
Structure of the Pituitary Gland
● Peashaped structure in the sella turcica
● Attached to the hypothalamus by the infundibular stalk
● Consists of anterior and posterior pituitary
A. Anterior Pituitary
● Accounts for 75% of the total weight of the gland
● Composed of epithelial tissue
● Secretes hormones that regulate bodily activities
Types of Anterior Pituitary Cells
● Somatotrophic cells: secrete growth hormone (GH)
● Thyrotrophic cells: secrete thyroidstimulating hormone (TSH)
● Gonadotrophic cells: secrete folliclestimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH)
● Prolactin cells: secrete prolactin (PRL)
● Corticotrophic cells: secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Hypothalamic Control of Anterior Pituitary
● Hypothalamus secretes releasing hormones
● Releasing hormones stimulate secretion of anterior pituitary hormones
● Inhibiting hormones suppress secretion of anterior pituitary hormones
Negative Feedback
● Secretion of anterior pituitary hormones is regulated by negative feedback
● Target gland hormones suppress the activity of anterior pituitary cells
● Example: cortisol suppresses ACTH and CRH secretion
Pituitary Gland
● The pituitary gland is a small gland located at the base of the brain.
● It produces and releases various hormones that regulate different functions
in the body.
1. Growth Hormone (GH)
● GH promotes growth of body tissues, including bones and skeletal muscles.
● It regulates certain aspects of metabolism.
● GH acts indirectly through insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) or
somatomedins.
● IGFs are produced in the liver, skeletal muscle, cartilage, and bone.
● They stimulate growth of bones and soft tissues.
2. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
● TSH stimulates the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones (T3 and
T4).
● Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH: from hypothalamus)) controls TSH
secretion.
● TSH release is inhibited by high levels of T3 and T4.
3. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
● In females, FSH initiates the development of ovarian follicles and stimulates
estrogen secretion.
● In males, FSH stimulates sperm production in the testes.
● Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH: from Hypothalamus) controls FSH
release.
● FSH release is suppressed by estrogens in females and testosterone in
males.
4. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
● In females, LH triggers ovulation and stimulates progesterone secretion.
● LH also stimulates formation of the corpus luteum and estrogen secretion.
● In males, LH stimulates testosterone secretion.
● LH release is controlled by GnRH.
5. Prolactin (PRL)
● PRL initiates and maintains milk production by the mammary glands.
● Its release is regulated by inhibitory and excitatory hormones from the
hypothalamus.
● Oxytocin is responsible for milk ejection (By smooth muscle contraction of
mammary glands)
6. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
● ACTH controls the production and secretion of cortisol and other
glucocorticoids by the adrenal cortex.
● Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) stimulates ACTH release.
● Stress-related stimuli and interleukin-1 also stimulate ACTH release.
● Glucocorticoids inhibit CRH and ACTH release.
7. Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
● MSH increases skin pigmentation in amphibians.
● Its role in humans is unknown, but it may influence brain activity.
● MSH release is stimulated by excessive levels of CRH (Corticotropin-
releasing hormone) .
8. Oxytocin
● During and after delivery, oxytocin affects the mother's uterus and breasts.
● Stretching of the cervix during delivery stimulates the release of oxytocin.
● Oxytocin enhances contraction of smooth muscle fibers in the uterine wall.
● After delivery, oxytocin stimulates milk ejection from the mammary glands.
● Oxytocin may have actions within the brain that foster parental caretaking
behavior.
● It may also be responsible for feelings of sexual pleasure during and after
intercourse.
9. Antidiuretic Hormone
● An antidiuretic decreases urine production.
● ADH causes the kidneys to return more water to the blood, decreasing urine
volume.
● Alcohol inhibits the secretion of ADH, leading to frequent and copious urination.
● ADH also decreases water loss through sweating and increases blood pressure.
● Stimuli for ADH secretion include high blood osmolarity and decreased blood
volume.
● Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect changes in blood osmolarity.
● Volume receptors in the atria of the heart and baroreceptors in blood vessels
detect decreased blood volume.
● ADH is carried by the blood to the kidneys and smooth muscle in blood vessel
walls.
● The kidneys respond by retaining more water and decreasing urine output.
● Smooth muscle in arteriole walls contracts in response to high levels of ADH,
increasing blood pressure.
● Various factors such as pain, stress, trauma, and certain drugs can stimulate ADH
secretion.
18.7 Thyroid Gland
Introduction
● The butterfly-shaped thyroid gland is located just inferior to the larynx.
● It is composed of right and left lobes connected by an isthmus.
● About 50% of thyroid glands have a small third lobe called the pyramidal
lobe.
● The normal mass of the thyroid is about 30 g.
Thyroid Follicles
● Thyroid follicles make up most of the thyroid gland.
● Each follicle consists primarily of thyroid cells called thyrocytes.
● T thyrocytes produce hormones like thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine
(T3).
● T thyrocytes also produce thyroglobulin.
Actions of Thyroid Hormones
● Thyroid hormones affect tissues throughout the body.
● Functions of thyroid hormones :
1. increasing basal metabolic rate,
2. enhancing actions of catecholamines,
3. regulating development and growth of nervous tissue and bones.
Control of Thyroid Hormone Secretion
● Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) and thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH) regulate thyroid hormone secretion.
● Low blood levels of T3 and T4 stimulate the hypothalamus to secrete TRH.
● TRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete TSH.
● TSH stimulates thyroid follicular cell activity.
Calcitonin
● Calcitonin is produced by the C thyrocytes of the thyroid gland.
● It can decrease the level of calcium in the blood by inhibiting osteoclasts.
● Calcitonin secretion is controlled by a negative feedback system.
● Prescribed to treat osteoporosis.
18.8 Parathyroid Glands
Introduction
● The parathyroid glands are small masses of tissue located on the posterior
surface of the lobes of the thyroid gland.
● There are usually four parathyroid glands, with one superior and one
inferior gland attached to each thyroid lobe.
● Each parathyroid gland has a mass of about 40 mg.
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
● PTH is the major regulator of calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), and
phosphate (HPO4 2) ions in the blood.
● PTH increases the number and activity of osteoclasts, resulting in elevated
bone resorption and release of calcium and phosphates into the blood.
● PTH also acts on the kidneys, reducing loss of Ca2+ and Mg2+ from blood
into urine, and increasing loss of HPO4 into urine.
● Additionally, PTH promotes the formation of calcitriol, the active form of
vitamin D, which increases absorption of Ca2+, HPO4 2, and Mg2+ from
the digestive canal into the blood.
Control of Secretion
● The secretion of calcitonin and PTH is directly controlled by the blood
calcium level through negative feedback loops.
● High blood calcium stimulates the release of calcitonin, which inhibits
osteoclast activity and lowers blood calcium levels.
● Low blood calcium stimulates the release of PTH, which promotes bone
resorption and raises blood calcium levels.
● PTH also stimulates the synthesis of calcitriol, which increases the
absorption of calcium from the digestive canal.
18.9 Suprarenal (Adrenal) Glands
Introduction
● The paired suprarenal glands are located above each kidney
● They have a flattened pyramidal shape
● The glands are highly vascularized
● They consist of a cortex and a medulla
Suprarenal Cortex
● The suprarenal cortex produces essential steroid hormones
● It is subdivided into three zones: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, and
zona reticularis
1. Zona glomerulosa secretes mineralocorticoids (e.g Aldosteron)
2. Zona fasciculata secretes glucocorticoids (e.g Cortisol)
3. Zona reticularis synthesizes weak androgens
Mineralocorticoids
● Aldosterone is the major mineralocorticoid
● It regulates sodium and potassium ions, blood pressure, and blood volume
● Aldosterone promotes excretion of H+ to prevent acidosis
● Secretion of aldosterone is controlled by the reninangiotensin-aldosterone
pathway
Glucocorticoids
● Glucocorticoids regulate metabolism and resistance to stress
● Cortisol is the most abundant glucocorticoid
● Glucocorticoids have effects on protein breakdown, glucose formation,
lipolysis, stress resistance, and antiinflammatory responses
● Secretion of glucocorticoids is controlled by negative feedback
Androgens
● The adrenal cortex secretes small amounts of weak androgens
● In males, testosterone is the major androgen
● Suprarenal androgens play important roles in females
● ACTH stimulates the secretion of suprarenal androgens
Suprarenal medulla
● The suprarenal medulla is the inner region of the suprarenal gland.
● It is a modified sympathetic ganglion of the autonomic nervous system.
● The medulla secretes hormones instead of neurotransmitters.
Hormone Production
● The suprarenal medulla contains chromaffin cells that secrete hormones.
● Chromaffin cells are innervated by sympathetic preganglionic neurons.
● The major hormones synthesized by the medulla are epinephrine and
norepinephrine.
● Epinephrine accounts for about 80% of the hormone secretion, while
norepinephrine accounts for the remaining 20%.
● These hormones intensify sympathetic responses in other parts of the
body.
Control of Hormone Secretion
● Stressful situations and exercise stimulate impulses from the hypothalamus.
● These impulses stimulate sympathetic preganglionic neurons.
● Sympathetic preganglionic neurons then stimulate the chromaffin cells to
secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine.
● Epinephrine and norepinephrine greatly augment the fightor-flight
response.
● They increase heart rate, force of contraction, blood pressure, blood flow to
specific organs and tissues, airway dilation, and blood levels of glucose and
fatty acids.
18.10 Pancreatic Islets
Introduction
● The pancreas is both an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland.
● It is located in the curve of the duodenum.
● The pancreas consists of a head, a body, and a tail.
● Pancreatic acini are exocrine cells that produce digestive enzymes.
● Pancreatic islets are endocrine cells found among the pancreatic acini.
Pancreatic Islets
● There are four types of hormonesecreting cells in pancreatic islets: alpha,
beta, delta, and pancreatic polypeptide cells.
● Alpha cells secrete glucagon.
● Beta cells secrete insulin.
● Delta cells secrete somatostatin.
● Pancreatic polypeptide cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
Control of Glucagon and Insulin Secretion
● Glucagon raises blood glucose level, while insulin lowers it.
● Low blood glucose stimulates glucagon secretion.
● Glucagon converts glycogen into glucose and promotes gluconeogenesis.
● High blood glucose inhibits glucagon release and stimulates insulin
secretion.
● Insulin accelerates glucose uptake, glycogen synthesis, and protein and
lipid synthesis.
● Multiple hormones and neurotransmitters regulate insulin and glucagon
secretion.
Stimulation of Insulin Secretion
● Acetylcholine, arginine, and leucine stimulate insulin secretion.
● Glucose-dependent insulin-otropic peptide (GIP) is released in response to
glucose in the digestive canal.
● Carbohydrates and proteins in food provide strong stimulation for insulin
release.
Stimulation of Glucagon Secretion
● Increased sympathetic activity and high blood amino acids stimulate
glucagon secretion.
● Rise in blood amino acids is more likely when blood glucose level is low.
18.11 Ovaries and Testes
Gonads and Reproductive Functions
● Gonads produce gametes: sperm in males and oocytes in females
● In addition to gametes, gonads also secrete hormones
Female Gonads: Ovaries
● Ovaries are paired oval bodies located in the female pelvic cavity
● Produce several steroid hormones including estrogen (estradiol and
estrone) and progesterone
● Regulate menstrual cycle, maintain pregnancy, and prepare mammary
glands for lactation
● Promote breast enlargement and hip widening at puberty
● Help maintain female secondary sex characteristics
Inhibin and Relaxin
● Inhibin is a protein hormone produced by the ovaries
● Inhibits secretion of folliclestimulating hormone (FSH)
● Relaxin (RLX) is a peptide hormone produced during pregnancy
● Increases flexibility of the pubic symphysis and helps dilate the uterine
cervix
Male Gonads: Testes
● Testes are oval glands located in the scrotum
● Main hormone produced is testosterone, an androgen
● Testosterone stimulates descent of the testes before birth
● Regulates sperm production and male secondary sex characteristics
● Produces inhibin, which inhibits secretion of FSH
Summary
● Gonads are reproductive organs that produce gametes and secrete
hormones
● Ovaries in females produce estrogen, progesterone, inhibin, and relaxin
● Testes in males produce testosterone and inhibin
● Sex hormones play crucial roles in reproductive processes and the
development of secondary sex characteristics
18.12 Pineal Gland and Thymus
The Pineal Gland ‫الغدة الصنوبرية‬
● Small endocrine gland attached to the roof of the third ventricle of the brain
● Positioned between the two superior colliculi
● Has a mass of 0.1–0.2 g
● Consists of masses of neuroglia and secretory cells called pinealocytes
Melatonin Secretion
● Melatonin is an amine hormone derived from serotonin
● Contributes to the setting of the body's biological clock
● Controlled by the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus
● More melatonin is secreted during darkness, promoting sleepiness
● Melatonin secretion is stimulated by visual input from the eyes
Effects of Melatonin
● Blood plasma levels of melatonin increase tenfold during sleep
● Small doses of melatonin can induce sleep and reset daily rhythms
● Acts as a potent antioxidant against damaging oxygen free radicals
● Inhibits reproductive functions in animals, unclear if it influences human
reproduction
The Thymus ‫الغدة الزعترية‬
● Located behind the sternum between the lungs
● Plays a role in immunity
● Produces hormones like thymosin and thymopoietin
● Promotes the maturation of T cells and may retard the aging process
18.13 Other Endocrine Tissues and Organs,
Eicosanoids, and Growth Factors
Introduction
● Cells in organs other than endocrine glands also have an endocrine
function
● These organs secrete hormones
● Overview of these organs and their hormones and actions provided in
Table 18.11
Eicosanoids
● Two families of eicosanoid molecules: prostaglandins (PGs) and
leukotrienes (LTs)
● Act as local hormones (paracrines or autocrines) in response to chemical or
mechanical stimuli
● Synthesized from arachidonic acid
● Thromboxane (TX) constricts blood vessels and promotes platelet
activation
● Bind to receptors on targetcell plasma membranes and stimulate or inhibit
the synthesis of second messengers
● Leukotrienes stimulate chemotaxis of white blood cells and mediate
inflammation
● Prostaglandins alter various physiological processes
Growth Factors
● Several hormones and growth factors stimulate cell growth and division
● Growth factors are mitogenic substances that cause growth by stimulating
cell division
● Many growth factors act locally as autocrines or paracrines
● Summary of sources and actions of six important growth factors provided in
Table 18.12 (only Read)
18.14 The Stress Response
Introduction
● Stress is an inevitable part of everyday life
● Some stress is helpful, while others are harmful
● Stressors can be any disturbance to the body's internal environment
Types of Stress
● Eustress: prepares us to meet challenges, helpful
● Distress: harmful stress
● Stressors can be physical, environmental, or emotional
The Stress Response
● Homeostatic mechanisms attempt to counteract stress
● Stress response controlled by the hypothalamus
● Occurs in three stages: fight-or-flight, resistance, and exhaustion
Fight-or-Flight Response
● Mobilizes body's resources for immediate physical activity
● Redirects blood flow to vital organs
● Inhibits nonessential functions (digestion, reproduction)
Resistance Reaction
● Longerlasting response
● Initiated by hypothalamic releasing hormones
● Promotes breakdown of triglycerides and proteins to produce ATP
Exhaustion
● Occurs when body's resources are depleted
● Causes muscle wasting, immune suppression, and other pathological
changes
● Can lead to chronic disease
Stress and Disease
● Stress can temporarily inhibit the immune system
● Linked to diseases such as gastritis, hypertension, anxiety, etc.
● Interleukin1 and cortisol play crucial roles