Advanced Machining Processes

• When processing a component, typical material

removal methods may not always work.

• Possible reasons are:

– Material hardness, strength is too high.
– Workpiece too flexible, delicate, or thin.
– Shape/features too complex.
– Highly rigorous surface finish, dimensional
tolerances.
– Undesirable temperature rise/residual stresses
remaining after processing.
 Advanced Machining Processes
• More advanced methods were developed for
such conditions.

• Typically referred to as Non-Traditional or

Unconventional Machining.

• Have major technical/economical advantages and

also limitations.
 Some Non-Traditional Machining
Processes
• Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)
• Wire Electrical Discharge Machining (WEDM)
• Chemical Machining (CM)
– Chemical Milling
– Chemical Blanking
– Photochemical Blanking
• Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
• Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
• Waterjet Machining
– Abrasive Water Jet Machining
 Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)
• Also known as spark erosion machining.
• Based on the erosion of metals by spark
discharges.
• When an arc is produced between two metals,
part of the metal is eroded.
• This erosion process, when controlled, can create
a desired shape.
• Only works with materials that are electrical
conductors.
 Basic EDM Operation
• Tool and the workpiece are connected to a DC
power supply.
• An electrode with the desired shape is cut and
secured to the machine ram.
• Work is secured to a table immersed in a tank
containing a dielectric fluid typically mineral oils or
deionized water).
• If potential between tool (electrode) and work is
high enough, a spark is discharged across the fluid.
 Basic EDM Operation
• Spark removes a small amount of metal from
workpiece.
• Discharges are repeated many times.
• Gap: space between tool and workpiece - very
critical.
• Downfeed (Z motion) is NC controlled to maintain
constant gap.
• No mechanical energy required: hardness, strength,
toughness don’t affect material removal rate (MRR).
 EDM Parameters
• Current
– Surface Finish is a function of current and frequency.
• If current is increased:
– more powerful sparks are generated.
– more material is removed per unit time.
– larger craters are generated.
– a rougher finish is produced.
– If current is decreased, the opposite occurs.
– However, it is more time consuming.
 EDM Parameters
• Frequency
– Increasing/decreasing frequency has little effect on
the MRR (while keeping current constant).
– MRR is directly proportional to current.
• Increasing frequency:
– means less power for each spark.
– less material is removed by each.
– a smoother surface can be achieved.
– however, it is more time consuming.
 EDM Tooling
• Electrodes are made of graphite or other alloys.
• Can make electrodes by machining, forming,
casting.
• Can make very small and deep holes (dia. 0.005")
ratio as large as 400:1.
• Tool wears as it erodes; graphite electrodes have
greatest wear resistance.
• Must make multiple electrodes to cut the same
cavity to compensate for wear.
 EDM Capabilities
• Great for irregular shaped cavities.
• Can make sharp corners.
• MRR can be 2 - 400 mm3/min, depending on
material and parameters.
• Used for:
– Die and mold cavities.
– Small deep holes.
– Multiple Intricate Shapes
– Internal Cavities
 Wire EDM (WEDM)
• Process is similar to cutting with a band saw.
• Moving wire travels along specified path.
• Wire cuts workpiece by discharging sparks.
• Dielectric floods the spark region, carrying away
debris.
• Can cut plates 12" thick.
• When doing inside cuts, must have previous pilot
hole to thread wire.
 Wire EDM

• From a wire coil [1], a wire [2] is fed via wire guide
coils [3] and control units [4]. In order to resist
abrasion, the control units are usually made of
diamond
• The thread is finally collected by a collection coil [5]
or cut into smaller pieces when consumed
• Connection via power source causes the wire to act
as cathode and the workpiece as anode
• When the electrode, in this case the wire, is placed
close to the workpiece, spark discharge occurs,
which causes material from both the workpiece and
the wire to be removed
• The discharge is supported by a dielectric [6], which
helps to cool the process and dispose
decompressed material
• The process can also be completely immersed in a
dielectric
• The spark gap [7] causes the machined contour to
be slightly larger than the diameter of the wire [8]
• The contour is usually controlled by the workpiece
movements in the horizontal plane
Wire EDM
 WEDM Tooling
• Wire
– Made of brass, copper or tungsten.
– Can be as thin as 0.005".
– Must be strong and tough.
– Used only once, but cheap.
– Kerf: gap left by wire on material after cutting.

– Typical wire velocity: 0.15-9 m/min.

– Cutting Speed: 6 mm/min for steel.
Electrochemical machining
Electrochemical grinding
Electrical discharge grinding
Laser Beam Machining
Laser Beam Machining

A gas, such as
oxygen, that
improves the speed
and efficiency of a
laser cutter
 CNC machining

• CNC machining is the most widely used subtractive manufacturing technology

• In CNC, material is removed from a solid block using a variety of cutting tools to
produce a part based on a CAD model
• Both metals and plastics can be machined with CNC
• CNC produces parts with tight tolerances and excellent material properties
• CNC is suitable for both one-off jobs and low-to-medium volume production (up to
1000 parts), due to its high repeatability
• When compared to additive manufacturing, CNC has more design restrictions due
to the subtractive nature of the technology
• The basic CNC process can be broken down into 3 basic steps
• The engineer first designs the CAD model of the part
• The machinist then turns the CAD file into a CNC program (G-code) and sets up the
machine
• Finally, the CNC system executes all machining operations with little supervision,
removing material and creating the part
CAD/CAM/CNC Integration
Typical CNC milling algorithm

DXF: Drawing Interchange Format

 CNC Programming Codes
M: Machine G: Geometric
 CNC Machine Classification
CNC Milling Machines
A mill uses rotary cutters to shave, cut or slice sections off of a work piece. CNC technology enables far greater
precision in milling than when the operation is performed manually. The CNC milling machine can be programmed to
vary in depth, angle and direction of cut. A 3-axis machine operates along both the X and Y horizontal axes, as well as
the Z vertical axis. A 4-axis machine includes a rotary dimension to its linear capability, which allows it to cut along an
arc.
CNC Lathes
Lathes used in turning centers operate by rotating the material rapidly on a spindle. While the material is turning, a
cutting tool is used to shape the piece into its desired form. CNC lathes are ideal for manufacturing symmetrical objects
that have conical, spherical or cylindrical shapes.
CNC Drilling Machines
Sophisticated drilling machines can be programmed using CNC technology to ensure precise positioning of holes in
materials. With thick material, a process called peck, or interrupted cut drilling is used to drill the hole in a stepwise
procedure. CNC turret drilling machines have several drill bits and cutting tools mounted on a turret. Automation enables
the required tool to be indexed quickly and accurately into position for drilling.
CNC Grinders
Grinding machines use a rotary wheel, which abrades the material by grinding or grating it into the desired shape. CNC
grinders are easier to program than lathes or milling machines because they do not require the same level of precision.
CNC Plasma Cutters
Plasma cutters use a plasma torch to cut sheet metal. They are ideally suited for cutting two-dimensional shapes.
Types of CNC machines

Other CNC machines include laser cutters,

plasma cutters and EDM machines, etc.
 3-axis CNC machines
– CNC milling –

• First, the CAD model is converted into a series of commands that can be interpreted by the
CNC machine (G-code)
• This is usually done on the machine by its operator, using the provided technical drawings
• A block of material (called the blank or the workpiece) is then cut to size and it is placed on
the built platform, using either a vice or by directly mounting it onto the bed
• Precise positioning and alignment is key for manufacturing accurate parts and special
metrology tools (touch probes) are often used for this purpose
• Next, material is removed from the block using specialized cutting tools that rotate at very
high speeds (thousands of RPM)
• Several passes are often required to create the designed part
• First, an approximate geometry is given to the block, by removing material quickly at a lower
accuracy
• Then one or more finishing passes are used to produce the final part
• If the model has features that cannot be reached by the cutting tool in a single setup (for
example, if it has a slot on it back side), then the part needs to be flipped and the above
steps are repeated
 3-axis CNC machines
– CNC milling (contd.) –

• After machining, the part needs to be deburred

• Deburring is the manual process of removing the small defects left on sharp edges
due to material deformation during machining (for example, the defects created as a
drill exists the far side of a through hole)
• Next, if tolerances were specified in the technical drawing, the critical dimensions
are inspected
• The part is then ready to use or post-process
• Most CNC milling systems have 3 linear degrees of freedom: the X, Y and Z axis
• More advanced systems with 5 degrees of freedom also allow the rotation of the bed
and/or the tool head (A and B axis)
• 5-axis CNC systems are capable of producing parts with high geometric complexity
and may eliminate the need for multiple machine setups
 3-axis CNC machines
– CNC turning –

• In CNC turning, the part is mounted on a rotating chuck and material is removed
using stationary cutting tools
• This way parts with symmetry along their center axis can be manufactured
• CNC turning systems (also known as lathes) are extensively used, because they can
produce parts at a much higher rate and at a lower cost per unit than CNC mills
• This is especially relevant for larger volumes
• The main design restriction of CNC lathes is that they can only produce parts with a
cylindrical profile (screws or washers)
• Non-cylindrical parts can be manufactured using modern multi-axis CNC turning
centers, which are also equipped with CNC milling tools
• These systems combine the high productivity of CNC turning with the capabilities of
CNC milling and can manufacture a very large range of geometries with (looser)
rotational symmetry, such as camshafts and radial compressor impellers
 3-axis CNC machines
– CNC turning –

• The G-code is first generated from the CAD model and a cylinder of
stock material (blank) with suitable diameter is loaded in the CNC
machine
• The part starts rotating at high speed and a stationary cutting tool traces
its profile, progressively removing material until the designed geometry
is created
• Holes along the center axis can be also manufactured, using center
drills and internal cutting tools
• If the part needs to be flipped or moved, then the process is repeated
• Otherwise, the part is cut from the stock and it is ready for use or further
post-processing
 Multi-axis CNC machining

• Multi-axis CNC machining centers come in three variations

• 5-axis indexed CNC milling
• Continuous 5-axis CNC milling
• Mill-turning centers with live tooling
• These systems are essentially milling machines or lathes enhanced with additional
degrees of freedom
• For example, 5-axis CNC milling centers allow the rotation of the machine bed or
the toolhead (or both) in addition to the three linear axes of movement
• The advanced capabilities of these machines come at an increased cost
• They require both specialized machinery and also operators with expert
knowledge
• For highly complex or topology optimized metal parts, 3D printing is usually
a more suitable option
 Multi-axis CNC machining
– 5-axis indexed CNC milling –

• During machining the cutting tool can only move along three linear axis
• Between operations the bed and the toolhead can rotate, giving access to
the workpiece from various different angles
• Indexed 5-axis CNC milling systems are also known as 3+2 CNC milling
machines, since they are using the two additional degrees of freedom only
between machining operations to rotate the workpiece
• The key benefit of these systems is that they eliminate the need of
manually repositioning the workpiece
• This way parts with more complex geometries can be manufactured faster
and at higher accuracy than in a 3-axis CNC mill
• They however lack the true freeform capabilities of continuous 5-axis CNC
machines (cannot produce very accurately contoured surfaces)
 Multi-axis CNC machining
– Continuous 5-axis CNC milling –
• The cutting tool can move along three linear and two rotational axes
relative to the workpiece
• All five axes can move at the same during all machining operations
• Continuous 5-axis CNC milling systems have a similar machine
architecture to indexed 5-axis CNC milling machines
• They allow, however, for the movement of all five axes at the same time
during all machining operations
• This way, it is possible to produce parts with complex, ‘organic’ geometries
(minimal machining marks) that cannot be manufactured at the achieved
level of accuracy with any other technology
• These advanced capabilities come of course at a high cost, as both
expensive machinery and highly-trained machinists are needed
 Multi-axis CNC machining
– Mill turning CNC Centers –

• The workpiece is attached to a spindle that can either rotate at high speed
(like a 3-axis lathe) or position it at a precise angle (like a 5-axis CNC mill)
• Lathe and milling cutting tools are used to remove material from the
workpiece, forming the part
• Mill-turning CNC centers are essentially CNC lathe machines equipped
with CNC milling tools
• A variation of the mill-turning centers are swiss-style lathes, which have
typically higher precision
• Mill-turning systems take advantage of both the high productivity of
CNC turning and the geometric flexibility of CNC milling
• They are ideal for manufacturing parts with a varying cylindrical cross
section (camshafts and centrifugal impellers) at a much lower cost than
other 5-axis CNC machining systems
 CNC machining
– Cutting tools –
• Flat head, bull head and ball head end mill tools are used to machine slots, grooves, cavities and
other vertical walls. Their different geometry allows the machining of features with different details. Ball
head tools are also commonly used in 5-axis CNC machining to manufacture surfaces with curvature
and freeform geometries

• Drills are a common and fast way to create holes. For hole with non-standard diameter, a plunging flat
head end mill tool (following a helical path) can be used

• The diameter of the shaft of slot cutters is smaller than the diameter of their cutting edge, allowing
these milling tools to cut T-slots and other undercuts by removing material from the sides of vertical
wall

• Taps are used to manufacture threaded holes. To create a thread, precise control of the rotational and
linear speed of the tap is needed. Manual tapping is also still commonly used in some machine shops

• Face milling cutters are used to remove materials from large flat surfaces. They have a larger
diameter than end mill tools, so they require fewer passes to machine large areas, reducing the total
machining time and producing flat surfaces
 CNC machining
– Design restrictions –

• The design restrictions in CNC machining are a natural result of the

mechanics of the cutting process and include:

• Tool geometry
• Tool access
• Workpiece stiffness
• Tool stiffness
• Workpiece holding
 CNC machining
– Design restrictions –

• Tool geometry

• Most CNC machining cutting

tools have a cylindrical shape
with a flat or spherical end,
restricting the part geometries
that can be produced.
• For instance, the internal
vertical corners of a CNC part
will always have a radius, no
matter how small a cutting tool
is used.
 CNC machining
– Design restrictions –

• Tool access

• Surfaces that cannot be

reached by the cutting tool,
cannot be CNC machined
• This prohibits, for example,
the fabrication of parts with
internal 'hidden' geometries,
and puts a limit to the
maximum depth of an
undercut.
 CNC machining
– Design restrictions –

• Workpiece stiffness

• Due to the cutting forces and

the temperatures developed
during machining, it is possible
for the workpiece to deform or
vibrate.
• This limits, for example, the
minimum wall thickness that a
CNC machined part can have
and the maximum aspect ratio
of tall features.
 CNC machining
– Design restrictions –

• Tool stiffness

• Like the workpiece, the cutting

tool can also deflect or vibrate
during machining. This results
in looser tolerances and even
tool breakage.
• The effect becomes more
prominent when the ratio of
length-to-diameter of the
cutting tool increases and is
the reason why deep cavities
cannot be easily CNC
machined.
 CNC machining
– Design restrictions –

• Workpiece holding

• The geometry of a part determines

the way it will be held on the CNC
machine and the number of setups
required. This has an impact on the
cost, but also the accuracy of a
part.
• For example, manual
repositioning introduces a small
but not negligible positional error.
• This is a key benefit of 5-axis
versus 3-axis CNC machining.
 CNC machining
– Selection of Workpiece Material –

• Selecting the right material is a crucial step in the design process

• The optimal material option is highly dependent on your specific use case
and requirements
• Since almost every material with sufficient hardness can be machined,
CNC offers a very large range of material options to choose from
• For engineering applications, metals and plastics are most relevant CNC
machinable materials
• Surface finishes can also alter the properties of CNC machined parts
 CNC machining
– Selection of Workpiece Material –
 CNC machining
– Post-processing operations –

• Bead blasting
• A light texture with a matte finish is
created by blowing small glass beads
against the part in designated areas
• Bead blasting adds a uniform matte or
satin surface finish on a machined
part, removing all tool marks
• Bead blasting is mainly used for
aesthetic purposes, as the resulting
surface roughness is not guaranteed
• Critical surfaces or features (like
holes) can be masked to avoid any
dimensional change
 CNC machining
– Post-processing operations –

• Anodizing
• Anodizing adds a thin, hard, non-
conductive ceramic coating on the
surface of aluminum parts, increasing
their corrosion and wear resistance
• Critical areas can be masked to retain
their tight tolerances. Anodized parts
can be dyed producing a smooth
aesthetically pleasing surface
• Anodizing can also be carried out
using sulfuric acid for aluminum parts
converting a thin surface layer to
aluminum oxide
 CNC machining
– Post-processing operations –

• Hard coat anodizing

• Hardcoat anodizing produces a thicker,
high-density ceramic coating that
provides excellent corrosion and wear
resistance
• Hardcoat anodizing is suitable for
functional applications. The typical
coating thickness is 50 μm and usually,
no color is applied. Critical areas can be
masked to retain their tight tolerances
• Plasma spray guns develop sufficient
energy to melt almost any material
in powder form, making them suitable for
a variety of ceramic coatings
 CNC machining
– Post-processing operations –

• Powder coating
• Powder coating adds a thin layer of
strong, wear and corrosion resistant
protective polymer paint on the
surface of a part
• Powdered paint is sprayed onto a part
that is then sent through an oven to
bake the paint onto the part. This
creates a strong, wear and corrosion
resistant layer that is more durable
than standard painting methods
• It can be applied to parts of any
material and is available in many
colors
 Applications of CNC in Automotive

• Starter Motors
– Complex parts such as starter motors, for instance, can be produced using CNC Machining.
The precision and complexity of the process allow for these types of parts to be optimized
and improved in terms of performance, durability, and reliability.
 Applications of CNC in Automotive

• Cylinder Heads
– In the automotive and motorsport industries, CNC Machining is also regularly used in the
production of engine blocks and cylinder heads, which cover the cylinder in an internal
combustion engine
– These components are typically made from a solid block of aluminum, which is an easy metal to
machine
– Other powertrain components, such as alternator housings, brake system valves, and fuel pump
systems can also be produced using CNC Machining
 Applications of CNC in Automotive

• Gear box
– The gearbox is the second stage in a vehicle’s transmission system and is made up of various
shaft and gear components
– These parts can be produced with CNC Machining, which offers high precision and good
efficiency
– Even parts of the gearbox that are cast can then be finished using CNC milling and drilling tools.
A time-domain graph shows how a signal changes
over time, whereas a frequency-domain graph shows
how the signal is distributed within different
frequency bands over a range of frequencies.
(Next Lecture)
 Autonomous systems require sensors, actuators, and controllers.
 Auto-drilling processes require three elementary mechanical systems; circulation,
rotation, hoisting and an electric power supply system.
 Sensors provide information regarding the status of these systems during real-time
operations.
 Core measurements (i.e., drilling parameters) include weight on bit (WOB), rate of
penetration (ROP), motor torque, RPM, depth, pump pressure and flow rate.
 Process actuators (i.e., a mechanical element that converts energy into motion) are
hoisting machinery (drawworks), top drive motor and mud pump(s).
 An agent (an ensemble of computer programs) performs decision-making via on-line
data analysis (Fig. 1.)
1. The requirement of a systems architecture to describe hierarchically connecting
elements. Systems architecture generates value from combining drilling devices
and sub-systems. This promotes the interoperability of drilling systems (and sub-
systems) and requires identification of workflows and interfaces.
2. Communication challenges such as connectivity, time delay or cybersecurity
issues. They become critical due to industry-specific down-hole to surface
communication challenges or in remote operations.
3. Instrumentation and measurement systems development for drilling automation
and their availability, accuracy, precision, and redundancy requirements.
4. Drilling machinery, its role in drilling process mechanization (human effort
replacement with machinery) and drilling efficiency.
5. Control systems development, testing and validation, for the standardization of drilling data
flow schemes and integration of data-driven approaches with physics-based algorithms to
address uncertainties during operations.
6. Models and simulations to describe drilling-process dynamics accurately enough to predict
and control. Current status of such models, simulations and future goals have been
investigated. Most of them currently run in an advisory mood, and the development of the
better and faster collection of algorithms (for example, predictive, optimization,
classification, and both prognostic and diagnostic anomaly detection algorithms) can move
drillers into the supervisory level.
7. There is a gradual shift in the roles and tasks of rig personnel to automated machinery,
algorithms, and remote centers. This transition requires ‘humans and systems integration’
in order to improve HSE, user-centered design practices, elegant interfaces, etc.
8. Certification and industry standards are as a ‘must’ in order to implement interchangeability
of drilling components, lower installation plus maintenance costs, and increase design
efficiency and safety.
 The designed system is equipped with advanced sensors, micro-controllers and
control algorithms that can detect, identify and respond to deteriorations in different
drilling conditions.
 The rig is also designed to enter into the international Drillbotics competition hosted
by the SPE, in which students are challenged to design and construct autonomous
drilling machines to increase the awareness and understanding of how autonomous
systems in the future can increase the operational efficiency in the industry and
reduce the risk associated with drilling operations.
 By implementing the necessary sensors to monitor the rotation system, hoisting
system and circulation system of the rig, and testing different drilling strategies, it
illustrates that the system not only has the capability to autonomously sweep to the
optimal rate of penetration (ROP), but also quickly detect, analyze and determine
the best solution to allow for a continuous drilling operation without compromising on
the ROP.
 If the system is exposed to a higher rotary speed (RPM) and weight on bit (WOB),
the PDC drill bit or other components of the rig are likely to take damages and
unexpected drilling problems could be encountered more frequently.
 Such drilling problems when drilling at a higher WOB and RPM than the founder-
point could be extensive vibrations or overtorque in the drill string that ultimately
could result in a twist-off of the drill string, thus forcing a shutdown of the system and
drilling operation.
 Fig. 4 shows a schematic diagram of the agent body.
 Tables 1 summarizes the rig sensor information and properties of the drill string
assembly.
 Note that sampling frequencies for all sensors are synchronized ahead of each
drilling operation.
 Sensors are acquiring the data from a single point and calibrated in reference to
each other by a commercial data acquisition system, ensuring consistency and
reliability of measurements.
 The drilling rig system has a total of17 sensors, including three load cells capable of
providing measurements for x-, y- and z-axis; two torque sensors, one integrated in
the top drive and one external for torque measurement at the top of the drill string;
and in addition a RPM encoder (in the top drive).
 A downhole measurement system allows us to capture the moment when vibrations
occur and adjust operational parameters (the WOB and the RPM) in real time to
mitigate damages to the string components.
 The other function of downhole measurement is to do the bit position tracking and
control. Besides them, another important function is to record and keep the data to
do a post-analysis to determine the following:
▪ natural frequency of the system under various loads and rotational speeds,
▪ what mode of vibrations is dominant for particular operational conditions,
▪ what is the magnitude of loads the BHA and the bit are exposed to during drilling,
▪ how the system responds to initial conditions and no-load condition, i.e., external
forces are equal to zero,
▪ system’s transient response to external loads.
 Data acquisition (DAQ) is the process of measuring and communicating electrical or
physical phenomenons such as voltage, current, pressure or temperature with
sensors, communication devices and computes.
 A DAQ system consists of sensors, hardware and software which often come with
the DAQ-device.
 A simple setup of a DAQ system would be a sensor sending analog signals to the
DAQ device, where the signals are converted to digital signals, and/or sent for signal
conditioning,
 Fig. 4 shows how the drilling measurement is communicated through the DAQ
system.
 From the DAQ-device, the signals are sent to the micro-controllers (Arduino Duo)
using a data bus, which is a set of connectors or a set of wires.
 The DAQ system in this design is the QuantumX with 8 connectors per module.
 The sensors and transducers based on 17 different sensor technologies can be
connected to each of the 8 channels on these amplifiers.
 The module provides us with a 24-bit analog to digital converter, with sampling rates
of 40 ks/s (kilo samples per second) per channel, and active low pass filters (moving
average filter) that are renowned for their high precision.
 It is to receive data of higher quality from the system and ensures that we have the
necessary amplifying capacity.
 Any QuantumX module can be integrated into a ZwickRoell tensile/compression
testing machine.
 HBM strain gauges are attached on to the sample and connected to the bridge
amplifier.
 The fully time-synchronized measurement data directly streams into the stress-
strain display software.
 Incidentally, the integration of the QuantumX family enables the test setup not only
to acquire strain, but also force, torque, displacement, temperature, flow, pressure
and many more physical quantities.
 The proposed control system hierarchy includes synchronized interconnected
communication between the microcontrollers
 The load cells are capable of giving readings from all the three axes, although only the z-
axis signals are used for controlling the WOB.
 Other sensors connected to the QuantumX module are:
▪ top drive encoder—providing us with values for the RPM and the torque,
▪ height sensor that has higher accuracy,
▪ torque measurements from the bit and drill string (downhole sensors).
 Figure 4 shows the complete overview of the control system, with integrated DAQ-module,
providing us with highquality data for the real-time data management.
 To control the WOB, three actuators are individually controlled using a proportional integral
derivative (PID) controller, where the set-points of the WOB and the RPM are provided by
users in manual mode or by the ROP optimization algorithms in autonomous mode.
 Data management is an essential component regarding planning, decision-making
and execution infrastructure for the auto-drilling.
 The agent is programmed in a similar data architecture to that of lambda (λ)
architecture applied in big data streaming
 The design divides the data flow originating from sensors into two: one branch for
visualization (real-time streaming) and another for drilling optimization and formation
detection (machine learning algorithms) in batch processing, Fig. 7.
 This architecture not only performs pre-processing of drilling data before decision-
making algorithms but also provide real-time visualization to the driller.
 Furthermore, it also ensures that data is not overwritten, system safety and data
security.
 The agent store data for post analysis and information extraction.
 The drilling agent is also capable of detecting and mitigating several drilling
incidents such as twist-off, over-torque, stick-slip, damaging axial and torsional
vibrations, stuck pipe, leak, and so on.
 For example, if the rig sensors detect continuous oscillations of the top drive torque
beyond identified and hardcoded thresholds, damaging torsional vibrations is
suspected, and a list of pre-programmed remedial actions (such as reduction of
RPM) are iterated before re-initialization of the auto-drilling process.
 Under manual operating configurations, warning alarms for these costly incidents
are provided to the driller using HMI and voice alerts.
 An overview of the implemented drilling incident detection methods and their
immediate remedial actions are listed in Table 4.
 In addition, two of the drilling incident remedial algorithms developed and
implemented are in Figs. 11–12.
 Boundary constraints for such algorithms are introduced as: for example, for pack
off; if pump pressure > predefined threshold, and then execute remedial action.
 Several drilling incidents can co-occur, for instance, axial and lateral vibrations in a
coupled mode.
 Therefore, during programming, drilling incidents are ranked according to their
severity and priority of the remedial actions are selected accordingly.
 Such ranking of incident severity can be diverse according to the drillers’
experience, rig design, and drilling formation properties, etc.
 In addition, if the first remedial action fails to restore the desired operating conditions
after a time, a second remedial action (i.e., an alternative ‘then’ condition), a warning
or a shutdown is programmed.