MGG-003

REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY OF
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences
INDIA

BLOCK

4
SELECT MESO REGIONS OF INDIA

UNIT 11
MESO REGIONS 1

UNIT 12
MESO REGIONS 2

UNIT 13
MESO REGIONS 3

GLOSSARY
MGG- 003
REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA

BLOCK 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF REGIONS AND REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY

Unit 1 Understanding Regions
Unit 2 Basis of Regionalization
Unit 3 Personality of India 1
Unit 4 Personality of India 2

BLOCK 2 SCHEMES OF REGIONALIZATION

Unit 5 Changing Dimensions of India’s Regional Structure
Unit 6 Review of Major Schemes 1
Unit 7 Review of Major Schemes 2

BLOCK 3 MACRO REGIONS

Unit 8 Macro Regions of India 1
Unit 9 Macro Regions of India 2
Unit 10 Macro Regions of India 3

BLOCK 4 SELECT MESO REGIONS OF INDIA

Unit 11 Meso Regions 1
Unit 12 Meso Regions 2
Unit 13 Meso Regions 3

BLOCK 5 SELECT MICRO REGIONS OF INDIA

Unit 14 Mirco Regions 1
Unit 15 Mirco Regions 2
Unit 16 Mirco Regions 3
BLOCK 4: SELECT MESO REGIONS OF INDIA
Block 4 introduces you about the select meso regions of India, including six meso regions
dealt in three Units. These are meso region 1 (Ladakh and Arunachal Himalayas), meso
region 2 (Bengal delta and Indo-Ganga divide), and meso region 3 covering (Chotta Nagpur
plateau and Malabar coast).

Meso regions are notionally considered as intervening regions lying between the macro and
micro regions. It helps to study the physical and cultural aspects with nuanced details.

Unit 11: This Unit discusses the meso region 1 and includes Ladakh and Arunachal
Himalayas. It highlights the physical and cultural setting of these two meso regions of India.
In addition, it also describes the geographical regions along with problems and prospects.

Unit 12: This Unit discusses the meso region 2 and includes Bengal delta and Indo-Ganga
divide. It highlights the physical and cultural setting of these two meso regions of India. In
addition, it also describes the geographical regions along with problems and prospects.

Unit 13: This Unit discusses the meso region 3 and includes Chotta Nagpur plateau and
Malabar coast. In addition, it also describes the geographical regions along with problems
and prospects.

We hope that after studying Block 4, you will be able to comprehend the few select macro
regions of India in intriguing manner.

Our best wishes are always with you in this endeavour.

 UNIT 11

MESO REGIONS 1
Structure
11.1 Introduction Geology
Expected Learning Outcomes Physiography/Relief
11.2 Ladakh: Historical Background Drainage and Water Resources
11.3 Ladakh: The Physical Setting Climate
Geology Vegetation
Physiography/Relief Soils
Drainage and Water Resources Physical Resource Base
Climate 11.9 Arunachal Himalayas: The
Vegetation Cultural Setting
Soils Population
Physical Resource Base Settlement
11.4 Ladakh: The Cultural Setting Economy
Population Transport and Communication
Settlement 11.10 Arunachal Himalayas: The
Economy Regions
Transport and Communication 11.11 Arunachal Himalayas:
11.5 Ladakh: The Regions Problems and Prospects
11.6 Ladakh: Problems and 11.12 Summary
Prospects 11.13 Terminal Questions
11.7 Arunachal Himalayas: 11.14 Answers
Historical Background 11.15 References and Further
11.8 Arunachal Himalayas: The Reading
Physical Setting

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Ladakh and Arunachal region lies in the western most and eastern parts of
Himalayas and both shares international boundaries (IB) with China. Ladakh
also shares IB with Pakistan. Both these meso regions have distinctive
culture, economy and regional issues. These two meso regions have
significant role in geopolitical space of our country. Indus river is life line of
Ladakh region. Brahmaputra and Lohit rivers play same role in Arunachal
Himalayas. Ladakh got the status of a Union Territory (UT) of India on 31
October 2019 under Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act 2019. Prior to
that, it was part of the erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir. Ladakh is the
largest and second least populous union territory of India. Earlier Ladakh

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shared border with Pakistan in the west, Afghanistan in the north and China
(Xinjiang, Tibet) in the north and east respectively. Present day Ladakh shares
border with Pakistan and China.

Arunachal Pradesh is one of the 29 states of India, situated in the country's

northeast. The state covers an area of 83,743 square kilometres with more
than 1,382,611 inhabitants. The state is bordered by Assam and Nagaland in
the south and shares international borders with Bhutan in the west, Burma in
the east and People's Republic of China in the north. Capital of Arunachal
Pradesh is Itanagar.

Sections 11.2 to 11.11 are devoted to the study of historical background,

physical setting, cultural setting, and the regions along with problems and
prospects of Ladakh and Arunachal Himalayan meso regions in detail.

Study of this Unit will enable learners to not only understand regional
geography of these two meso regions situated in two extreme corners of
Himalayas, but also facilitate them to further explore on their own for their
academic, personal and professional development.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
 To have a comprehensive understanding of physical environment of
Ladakh Union Territory (Western Himalayas) and Arunachal Pradesh
(Eastern Himalayas);
 To analyse geology, physiography, drainage, climate, vegetation, soil and
resources of ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh meso regions;
 To study about the cultural settings i.e., population, settlement, economy,
transportation and communication of Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh
meso regions; and
 To find out the problem and prospects of Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh.

11.2 LADAKH: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Ladakh was known in the past by different names. It was called Maryul or low
land by some Kha-chumpa by others. Fa-Hein referred to it as Kie-Chha and
Hiuen Tsang as Ma-Lo-Pho. It is said that the first Immigrants to this land
appears to have been the Brokpas from Dardistan who inhabited lower
reaches of Indus Valley popularly known as Sham In 10th century AD, Skit
LdeNemagon, the ruler of Tibet, invaded Ladakh where there was no central
authority. King Singge Namgyal had consolidated Ladakhi Empire into a
strong kingdom during 16th century. He was not only a strong monarch but a
statesman, a diplomat and a builder. He built historic nine-storied Leh palace
and made other neighboring principalities envy of such an elegant palace. He
also promoted horse polo in Ladakh.

Ancient inhabitants of Ladakh were Dards, an Indo- Aryan race. Immigrants of

Tibet, Skardo and nearby parts like Purang, Guge settled in Ladakh, whose
racial characters and cultures were in consonance with early settlers.
Buddhism travelled from central India to Tibet via Ladakh leaving its imprint in
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Ladakh. Ladakh has always demanded for establishment of Union Territory.
Ladakh council was created under the Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development
Council Act 2005 to suppress the demand of UT. Finally, Ladakh was
established as a UT of India on 31st October 2019, after declaration of the
Jammu and Kashmir reorganization Act.

11.3 LADAKH: THE PHYSICAL SETTING

Ladakh lies between 32°44’ to 37°08’ North latitude and 72°50’ to 80°23’ East
longitude. Three Trans-Himalayan ranges namely Zanskar range, Ladakh
range and Karakoram range sprawl in this region. Ladakh Union Territory
comprises of two districts i.e., Leh and Kargil. Leh district is situated between
Karakoram in the north and Zanskar range in the South. It is situated along the
upper part Indus river. Kargil district lies between the Great Himalayan Range
and Zanskar Range.

11.3.1 Geology
The Ladakh region has an intrinsic relationship with evolution of complex
mountain system of North-West Himalayas. It resulted from major phases of
tectonic activity which raised the sediments of the great geosyncline of Tethys
Sea to Himalayan heights. This involved the building process of lofty mountain
ranges linked to structural tenements of the region.

Geographically, Ladakh comprises three Trans-Himalayan ranges viz.

Zanskar range, Ladakh range and Karakoram range. Leh district is situated
between Karakoram in the north and Zanskar range in the South. Gilgit and
Baltistan (Skardu) are located at the northern tip of the South Asia with
borders touching China to the east, Afghanistan and Pakistan to the west and
Kargil district of Ladakh to the south.

Core of Zanskar range, with the Great Himalayan range to the south and
Ladakh range to the north, has been found to be of close Cambrian
metamorphic sedimentary origin forming the basement on which all the
subsequent geological formations rest.

“The pre-Cambrian rocks are widely distributed in the region, with the
crystalline and metamorphic rocks exposed to the northern and southern
borders of Zanskar basin. South of Zanskar, basins are intruded by basic
dykes and sills, dolerites, and amphibolites. The amphibolites are of para type
and show zonal development in the form of veins and augens, which have
resulted from high grade metamorphism of marly impurities present in the
meta sediments at the time of regional metamorphism” (V.J. Gupta, et. al,
1975). It is, therefore, evident that Ladakh, Zanskar and Great Himalayan
ranges have been subject to considerable tectonic activity which is
responsible for broad physiographic alignment of the area.

11.3.2 Physiography/Relief
Physiography of Ladakh comprises of several mountain ranges. In south,
Ladakh is surrounded with mighty Great Himalayan range followed by Zanskar
range, Ladakh range and in the north it has Karakoram range.

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1. Great Himalayan Range

Southern part of Zanskar region is covered by the Northern face of Great

Himalayan range. Average height of Great Himalaya range is around 6100
metres above mean sea level. Zanskar range is situated to its north. Great
Himalayan range also makes Ladakh’s boundary with Kashmir Valley, Jammu
Province and with Himachal Pradesh. Some famous passes of Great
Himalayan range which connect Ladakh are Zojila, Umasila (5930 metres),
Baralachala and Shingola (5100 metres) etc.

2. Zanskar Range

Zanskar range is one among the main mountain ranges of Ladakh. It runs
parallel to Great Himalayan Range, and is situated to its north. Only access to
the main inhabited valleys of Zanskar is through high mountain passes
situated in Great Himalayan and Zanskar ranges. Important passes of Zanskar
range are Pensila (4400 metre), main pass which connects Zanskar tehsil
with Kargil situated to North-West, Purfila (3950 metre), Namatsela (4350
metre), Charchala (5200 metre), Shapodakla (5648 metre) connecting to Leh
in North-East and Phirtsela (5250 metres). Mostly this range presents barren
rocky surfaces. Its lower slopes provide some natural pastures during summer
months for grazing livestock, primarily of indigenous breeds of animals like
yak, churu, churi, sheep and goats etc.

Ladakh Range: Ladakh lies to the north of Zanskar range and south of
Karakoram range. It merges with Changthang in the east. Khardungla (5359
metre) is the highest pass of Ladakh range. Diger la and Chang la are other
important passes. Ladakh range is composed of granite rocks of the
Ladakh batholith, which is bounded by Shyok suture zone to the north and the
Indus suture zone to the south. Average height of Ladakh range is 6000
metres. Climate is semi-arid, with maximum summer temperatures going upto
30 °C along the lower slopes. Vegetation is sparse, limited mainly to short
grasses and scrubs.

Karakoram Range: Karakoram range consists of a group of parallel ranges

with several spurs. Only the central part is a monolithic range. Width of the
system is about 240 kilometres. Length increases from 500 kilometers to 800
kilometres. Average elevation of mountains in Karakoram is around 6,100
meters. K2 is the highest peak with an altitude of 8611 meter in Karakoram
range, the second highest peak is Gasherbrum 8068 metres followed by broad
peaks 8047 metres and Gasherbrum II 8035 metres. Topography is
characterized by craggy peaks and steep slopes. Southern slopes are long
and steep whereas northern slopes are steep and short. Transverse valleys
usually have appearance of narrow, deep and steep ravines.

11.3.3 Drainage and Water Resources

Map and Tables 11.1 and 11.0 shows drainage map and major rivers of
Ladakh respectively. Indus River is main lifeline of Ladakh. Habitations in
Ladakh have flourished around the banks of Indus river. Indus river has been
main source of fresh water in Ladakh presently as well as historically. It
originates near Mansarovar lake on southern slopes of Mt. Kailash (6714
metre). Total length of Indus river is 2900 kilometres. Zanskar river is one of
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the left tributaries of Indus river. It originates from Drung Drang glacier in
Zanskar and has a total length of 338 kilometres. Shyok river is a right
tributary of Indus river. It originates from Rimo glacier and has length of 550
kilometres. Other small tributaries of Indus river are Suru and Drass rivers
those join river Indus and finally it enters Pakistan. Table 11.0 shows the
details of major river of Ladakh.

Fig. 11.2: Drainage Map of Ladakh.

(Source: USGS, LANDSAT)

Table 11.1: Major Rivers of Ladakh

Major river Sources of Length General Information
origin (in kms.)
Indus Near the 2900 Main river of Ladakh, Indus festival
Mansarovar Lake is celebrated every year in June-
July at Shay village at right bank of
Indus river as a mark of Indus
civilization. Leh city is situated
along the right bank of Indus river.
Shyok Rimo Glacier 550 Right tributary of Indus river
Zanskar Drung Drang 338 Left tributary of Indus river,
glacier Zanskar valley exists along
Zanskar river.
Suru Penzila 185 Tributary of Indus river. Kargil city
is situated along the Suru river.

SAQ 1
Explain in details about the physiography and drainage system of Ladakh
Himalayan meso regions?

11.3.4 Climate
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Climate of any region is reflected by the physiographic situation of that area.
Ladakh lies in the leeward side of moisture bearing monsoon winds.
Therefore, it remains largely devoid of rains during monsoon season.
However, Ladakh receives maximum rainfall during winter season in the form
of snow due to western disturbances. Ladakh is basically a cold desert as it is
situated in Trans-Himalayan area. Climatic conditions vary widely in Ladakh,
ranging from monsoon influenced moist temperate zone in western Himalaya
to arid and semi-arid cold desert. Both temperature and precipitation vary
seasonally and spatially. Kargil is comparatively more humid as compared to
Leh. Winter temperature in Ladakh may reach below minus 400C. World’s
second coldest inhabited place is Drass, which is situated in Kargil.
Temperature at Drass falls below minus 45 0C. Maximum precipitation occurs
in the form of snowfall during winter months. Average annual precipitation of
Ladakh is 10 centimetre.

SAQ 2
Briefly discuss about the general climatic characteristics of Ladakh meso region?

11.3.5 Vegetation
By and large, poor rainfall and thin soil cover in Ladakh results into scanty
vegetation cover. Ladakh is rich repository of medicinal and aromatic plants. It
is estimated that Ladakh region may harbour close to 1,100 species of
vascular plants and ferns. As many as 23 species of flowering plants are
endemic to Ladakh. Western and eastern parts of Ladakh differ significantly in
terms of floral assemblage. Table 11.1 shows distribution of forest area in
Ladakh. Out of the total geographical area Ladakh meso region covers only 36
square kilometres (Leh and Kargil) area as forest cover which accounts for
0.11percent of total geographical area.

Table 11.1: Forest cover of Ladakh (Area in Sq. Km)

Name of districts Total geographical Forest Cover Percentage of total
area Geographical Area
Leh 45110 29 0.06
Kargil 14036 07 0.05
(Source: Digest of Statistics, 2017-18)

11.3.6 Soils
Cold-arid region of Ladakh has high variability in soil characteristics. Soils of
the region are quite distinct from those of other zones due to differences in
climate, topography, vegetation and rocks. Soils vary considerably with terrain.
Its soils are shallow to very shallow in depth. These vary widely in colour,
texture, structure and permeability depending upon topography and
vegetation. Under predominant influence of physical weathering, these soils
usually consist of coarse material and are often called skeletal soils with
mixtures of rock fragments and colluvial material. Generally, soils are acidic
and are subject to erosion in mountainous regions. Major soil types
are inceptisols, entisols, and ultisols. Calcareous nature of parental rocks in

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the form of limestone, dolomitic and shale are responsible for the genesis of
soils having free CaCO3. River valleys are characterized by rich alluvial soils
that are highly suited for agriculture. Presence of alluvial soil in the river
valleys is main factor determining agriculture and settlements in Ladakh.
Therefore, we may surmise that it is small patches of land in the river valleys
and uplands, ideally suited for carrying out the pursuits of agriculture and
making houses as well.

SAQ 3
What are the basic reasons for less number of plant species in Ladakh
Himalayan meso regions?

11.3.7 Physical Resource Base

Ladakh region is rich in mineral resources and produces a number of precious
metals and important radioactive substance. Gold is found in placer deposits
in Indus and Shyok rivers. Borax (Puga Valley), Granite, Limestone and
Marble are present in good quantity.

SAQ 4
Briefly write about various types of physical resource base of Ladakh
Himalayan meso region?

11.4 LADAKH: THE CULTURAL SETTING

Population in Ladakh is composed of Buddhists, Muslims, Hindus and
Christians. A variety of dialects are spoken by people of the region and these
do not have any recognized script. Ladakhi (Bhoti), Purgi, Shina, Urdu and
Balti are among the widely spoken languages. Festivals celebrated are Hemis
Guestor, Losar, Dosmoche, PhyangTsedup, Polo, Navroz, Harvest and
Ginani. According to Balti folklore, Mughal princess Gul Khatoon brought
musicians and artisans with her into the region and they propagated Mughal
music and art. Musical instruments such as surnai, damal karnai, dhol
and chang were important part of Ladakhi culture.

11.4.1 Population
Population in Ladakh is thinly distributed because of some physical factors.
Harsh climate, limited agricultural land, fragile environment, prolonged winter
season, low distribution of minerals and less scope of industrial development
in Ladakh are mainly responsible for low population. Table 11.2 shows that
as per 2011 census total population of Ladakh was 274,289 persons of which
male and female were 156,756 and 117,533 respectively. Total population in
2001 was 2,36,539 persons in which males were 129261 while females were
107278. Density of population in Ladakh was 6 persons per square kilometres
during 2011 Census period, respectively. Sex ratio in case of Ladakh, Leh and
Kargil was 720, 690 and 810 females per 1000 males for 2011 Census period
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respectively. Literacy rate in 2001 was 54 percent which rose to 74.25 percent
in 2011. The decadal growth rate of population for Ladakh in 2011 was 16
percent. Table 11.2 also reveals the district-wise demographic data of the Leh
and Kargil as well. Kargil district has population of 140802 persons as per
census 2011 and for the Leh district, it was 133487 persons. The sex ratio of
was 690 and 810 males per 1000 females in both Leh and Kargil district
respectively. The literacy rate for Leh and Kargil was 77.20 and 71.34 percent
in 2011 Census year, respectively.

Table 11.2: Demographic Characteristics of Ladakh.

Population Indicators
Ladakh Leh Kargil
Total Population 274289 133487 140802
Males 156756 79971 77785
Females 117533 54516 63017
Sex Ratio 720 690 810
Literacy in percentage 74.27 77.20 71.34
Density/Km2 6 3 10
Decadal growth in 16 13.87 18
percentage
(Source: Census of India, 2011)

SAQ 5
Briefly discuss about the demographic characteristics of Ladakh meso
Himalayan region?

11.4.2 Settlements
Table 11.3 shows total population, rural and urban population of Leh and
Kargil districts in Ladakh. Total population of Kargil district was 140802
persons in 2011. It consisted of 77785 males and 63017 females. Rural areas
of the district were inhabited by 124464 persons which had 67703 males and
56761 females. Urban areas had population of 16338 persons among them
were 10082 males and 6256 females. Total population of Leh district was
133487 persons in 2011. It consisted of 78971 males and 54516 females.
Villages of the district were inhabited by 87816 persons consisting of 48411
males and 39405 females. Urban areas had population of 45671 persons with
30560 males and 15111 females.

Table 11.3: Total, rural and urban population in Districts of Ladakh.

Total Rural % Urban % Total Rural % Urban %
Population population age population age Population population age population age
of Kargil of Kargil of Kargil of Leh of Leh of Leh
Persons 140,802 124,464 88 16,338 12 133487 87816 65.79 45671 34
Males 77,785 67,703 87 10,082 13 78971 48411 61.3 30560 39
Female 63,017 56,761 90 6,256 10 54516 39405 72.28 15,111 28
(Source: Census of India, 2011)

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11.4.3 Economy
Inhabitants of Leh are involved in primary, secondary and tertiary economic
activities for their livelihood. Traditionally, the mountainous communities have
been dependent on agriculture and pastoral activities as means of livelihood.
Due to arid climatic conditions, cropping is mostly done on irrigated alluvial
fans. Main crops consist of staple including wheat, barley, sorghum, millets,
and some fruits such as apple, grapes, walnuts, apricot, almonds and some
vegetables like potato, turnip, cabbage, beans, tomato, and carrots. Livestock
rearing is a major source of livelihood and no family whether farmer or
businessmen can live in these remote valleys without livestock. Different
livestock types such as goat, sheep and yak are found in this harsh
landscape. Mountainous areas provide grazing grounds for both wild
ungulates and domestic animals. Most families keep mixed herds including
few goats, sheep and cattle. Communities very close to pastures also keep
yak, which are free ranging animals. Goat hair is used in rope-making and rug-
making, primarily for domestic use.

Fodder cultivation is a necessary requirement for the agro-pastoral

communities in order to sustain the livestock during winter season when
snowfall covers the rangelands for several months. Other crops include wheat,
barley and vegetables which are cultivated.

Apricot and apple were banned for export by the administration of erstwhile
state of Jammu and Kashmir. This restriction was lifted in 2021. Apricot and
apple are exported to different parts of country and abroad after the restriction
of 50 years (Published in Outlook magazine, 31 August 2021).

Sher-e- Kashmir University of Agricultural and Technology (SKUAST),

Defence Institute of High-Altitude Research (DIHAR) and local agricultural
department is promoting crop diversification by introducing a few suitable
varieties of cash crops in Leh.

Limited population is involved in small scale industries. Government sector is

the main source for providing employment in service sector. Due to lifting of
ban for both foreign and domestic tourists in 1974, the region flourished as a
hot spot for tourism. Tourism has become a major source of income for the
people.

Table 11.4: Number of Workers and Non-workers in Kargil

Total/ Male/ Number of Workers Percentage to Total Population
Female Main Marginal Total (Main Non- Main Marginal Total (Main Non-
+ Marginal) workers + Marginal) workers
Total 28,941 22,932 51,873 88,929 20.55 16.29 36.84 63.16
Male 25,174 14,665 39,839 37,946 32.36 18.85 51.22 48.78
Female 3,767 8,267 0 50,983 5.98 13.12 19.1 80.9
(Source: Census of India, 2011)

It is evident from table 11.4, that there are total 51,873 workers (Main +
Marginal workers), out of which 39,839 are male workers and 12,034 are
female workers. Number of main workers is more than marginal workers. Non-

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workers are 88,929 in Kargil district of whom 37,946 are males and 50,983
females. Overall, non-workers are in majority.

Table11.5: Number of Workers and Non-workers in Leh

Total/ Male/ Number of Workers Percentage to Total Population
Female Main Margi Total (Main Non- Main Marginal Total (Main Non-
nal + Marginal) workers + Marginal) workers
Total 57,125 17,954 75,079 58,408 42.79 13.45 56.24 43.76
Male 44,742 8,523 53,265 25,706 56.66 10.79 67.45 32.55
Female 12,383 9,431 21,814 32,702 22.71 17.30 40.01 59.99
(Source: Census of India, 2011)

It can be seen from table 11.5 that there are 75079 total workers (Main +
Marginal workers) out of which 53,265 are male workers and 21,814 are
female workers. Number of main workers is more than the marginal workers.
Non-workers are 58,408 in Leh district among whom 25706 are males and 32,
702 are females.

SAQ 6
Discuss the occupational structure of Leh district of Ladakh.

11.4.4 Transport and Communication

Project HIMANK of Border Road organization (BRO) is the initiative to connect
and build world class roads in international border of Leh areas. International
Border is well connected by metalled road. National Highway IA connects Leh
and Kashmir which is 470 kilometres in length. Leh is connected with Manali
by National Highway-3 having a length of 472 kilometres. There is other
national highway within ladakh i.e. NH 301 which connects Zanskar with Kargil
having length of 234 kilometres. Zojila Tunnel is going to be constructed
between Srinagar-Kargil-Leh. Apart from road connectivity, Ladakh is also
approachable through two airports viz., Kushok Bakula Airport at Leh and
Thoise Airbase. The Government has proposed to connect Ladakh with Indian
Railway through Bilaspur-Leh line.

SAQ 7
Briefly explain various transport and communication modes in Ladakh
Himalayan meso regions?

11.5 LADAKH: THE REGIONS

Ladakh Union Territory has been divided into various regions based on the
homogeneity of culture, belief, and dialects etc. Followings are major regions
of Ladakh:

1. Nubra Valley

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Nubra is a broad valley with lofty mountains on its all sides. Nubra valley lies
between Karakoram in the north and Ladakh range in the south. Diskit is the
main town of Nubra valley. Shyok and Nubra are the main rivers of this valley.
Highest motorable pass Khardung-la connects Leh with Nubra. Double
humped camels and cold desert sand dunes are very famous in Nubra valley.
Besides, this valley is known to offer unique physical landscape that attracts
large number of domestic as well as international tourists every year.

2. Changthang Valley

Changthang means eastern flat land. It is the land of nomads located in the
east of Leh on the Chinese border. The average altitude of the area is around
14,600 metre above mean sea level. This area is also known as Rupsho
valley. The pashmina goat and Changpa nomads are main attraction of this
valley. With the passage of time, this traditional means of livelihood is showing
signs of withdrawal, especially by the younger generation in pursuit of better
employment opportunities elsewhere.

3. Central Leh Valley

Central Leh valley is most populated valley and it is the centre of Leh district.
Famous Leh and Stok palaces are situated in this valley. Leh market is the
main market of Ladakh. Ladakh UT headquarter is situated in Leh town.

4. Lower Leh Valley

Lower Leh valley is the second most populated valley of Leh district. It
includes famous villages of Nimu, Liker, Basgo, Saspol, Khaltse and
Lalamyuru. Famous Lamayuru monastery is situated in this valley.

5. Drass Valley

Drass, a small town in the Kargil district, is situated on Srinagar-Kargil

highway. This place is the second coldest inhabited place in the world. Drass
Valley is known for its historical and political significance. This region became
quite known due to infamous Kargil War of 1999. Tiger Hill is located in Drass.

6. Suru Valley

Suru Valley is beautiful destination with green landscape and dense

vegetation. It is known for Bamiyan Type Rock statue. Adventure activities like
mountaineering, rock climbing, river rafting and trekking are popular among
locals and tourists in Suru valley.

7. Zanskar Valley

Natural environment of Zanskar presents very harsh and fragile ecosystem.

This region experiences heavy snowfall during winter season caused by the
western disturbances. Zanskar sub-division is an underdeveloped area where
existing use of natural resources is limited due to low level of technology and
harsh environment presented by rugged topography and very cold climate.

SAQ 8

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Briefly explain about the Zanskar and Nubra valleys?

11.6 LADAKH: PROBLMES AND PROSPECTS

Ladakh region has problems of communication and transport during winter
months. The area remains cut-off from rest of the world for more than four
months. Very limited air connectivity is available during winter months. There
are some regions like Zanskar which remain unconnected with its district
headquarter within Ladakh. Working season is very short and there is very
limited time period for agricultural activities. Beside these, there are also
border issues with China and Pakistan.

Ladakh has huge geographical area and is very rich in terms of land
resources. The beautiful landscape is source of attraction for tourists. Tourism
industry is booming in Ladakh. Ladakh has huge source for medicinal plants. It
has valuable pashmina goats. Pashmina shawl is famous in Ladakh. Ladakh
has tremendous scope for harnessing potential of clean and renewable energy
sources like solar and geothermal energy. Puga valley is known for
geothermal energy.

11.7 ARUNACHAL HIMALAYAS: HISTORICAL

BACKGROUND
Arunachal Pradesh is inhabited by the people of tribal origin. Ahom Kings
influenced the region during 16th century. Population is of Tibeto-Burmese
linguistic origin. The tribes consist of Daflas, Tangins, Monpas and they have
been influenced by Buddhist ideals. Miri along with Daflas and Tagin live in the
hills. Apatanis are believed to be more advanced. They are agriculturists.
Beside this, the Abor who call themselves as Adi live in the valleys of
Arunachal Pradesh. Beside them, Membas, Ramos and Boris form minor
groups. Mishmis exists as Idus, Taraons, and Kamans. They excel in
handicrafts. Today, tourism forms an important source of revenue for the state
economy. Indigenous Arunachali inhabitants have relationship with Myanmar
hill tribal groups. High mountains, thick forest and inaccessibility have helped
in the evolution of various tribal group identities living in different valleys.
Monpa and Sherdukpenare are main dominating tribes in the state. The
Ahoms held the areas until the annexation of India by the British in 1858.
Later, it became fully integrated region into India as a Union Territory on
January 20, 1972 known as North East Frontier Agency (NEFA). Arunachal
became full-fledged state on February 20, 1987 and was renamed as
Arunachal Pradesh.

11.8 ARUNACHAL HIMALAYAS: THE

PHYSICAL SETTING
Arunachal Pradesh is located between 26.28° N and 29.30° N latitude and
91.20° E and 97.30° E longitude and has 83,743 square kilometres of area.
The state shares international border with Bhutan in the west, Myanmar in the
east and China in the north. The state also shares borders with Nagaland
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State to the south east and Assam to the south. Most of Arunachal Pradesh is
covered by mighty expanse of the Himalayas.

11.8.1 Geology
Geologically, Arunachal Pradesh shows history of evolution with tectonic
activities . Mishmi Himalaya, or traditionally Lohit Himalaya, is another name
for the Eastern Arunachal Himalayan belt (EAHB). The Mishmi block is made
up of three main river valleys: Siang river valley in the west, Dibang river
valley in the centre, and Lohit river valley in the east. Bhalukpong – Tawang –
Zimithang is the name given to the western sector of Arunachal Himalaya,
which contains a diverse range of lithology components from Proterozoic to
Pleistocene periods. Series of tectonic contacts and thrusts are identified from
lower structural level to the south to higher structural level to the north. It is a
part of main central thrust of Himalayas. It has distribution of various types of
rocks including schistose, muscovite, chlorite, quartzite, phyllite and meta
volcanics.

11.8.2 Physiography/Relief
Arunachal Pradesh’s physiography shows the state to be primarily made up of
hilly tract nestled in the Himalayas. Most of Arunachal Pradesh is
mountainous. Arunachal Himalayas range from the east of Bhutan Himalayas
to Diphu pass in the east. Mountain ranges run in broad southwest-to-
northeast direction. Fast-flowing rivers cut through these ranges from north to
south creating deep gorges. Brahmaputra runs through a deep gorge after
crossing Namcha Barwa. These rivers are perennial with a high rate of fall and
thus, have large hydro-electric power potentials. Monpa, Abor, Mishmi, Nyishi
and Nagas are some of the well-known tribes occupying territories from west
to east. Jhumming is practiced by majority of these groups. This practice is
also known as slash and burn cultivation or shifting cultivation. Its terrain
consists of lofty hills, ridges that separate intervening deep valleys and peaks
of the Great Himalayas. Arunachal Himalaya can be divided into three regions:
western, central, and eastern.

Western Arunachal Himalayas: Bhalukpong–Tawang–Zimithang is the name

given to western sector of Arunachal Himalaya.

Central Arunachal Himalayas: Central Arunachal Himalayas consist of many

river valleys. Dibang river valley is the main valley of central Arunachal
Himalayas.

Eastern Arunachal Himalayas: Mishmi Himalaya, or traditionally Lohit

Himalaya, is another name for Eastern Arunachal Himalayan belt. The Mishmi
block is made up of three main river valleys: Siang river valley in the west,
Dibang river valley in the centre, and Lohit river valley in the east.

11.8.3 Drainage and Water Resources

Table 11.6 shows natural drainage of Arunachal Pradesh. The state of
Arunachal Pradesh has five major rivers. These are Brahmaputra (Siang),
Kameng, Subansiri, Lohit and Tirap. Important tributaries of river Kameng
which are turbulent and high-speed rivers are Para, Pachi, Pachok, Pakoti,
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Keya Bichom, Pacha, Pakke, Papu, Passa, Narmorah and Dikalmukh. Small
tributaries of Subansiri include Rangandi, Dikrong and Kamala. The tributaries
of Siang river include Dibang, Burhi Dihing, Tista, and Dhansari. All these are
fed by snow of Himalayas. The mightiest of these rivers is Siang, called the
Tsangpo in Tibet, which becomes the Brahmaputra after it is joined by Dibang
and Lohit in the plains of Assam.

Table 11.6: Major Rivers of Arunachal Pradesh Himalayas meso region.

Name of the Sources of Length General Information
river origin (in kms.)
Brahmaputra Mansarovar 2900 Main river of Arunachal Pradesh.
Lake
Subansari Tibet 442 The Subansiri (Chayul Chu in Tibet) is a
trans-Himalayan river and a tributary of
the Brahmaputra river.
Lohit Zeyal Chu 200 Tributary of Brahmaputra river.
Dhiang Patkai Hills 195 Tributary of Brahmaputra river.
Kameng Tawang 264 Tributary of Brahmaputra river.

SAQ 10
Briefly explain about the physiography and drainage system of Arunachal
Himalayan meso regions?

11.8.4 Climate
Arunachal Pradesh has humid hot and sub-tropical climate in foot hills, windy
cool and pleasant climate at lower altitude and cold climate at higher
mountains. Rainfall is heavy during monsoon causing flood and landslides.
Areas that are at a very high elevation in the Upper Himalayas close to
Tibetan border enjoy an alpine or Tundra climate. Below the Upper Himalayas
are the Middle Himalayas, where people experience temperate climate.
Arunachal Pradesh receives heavy rainfall ranging between 80 to 160 inches.

11.8.5 Vegetation
Arunachal Pradesh has various forms of natural vegetation. Main forest types
are northern tropical semi-evergreen forests, northern tropical evergreen
forest, northern tropical moist deciduous forest, secondary bamboo breaks,
east Himalayan sub-tropical broad-leafed forest, temperate broad-leafed
forest, temperate conifer forest, sub-alpine woody shrub and alpine meadows.

Important forest types found in the state are Tropical evergreen, semi
evergreen, deciduous, Pine, Alpine and grasslands etc. It has tropical
evergreens and sub-tropical pines, subtropical mixed broad-leaved
and pine forests are found in the lower elevations. As elevation increases, the
woodlands give way to mixed and coniferous temperate forests. Sub-alpine
and alpine vegetation, with rhododendrons predominating appears on the
higher slopes of Arunachal Pradesh in the eastern portion of Himalayas.

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Table 11.7 shows forest cover of the State, based on interpretation of satellite
data of Oct-2017 to March 2018. Total forest cover in Arunachal Pradesh is
66687.78 square kilometres, which is 79.63 percent of the state's geographical
area. In terms of forest canopy density classes, the state has 30556.50 square
kilometers area under dense forest. And, 21095.43 square kilometers area is
under moderately dense forest. This analysis is based on the report of
Department of Environment and Forest, Government of Arunachal Pradesh,
2020-21.

Table 11.7: Area under various forests in Arunachal Pradesh Himalayas

meso region
Forest cover Dense forest area Moderate dense forest
Area (in sq. kms.) 66687.78 30556.50 21095.43

(Source: Department of Environment and Forest, Government of Arunachal Pradesh, 2020-21)

11.8.6 Soils
Soil of Arunachal Himalayan region is mostly comprised of mountainous soil
and alluvial soil in river valleys. Main soils in Arunachal Pradesh are red loamy
soil, laterite soil, red and yellow soil, recent alluvium and old alluvium and
brown hill soil. Slash and burn (Jhum) procedure of cultivation is practiced in
large area. Land is cultivated with mixed-crops for two years and then left
fallow to rejuvenate itself naturally for 3-6 years. Burning increases soil pH,
available K and exchangeable Ca. The change in pH is temporary, as after the
depletion of Ca and K from the soil, the original pH is regained. Soils of
Arunachal Pradesh are strongly to moderately acidic in nature (pH 4.5 to 7.2),
rich in organic matter content (0.8 to 5.2 percent OC) which declines sharply
with depth. High runoff and Jhum cultivation have led to extensive soil erosion
in the state. Acid soil, rich in organic matter with high rainfall and cold climate
favours plantation of different temperate and a sub-tropical fruit likes pear,
peach, plum, apple, tea and cardamom etc., pineapple cultivation at foot hill
slopes in addition to vegetables, spices and medicinal plants.

SAQ 11
Briefly discuss about vegetation characteristics of Arunachal Himalayan meso
region?

11.8.7 Physical Resource Base

Arunachal Pradesh has significant coal and petroleum reserves and many
rivers having high hydel potentials. Most of the power supply is derived from
hydroelectric power plants. Other mineral resources of the region include
quartz, marble, limestone, dolomite, iron and graphite. Arunachal Pradesh has
significant, though largely unutilized, resource potential. Among its resources
for generating energy are rivers, coal, and petroleum. Most of the state’s
power is provided by hydroelectric plants. In addition to hydrocarbons, other
mineral resources of Arunachal Pradesh include dolomite, quartzite,
limestone, and marble. Efforts have been made in early 21st century to
expand hydroelectric and solar power generation. Table 11.8 shows minerals
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resources of Arunachal Pradesh (2015). It can be inferred from the table that
main mineral resources are copper, graphite, Limonite and dolomite.

Table 11.8: Minerals Resources of Arunachal Pradesh Himalayan meso

region.
Mineral Resources Total Resources in '000 Tonnes
Copper 10.02
Dolomite 77837
Graphite 72758257
Liomestone 482795
Quartzite 5270
(Source: Indian Minerals Yearbook, 5th edition, 2020)

SAQ 12
Briefly write about various types of physical resource base of Arunachal
Himalayan Meso region?

11.9 ARUNACHAL HIMALAYAS: CULTURAL

SETTING
Arunachal Pradesh can be roughly divided into a set of semi-distinct cultural
spheres, on the basis of tribal identity, language, and religion and material
culture. The division can be Tibetic area bordering Bhutan in the west, the
Thanyi area in the centre of the state, the Mishmi area to the east of the
Thanyi area, the Tai/ Singpho/ Tangsa area bordering Myanmar, and the
‘Naga’ area to the south, which also borders Myanmar. In between, there are
transition zones, such as Aka/ Hruso/ Miji/ Sherdukpen area, which provides a
‘buffer’ of sorts between Tibetic Buddhist tribes and animist Thanyi hill tribes.

In the Tibetic area, one finds large numbers of people of Monpa tribe with
several sub-tribes speaking closely related but mutually incomprehensible
dialects. Major tribe is Nyishi within the Thanyi area. Apatanis also live among
Nyishi, but are distinct. In the centre, one finds predominantly Galo people,
with the major sub-groups of Lare and Pugo among others, extending to the
Ramo and Pailibo areas. In the east, one finds the Adi with many sub-tribes
including Padam, Pasi, Minyong and Bokar, among others. Moving east, the
Idu, Miju and Digaru make up the ‘Mishmi’ cultural-linguistic area.

In the southeast, the Tai Khamtiare are linguistically distinct from their
neighbours and culturally distinct from majority of other Arunachalese tribes.

Tibetan Buddhism predominates in the districts of Tawang, West Kameng,

and isolated regions lying adjacent to Tibet. Theravada Buddhism is practiced
by the groups living near Myanmar border.

Tribal people in Arunachal Pradesh wear distinctive garments and head dress.
Art of weaving is especially important and textile designs are unique to each
group. Dances are an integral part of community life. Losar, Mopin, and

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Solung are major tribal festivals. Villagers often drink millet or rice beer, as
well as tea at such festivals.

11.9.1 Population
Table 11.9 shows demographic characteristics of Arunachal Pradesh.
Arunachal Pradesh had population of 13.84 Lakhs persons in 201, an increase
from 10.98 Lakh persons in 2001. Total population of Arunachal Pradesh in
2011 was 1,383,727 persons of which male and female were 713,912 and
69,815 respectively. Total population was 1,097,968 persons in 2001 of which
579,941 were males and 518,027 females. Density of Arunachal Pradesh was
13 persons per square kilometre in 2001 and 17 persons per square
kilometres in 2011. Sex ratio was 893 and 938 females per 1000 males in
2001 and 2011 respectively. Literacy rate was 54.34 percent and 65.38
percent in 2001 and 2011 respectively. Decadal population growth rate in
Arunachal Pradesh was 27 percent and 26.03 percent in 2001 and 2011
respectively.

Table 11.9: Demographic characteristics of Arunachal Pradesh (2011)

Arunachal Pradesh
Population Indicators 2001 2011
Actual Population 1,097,968 1,383,727
Male 579,941 713,912
Female 518,027 669,815
Sex Ratio 893 938
Literacy 54.30 % 63.80 %
Decadal growth rate of population 27 % 26.03 %
Density/Km2 54.34 65.38
(Source: Census of India, 2011)

Table 11.10 shows the district-wise demographic characteristics of Arunachal

Pradesh. It can be inferred from the given table that Papumpare district
(176,573 persons) has the highest population followed by Changlang
(1,48,226 persons) and Lohit districts (145726 persons). Dibang valley district
(8004 persons) has lowest population followed by Anjaw (21167 persons) and
Upper Siang districts (35320 persons). Highest decadal population growth rate
is found in Papumpare (44.73 %). The same district also has highest literacy
rate (79.51 percent) in Arunachal Pradesh. Lowest decadal growth rate is in
Upper siang district i.e. 5.87 percent. Tirap district has lowest literacy rate
(52.19 percent) in the state. Highest density of population is in Papumpare
district (52 persons per square kilometres) and lowest density is in Dibang
valley (1 person per square kilometres). Kurung Kumey district has highest
sex ration i.e. 1032, whereas Tawang has lowest sex ratio i.e., 714 females
per 1000 males.

Table 11.10 Demographic Characteristics of Arunachal Pradesh (2011).

Name of Population Decadal Sex Literacy Density of
Districts Growth Rate Ratio Rate Population
Papumpare 176,573 44.73 % 980 79.95 % 51
Changlang 148,226 18.18 % 926 59.80 % 32
Lohit 145,726 16.59 % 912 68.18 % 28
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West Siang 112,274 8.04 % 930 66.46 % 13
Tirap 111,975 11.61 % 944 52.19 % 47
East Siang 99,214 13.52 % 980 72.54 % 28
Kurung Kumey 92,076 116.56 % 1032 48.75 % 15
West Kameng 83,947 12.53 % 819 67.07 % 11
Upper
83,448 50.78 % 998 63.80 % 12
Subansiri
Lower
83,030 49.00 % 984 74.35 % 24
Subansiri
East Kameng 78,690 37.62 % 1029 60.02 % 19
Lower Dibang
54,080 7.20 % 928 69.13 % 14
Valley
Tawang 49,977 28.40 % 714 59.00 % 23
Upper Siang 35,320 5.87 % 889 59.99 % 5
Anjaw 21,167 14.19 % 839 56.46 % 3
Dibang Valley 8,004 10.07 % 813 64.10 % 1
(Source: Census of India, 2011)

SAQ 13
Briefly discuss about the demographic characteristics of Arunachal Himalayan
meso region?

11.9.2 Settlements
Table 11.11 shows rural and urban population of Arunachal Pradesh (2011).
Arunachal Pradesh had 39.27 percent urban population and 59.63 percent
rural population in 2011. Main urban centres are Itanagar, Miao, Seppa, Mipi,
Rupa, Wakro, Anini and Dirang Zemithang. Out of total population of
Arunachal Pradesh, 22.94 percent people lived in urban areas in 2001. Urban
population of Arunachal Pradesh increased to 39.27 percent in 2011 and is
expected to rise further. Sex Ratio in urban centres of Arunachal Pradesh was
890 females per 1000 males. Average Literacy rate in Arunachal Pradesh for
Urban areas was 82.93 percent. Out of total population of Arunachal Pradesh
state, around 77.06 percent people live in villages. Population growth rate in
Arunachal Pradesh for rural population was 22.56 percent during 2001-11. In
rural areas of Arunachal Pradesh state, there were 953 female per 1000
males in rural areas in 2011. Average literacy rate in Arunachal Pradesh for
rural areas was 59.94 percent.

Table 11.11: Rural and urban population of Arunachal Pradesh (2011).

Total Population Rural Urban
1,066,358 317,369
Percentage 77.06 % 22.94%
Population growth 22.56 % 39.27 %
Sex ratio 953 890
Literacy rate 59.94% 82.93%
(Source: Census 2011)

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11.9.3 Economy
More than half of population of Arunachal Pradesh is engaged in agriculture,
but only a tiny portion of the land is under cultivation. Although settled
agriculture, including wet-rice farming, has expanded considerably since late
20th Century yet many farmers continue to practice shifting agriculture (jhum).
Rice, corn (maize), millets and buckwheat are among the chief crops grown.
Major commercial crops are oilseeds, potatoes, ginger, sugarcane and
vegetables. Table 11.12 shows work participation in terms of total workers,
male and female workers in Arunachal Pradesh in 2011. It can be seen from
the table that total workers 4,78,721 among whom 3,01,109 were males and
1,77,612 were females. Number of cultivators are highest i.e. 2,48,120
workers followed by other workers accounting for 2,0,5614. Number of
workers engaged in household industries were lowest at 4,728 workers.

Table 11.12: Work Participation (2011)

Workforce Total Person Males Females
Main worker 478,721 301,109 177,612
Cultivators 248,120 130,008 118,112
Agriculture Labourer 20,259 11,921 8,338
Household Industries 4,728 2,772 1,956
Other Workers 205,614 156,408 49,206
Marginal Workers 108,936 49,164 59,772
Non Working 796,070 363,639 432,431
(Source: Census of India, 2011)

SAQ 14
Describe work participation in Arunachal Pradesh Himalayas?

11.9.4 Transport and Communication

Arunachal Pradesh is not well connected with other parts of the country
through highways, railways, and airways. The state's airports are located at
Daparjio, Ziro, Along, Tezu and Pasighat. However, owing to rough terrain,
these airports are mostly small and cannot handle many flights. Arunachal
Pradesh has many highways: National Highway 52 which is 336 kilometres
and was completed in 1998. It connects Jonai with Dirak, and another highway
connects Tezpur in Assam with Tawang.

Table 11.13 shows National Highways in Arunachal Pradesh. Main National

highways are NH 229,52B and 52. National Highway 229 connects Saggalee-
Ziro-Doprprijo- Alang, Passighat, Namchik, Changlang, Konsa and Kanubari.
There are also National Highways which have small length i.e. NH 52A, 153
and 37. The total length covered by these National highways is less than 60
kilometres.

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11.13: National Highway in Arunachal Pradesh Himalayan meso region.
National Connectivity Length (in kms.)
Highway
NH 52 Assam border-Pasighat-Dambuk-Roing-Paya- 310
Tezu-Wakro-Namsai
NH 52 A Itanagar-upto Assam border. 42
NH 153 Assam border-Myanmar border (starting from 40
tawang-Bomdila-Nechipu- Sneppa.
NH 229 Saggalee-Ziro-Doprprijo- Alang and 1090
terminating at Passighat in the state of
Arunachal Pradesh, Namchik, changlang,
Konsa and Kanubari.
NH 52 B Terminating near Dibrugarh in the state of 450
Assam, joining with approaches to Bogibeel
bridge.
NH 37 Saikhowaghat in Assam to join NH 52 near 60
Roing in Arunachal Pradesh.
(Source: Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region, 2023)

SAQ 15
Briefly explain various transport and communications modes of Arunachal
Himalayan meso region?

11.10 ARUNACHAL HIMALAYAS: THE REGIONS

Arunachal Pradesh has been divided into following six natural regions.

1. West Kemang Valley

West Kameng is a district of Arunachal Pradesh. It accounts for 8.86 percent

of the total area of the state. The name is derived from Kameng River, a
tributary of Brahmaputra that flows through the district. The district shares an
international border with China in the north, Bhutan in the west, Tawang
District in the northwest, and East Kameng district in the east. Southern border
is shared with Sonitpur district and Darrang district of Assam. Topography of
the district is mostly mountainous. Inhabitants of the district comprise mainly of
Monpa (Dirang, Boot, Lish, and Kalaktang monpa), Miji (Sajalong),
Sherdukpen, Aka, and Bugun (Khawa).

2. East Kameng Valley

East Kameng valley is situated in the western part of Arunachal Pradesh. Its
deep Gorges and narrow valleys frequently open into vast valleys, which
sustain permanent agriculture. Climatic conditions of the district vary largely
within short distances due to physiographic characteristics. Altitude of different
administrative centers varies, ranging from 363 metres to 1906 metres. Main
tribes inhabiting the district are Nyishi, Aka, Miji and Puroik.

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3. Siang Valley

Siang district is named after Siang river which flows through this district. Four
other districts in Arunachal Pradesh are also named after the river i.e. West
Siang, East Siang, Upper Siang and Lower Siang. The word Siang is believed
to have origin from the Angsi glacier situated on the northern side of
Himalayas in Burang County of Tibet, from where Yarlung Tsangpo river
originates.

4. Tirap River valley

Area occupied by present Tirap District is a part of the north-eastern extremity

of India bordering Burma. It is the only District of Arunachal Pradesh situated
on the southern bank of Brahmaputra, and in early times it was gateway to
India in the east. This valley is situated between the plains of Brahmaputra on
the west and the valley of Irrawaddy on the east.

5. Lohit Valley

Name of the district is derived from river Lohit that flows here. Lohit was a part
of Lakhimpur district prior to 1914. Lohit District was bifurcated into two
independent districts namely Lohit District and Dibang valley District in June
1980 under Arunachal Pradesh (Re-organisation of district) Act 1980. The
district headquarter of Lohit district is located at Tezu.

There are different tribes in the district. Their traditional dances, games and
sports can be enjoyed during festive occasions. Elephant raiding, angling,
rafting, hitchhiking, and mountaineering etc., are entertainment sports
available in Lohit valley.

6. Subensari Valley

Subansiri River (Chayul Chu in Tibet) is a trans-Himalayan river and

a tributary of Brahmaputra River that flows through Tibet's Lhuntse County in
Shannan and states of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam. The word "Subansiri"
is taken from Sanskrit term "Subarna" meaning "gold" (Goyal et al. 2018), and
Subansiri River was known as prospective mining spot for gold in ancient
times. Subansiri valley can be divided into upper Subansiri and lower
Subansiri valley.

SAQ 16
Briefly explain major characteristics of any two valleys of Arunachal Himalayas
meso regions?

11.11 ARUNACHAL HIMALAYAS: PROBLMES

AND PROSPECTS
Arunachal Himalayas is facing problems of structural imbalance and unequal
development. Areas surrounding Itanagar Capital Region have been
developed in terms of railway and road connectivity. Siang and Kemang

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regions have experienced good development of road infrastructure. Peripheral
areas have less development and there exist inter- regional disparities.

Arunachal Himalayas is an important biodiversity hotspot in North eastern

India. Agriculture is very less in Arunachal. It has huge potential for
agriculture. Arunachal Pradesh has vast potential of sericulture and organic
farming. The region can also be promoted in agro-industry.

Ladakh region is part of North West Himalayas and Arunachal region is part of
North East Himalayas. The Ladakh region is dry and cold desert climate
compare to the humid and semi humid climate of Arunachal region. In Ladakh
region, a very limited flora grows as compared to dense forest in Arunachal
region. Main river of Ladakh region is Indus river and in Arunachal region, it is
Brahmaputra river. Distribution of population in Ladakh region is very thin.
Arunachal region has dense distribution of population. The density of
population in Ladakh is much lesser than Arunachal region. Ladakh region has
less favourable condition for the growth of human population as compared to
Arunachal region.

11.12 SUMMARY
In this Unit, you have learnt the following:
 Ladakh was established as a union territory of India on 31 October 2019,
following the passage of the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act. Prior
to that, it was part of the Jammu and Kashmir state.
 Ladakh was called Maryul. Fa-Hein referred to it as Kia-Chha and Hiuen
Tsang as Ma-Lo-Pho. During the 10th century AD, Skit LdeNemagon, the
ruler of Tibet, invaded Ladakh where there was no central authority.
 Physiography of Ladakh comprises of mountain ranges. In the south of
Ladakh it is surrounded with mighty great Himalayan ranges followed by
Zanskar range, Ladakh range and in the north it is covered with Karakoram
ranges. Most of Arunachal Pradesh is mountainous. Its terrain consists of
lofty hills, ridges that separate deep valleys and peaks of the Great
Himalayas.
 Indus river is the main lifeline of Ladakh. It originates from the Mansarovar
lake in northern slopes of Mt. Kailash (6714 metre). The state of Arunachal
Pradesh has five major rivers include the Kameng, Subansiri, Siang, Lohit
and Tirap. All these are fed by snow from the Himalayas.
 The population in Ladakh is composed of Buddhists, Muslims, Hindus and
Christians. A variety of dialects is spoken by the people of the region and
these do not have any recognized script
 Inhabitants in Leh are involved in primary, secondary and tertiary economic
activities as means of their livelihood. Traditionally, the mountain
communities have been dependent on agriculture and pastoral activities as
livelihood means.

 Arunachal Pradesh is one of the 29 states of India, situated in the country's

northeast corner. The state covers an area of 83,743 square kilometres
with more than 1,382,611 inhabitants.
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 Arunachal Pradesh can be roughly divided into a set of semi-distinct
cultural spheres, on the basis of tribal identity, language, religion and
material culture.
 As per details from Census 2011, Arunachal Pradesh has population of
13.84 Lakhs, an increase from figure of 10.98 Lakh in 2001 census. Total
population of Arunachal Pradesh as per 2011 census is 1,383,727 of which
male and female were 713,912 and 69,815 respectively.
 More than half of the population of Arunachal Pradesh is engaged in
agriculture, but only a tiny portion of the land is under cultivation.

11.13 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Explain the main rivers of Ladakh meso region?
2. Write down main sub regions of Ladakh meso regions?
3. What are the main physical resource base of Ladakh meso region?
4. Discuss the main forest types of Arunachal Himalayan region?
5. What are the prime economic activities of Arunachal Himalayan meso
region?
6. Discuss the various valleys of Arunachal Hiamalayan meso region?

11.14 ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)

1. Indus, Suru, Zanskar, Shyok, Nubra are the main rivers of Ladakh
Himalayan region. Indus river is master river in the area.

2. Major sub regions of Ladakh Himalayan region: are Nubra valley,

Changthang valley, Central Leh valley, Lower Leh valley, Drass and
Darkhon valley, Suru valley, Zanskar valley.

3. Ladakh region is rich in mineral resources and produces a number of

precious metals and important radioactive substance. Gold traces exist in
riverbeds of Indus and Shyok.

4. The important forests types found in Arunachal Pradesh are Tropical

evergreen, semi evergreen, deciduous, Pine, Temperate, Alpine and
grassland etc. It has tropical evergreens and subtropical pines, subtropical
mixed broad-leaved and pine forests are found in lower elevations.

5. Most people of Arunachal Pradesh are engaged in agriculture, but only a

tiny portion of the land is under cultivation. Although settled agriculture,
including wet-rice farming, has expanded considerably since the late 20th
century. Many of the hill peoples continue to practice shifting
agriculture (jhum).

6. Arunachal Pradesh has been divided into six natural regions which include
the Western parts of Kameng District, Siang valley, Tirap river valley, Lohit
(Zayu) valley, Subansiri valley and Bhareli valley.

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Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Section 11.3.3.
2. Refer to Section 11.3.4.
3. Refer to Section11.3.6.
4. Refer to Section 11.3.7.
5. Refer to Section 11.4.1.
6. Refer to Section 11.4.3.
7. Refer to Section 11.4.4.
8. Refer to Section 11.5.

11.15 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. V.J. Gupta, el. Al., Geology of Ladakh, Lahul and Spiti Regions of
Himalayas with special reference to the stratigraphic position of Flysch
Deposits (Ferdinand FukeVerlag, stuttgart. 1975), pp. 543.
2. Balasubramanian (2013), Arunachal Pradesh-At a Glance.
3. Opender Kumar, (2013) Geology of Arunachal Pradesh, Geological society
of India.
4. R.L. Singh, (1971) India: A regional Geography, National Geographical
Society of India.

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 UNIT 12

MESO REGIONS 2
Structure
12.1 Introduction 12.8 Indo-Ganga Divide: The
Expected Learning Outcomes Physical Setting
12.2 Bengal Delta: Historical Geology
Background Physiography/Relief
12.3 Bengal Delta: The Physical Drainage and Water Resources
Setting Climate
Geology Vegetation
Physiography/Relief Soils
Drainage and Water Resources Physical Resource Base
Climate 12.9 Indo-Ganga Divide: The
Vegetation Cultural Setting
Soils Population
Physical Resource Base Settlement
12.4 Bengal Delta: The Cultural Economy
Setting Transport and Communication
Population 12.10 Indo-Ganga Divide: The
Settlement Regions
Economy 12.11 Indo-Ganga Divide: Problems
Transport and Communication and Prospects
12.5 Bengal Delta: The Regions 12.12 Summary
12.6 Bengal Delta: Problems and 12.13 Terminal Questions
Prospects 12.14 Answers
12.7 Indo-Ganga Divide: 12.15 References and Further
Historical Background Reading

12.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will study about Bengal Delta and Indo-Ganga Divide as
meso-regions in India. Studying Bengal Delta and Indo-Ganga Divide is of
paramount importance due to their multifaceted significance. Bengal Delta is a
biodiversity hotspot, contributing to ecological balance and food security, while
its vulnerability to climate change necessitates adaptation strategies. It also
holds economic and urbanization significance. On the other hand, Indo-Ganga
Divide serves as a hydrological and geological divide with cultural and
religious importance, impacting water resource management, disaster
preparedness, and heritage preservation. Both regions offer insights into the

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complex interplay of environment, society, and economy, making research in

these areas crucial for sustainable development, conservation efforts, and
improved livelihoods in South Asia. These two meso regions are shown in Fig.
12.1 (a and b) below. You will know about the historical background, physical
setting, and cultural environment of the regions. The unit will also discuss
different sub-regions within the regions and investigate the region's problems
and prospects.

Indo-Gangetic Divide has geographical importance as it is one of the important

meso-regions in northern part of India which separates two great river systems
of Indus and Ganga. Siwalik Hills bound the Divide in the North while in the
West is river Ghaggar and in east river Yamuna is found. Reversal of slope
takes place in the region from west to east. The state of Haryana and Delhi
are part of this fertile alluvial plain. The plain extends to the desert region of
Rajasthan in the south west.

Fig. 12.1 (a): Location of Bengal Delta.

Fig. 12.1 (b): Location of Indo-Ganga Divide.

Sections 12.2 to 12.6 are devoted to the study of historical background,

physical setting, cultural setting, and economy along with problems and
prospects of Bengal Delta and Indo-Ganga divide.

Both Bengal Delta and Indo-Ganga Divide are vital regions in South Asia, but
these differ in terms of physiography, biodiversity, cultural significance, and
economic activities. While Bengal Delta is known for its ecological diversity
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and climate vulnerability, the Indo-Ganga Divide has historical and religious
importance and is agriculturally productive. Understanding these distinctions is
essential for effective regional planning and development.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
 understand historical, physical and cultural background of Bengal Delta
and Indo-Ganga divide;
 describe physical and cultural environment of Bengal Delta and Indo-
Ganga Divide as a Meso-region;
 able to do the demarcation of sub-regions; and
 analyse problems and prospects of these two meso regions.

12.2 BENGAL DELTA: HISTORICAL

BACKGROUND
There is mention of Ganga as the most significant river in Indian literary texts.
Ganga has also been called a sacred river in Ramacharitam. Proto-
Australoids, the Kiratas, the Bharatas, and the Nisadas inhabited this region in
prehistoric times. The region got Aryanised in post-Vedic period by clearing
forest and pushing out the tribals away to interior parts (Singh, 2016).

Travellers described this region as the 'Paradise of India' In the Mughal period.
Muslin produced in the region became precious item in the world market back
then. This region saw Western culture waves, which came from Portugal (16th
Century), France (1673), Denmark (1676), and Britain (1690). The deltaic
region of Ganga became sea power with the fortified city of Fort William and
flourished in terms of industry, commerce and trade. Thus, the lower Ganga
plain (Ganga Delta) has a unique ecological system with rivers getting
bifurcated into distributaries, and much cultural diffusion took place.

12.3 BENGAL DELTA: THE PHYSICAL SETTING

12.3.1 Geology
This region's geology is characterized by tectonic subsidence, upliftment of
Himalayan Mountain ranges, and deposition by rivers in the south. The basin
is surrounded by Bay of Bengal to the south, Shillong plateau to the northeast,
Burmese fold on the east, and the Indian craton on the delta's west. Ganga-
Brahmaputra River deposits the world's largest sediment annually, currently
contributing about a billion tons to Bengal basin (Virginia Institute of Marine
Sciences).

The rifting of the Pangaea supercontinent, which is origin of Bengal basin; the
cradle of Ganga-Brahmaputra delta (GBD), began in Jurassic period. India's
docking with Asia and oblique subduction beneath the Indo-Burman
mountains finished the process. Chittagong-Tripura Fold Belt and three geo-
tectonic provinces of the continental shelf deeper basin areas experienced the
basin's sedimentation, which began practically simultaneously with the rifting
(Bandyopadhyay, 2007).
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Sediments deposited by Ganga, Meghna and Brahmaputra rivers in this

region date to 2.4 million years ago. In Eocene and Oligocene- Miocene
periods, there have been series of upliftment, rising and falling of sea levels.
Subsidence of the delta is common: gentle folding, uplift, and tilting of the
eastern part. The base is growing since Pleistocene, and the basin is located
on most tectonically active Mio-geosyncline.

Sesoren (1984) has identified 'zone of weakness' in the eastern part of the
Ganga delta, passing between Madhupur-Tipperra surface and following
Meghna River north-east of Bengal Basin and cutting Ganga tidal floodplain in
the southwest. The study suggested that sediments deposited here are clay,
silt and sand, etc.

12.3.2 Physiography/Relief
Lower Bengal Delta covers an area of 14,054 square kilometres and
comprises districts of North 24 Parganas and South 24 Parganas. Tributaries
of Ganga, Brahmaputra and Meghna meet and drain water in Bay of Bengal,
forming the world's significant delta. The delta resembles the Greek letter 'D'
(Delta) and carries a large amount of water. It is 360 kilometres wide and
active. Ganga' delta covers a total area of 80,000 square kilometres in
Bangladesh and West Bengal of India (Bagchi, 1944; Coleman, 1974;
Seidensticker and Hai, 1983).

Based on physiography, it can be sub-divided into as shown in Fig. 12.2:

1. Northern Plains
a) The Duars
b) The Barind Tract

2. Delta Proper
a) Moribund Delta
b) Active Delta
c) Mature Delta

3. Rarh Plain

Fig. 12.2: Physiographic Division of Bengal Delta.

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Surface of the region is fed by Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers. Swamps,
marshes, and levees are common in lower Bengal delta. There is a series of
sub-surface ridges in South West tract of Hooghly- Bhagirathi basin.
Jalpaiguri, Bankura, Burdwan, Birbhum, and Midnapur lie above 150 metres,
whereas parts of Cooch Behar, Dinajpur, Birbhum, Howrah, 24 Parganas,
Hooghly, Malda are at an elevation within 30 metres. Depositional features are
being created in eastern part of deltaic area of Sundarbans. Northern part of
the region can be designated as Duars (Darjeeling Terai) and Barind Plain
(Older Alluvium). Districts of Nadia and Murshidabad have land of dead and
decaying rivers.

12.3.3 Drainage and Water Resources

Ganga and Brahmaputra carry most extensive sediments as these originate in
Himalayas. Brahmaputra originates in Tibetan Plateau as Tsang Po and
makes a bend around Namcha Barwa peak before entering India and flows
through Bangladesh before draining into Bay of Bengal. Ganga originates from
Gangotri glacier and flows eastward towards Bengal basin and is by many
tributaries. Before entering Bay of Bengal, Brahmaputra and Ganga meet and
make largest delta in the world known as ‘Bengal Delta or Ganga-
Brahmaputra Delta’. The distributaries of Arial Khan and Gorai help in
transporting fluvial sediments into the delta. Arial Khan River supplies around
25 million tonnes of sediment every year and is joined by Lower Meghna
River. Gorai River deposits 30 million tonnes of sediments into Bay of Bengal.

Fig. 12.3: River Basin of Lower Bengal Delta.

Ganga’s maximum water discharge occurs during June-November and

Brahmaputra in May to November. Some of the rivers which flow in this region
are Bhagirathi river, which enters West Bengal in Birbhum district and falls in
Bardhaman district. Damodar River is known as the sorrow of West Bengal as
it floods Hooghly, Bardhaman, Howrah, East and West Midnapore.
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Rupnarayan River falls in Hooghly river at Geonkhali town in West Bengal.

Kangsabati river flows through Purulia and East and West Midnapore districts
and joins Keleghai as Haldi River.

12.3.4 Climate
West Bengal experiences hot and humid monsoonal climate, and it can be
divided into two zones: The North Temperate Zone and Tropical Zone.
Distribution of rainfall and temperature is uneven. According to Indian
Meteorological Department, West Bengal has four distinct seasons. These are:

1. Hot Season
Summer season starts from March till mid-June. Summers are usually hot and
humid in the plains. Temperature during summer season ranges from 38°C to
40°C. The nor-westers (Kalbaishakhi) bring rainfall during this period in
southern parts of West Bengal. Northern parts of West Bengal are more
relaxed as compared to south Bengal. Darjeeling is the coolest area during
summer with the highest temperature of 15°C - 25°C.

2. Monsoon Season
Southwest monsoon enters West Bengal by mid-June and carries heavy
moisture from Bay of Bengal of above 250 centimetres in Darjeeling, Cooch
Behar and Jalpaiguri. In the plain and the plateau region, rainfall is around 125
centimetres. Maximum temperature is about 32°C. Sky gets clear sometimes,
known as monsoon break, and suddenly temperature rises.

3. Retreating Monsoon
Sky is clear during retreating monsoon, and maximum temperature ranges
from 17°C - 30°C and minimum ranges from 6C-22°C. Monsoon starts
retreating by the last week of September and mid-October. Monsoon winds
retreat to sea, and northeast monsoon winds enter West Bengal, which
causes depression and cyclone-like phenomena in southern parts of the delta
region in Bay of Bengal.

Fig. 12.4: Climate in the Bengal Delta Region.

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4. Cold Season
Cold season starts in December and ends in February in West Bengal.
Winters are generally calm and sunny. January is coldest month; temperature
ranges between 17°C in Jalpaiguri in the north and to 21°C in Sagar Island in
the south. Under Western Disturbances in northwest India, slight rainfall
occurs in lower Bengal delta. Maximum temperature is around 23°C - 26°C,
and minimum temperature is about 9 °C - 15°C. Darjeeling receives snowfall
during winter, and temperature drops below freezing point.

Fig. 12.5: Rainfall in Bengal Delta.

SAQ 1
Briefly discuss the climatic conditions of the Lower Bengal Delta.

12.3.5 Vegetation
Forest covers 12,413 square kilometres area, accounting for 13.99 percent of
the geographical area of West Bengal. The region of lower Ganga delta has
only 16 percent of forest. Much of forest has disappeared in favour of crop
cultivation to feed the inhabitants and for export. Natural vegetation of this
region can be grouped into:

1. Tropical Moist Deciduous Vegetation

Tropical moist deciduous forest comprises Sal which can be found in western
parts of Medinipur. It extends from Tarai area to the entire West Bengal except
for Bengal delta's coastal part. Dry deciduous vegetation can be found in
Bankura, Purulia, Bardwan and Birbhum districts. Some of the main species
are White Cedar and Kail.

2. Tropical Semi-Evergreen and Evergreen Vegetation of Coastal Areas

Tropical Evergreen Forest can be found in southern coastal area of Bankura,
Birbhum, Burdwan, and Medinipur districts. One of the most common tropical
evergreen vegetation is gurjun.

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3. Mangrove and Tidal Forest Sundarbans

There is a natural geographical border in southern part of the state. Tidal
forest of Sundarbans is localised in South 24 Parganas at the mouth of river
Ganga. The forest name has been derived from mangrove tree known as
'Sundari' (Heritiera minor). The tidal forest can be found along with the coastal
saline soil with peculiar roots that can be easily seen above soil. Other plants
such as Golpata, gengwa (Excecaria agollocha), hital (Phonix palmdosa),
baen (Avicennia officinalis), bhora (Rhizophora mueronata), and Kaora
(Soumeratia apatata) can also be found here. Swamp forest of Malda and
West Dinajpur occurs in smaller areas of these districts.

Fig. 12.6: Natural Vegetation in Bengal Delta.

SAQ 2
Briefly describe vegetation found in Bengal delta region.

12.3.6 Soil
Soil has a significant impact on agricultural practices and the types of
vegetation. Type of soil decides the crop to be grown in the area, which lead
to economic variations within regions. Department of Agriculture in 1965
classified soil into six groups. These soils in lower Bengal delta can be
classified into:

1. Alluvial Soil: Alluvial soil is concentrated in Murshidabad, Purulia,

Hooghly, Medinipur, Birbhum, and Burdwan districts. It is rich in organic
matter and nutrients. Based on the parent material, it can be divided into:

● Young Alluvial Soil (Ganga Alluvium): It is ferlie soil of West Bengal

known as 'Khadar.' Young alluvium is rich in organic matter and plant
nutrients. It is alkaline. It covers north Bengal Plain and delta region of
west Bengal, excluding 24 Parganas and Medinipur districts.

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● Old Alluvial Soil (Vindhyan Alluvium): Old Alluvium is found in the
upland region and is greyish due to fine sands. The soil here is clayey to
sandy in texture, and it is neutral in reaction compared to Ganga Alluvium.
The old alluvium has been affected by leaching, leading to acidity and
deficiency of organic matter.

2. Saline Soil: Saline Soil can be found in districts of 24 Parganas and

Medinipur. The soil is highly rich in Ca, Mg and organic matter, which make
it unsuitable for rice and vegetable cultivation, and for horticulture. River
interaction and tidal current have contributed to excess content of salt.

12.3.7 Physical Resource Base

West Bengal is exceptionally rich in mineral deposits. Coal is readily available
in Raniganj and Fire clay deposits in the Breaker field. Other types of minerals
found in this region are iron, limestone, manganese, silica, copper, arsenic,
and sandstone. Thirty percent of India's mineral production is from West
Bengal. Raw materials, power supply, cheap labour, coal, banking facilities
are readily available. Nearby port facility and International Airport cover a huge
hinterland for the region. Inland waterways are well developed and connected
with many parts of India. Railway network of Howrah, Asansol, Bardhhaman,
Kharagpur and Bandel are well developed and connected.

SAQ 3
Write a short note on the physical resource base of the delta region of West
Bengal.

12.4 BENGAL DELTA: CULTURAL SETTING

12.4.1 Population
Population in lower Bengal delta is unevenly distributed. The region had
population of about approximately 9.13 crores (9,1347,736) in 2011 with total
area of 88,752 square kilometres. Population density was 1,028 persons per
square kilometre (2011) with sex ratio of 950 females per 1000 males. Sex
ratio was above 950 females per 1000 males in districts of Darjeeling,
Paschim Medinipur, Hooghly, Murshidabad, Bankura, Purulia, South 24
Parganas, Jalpaiguri, Dakshin Dinajpur, Birbhum, and North 24 Parganas.
Around 31.87 percent of people lived in urban areas, which accounts for
14,964,082 males and 14,128,920 females in 2011. The urban population has
increased by 31.87 percent during 2001-11. Rural population is highest in the
district of Bankura (91.67 percent), negligible in Kolkata which is most
urbanised district with 100 percent urban population.

● Population Distribution Pattern

Topography is the main reason for the uneven distribution of population.
Northern part of the state is mountainous and there is infertile plateau in the
west. The lower delta plain is rich in organic matter with alluvial soil the states'
southern districts. According to the 2011 census, Dakshin Dinajpur and
Darjeeling were sparsely populated due to soil infertility and absence of large
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industries. North 24 Parganas and South 24 Parganas are densely populated

as these are agriculturally rich and lie in the industrial belt.

● Literacy
Overall literacy in the state was 76.3 percent in 2011 and 68.64 percent in
2001. Female literacy in 2011 was 74.54 percent and 59.61 percent in 2001.
Male literacy rate was 77.02 percent in 2001 and 81.69 percent in 2011 which
was higher than national average literacy rate. Kolkata had the highest female
literacy of 84.98 percent in 2011. Purba Medinipur had highest male literacy
rate of approximately 93.14 percent and the lowest being Malda district with
66.65 percent (2011). Economically northern districts of West Bengal are well
developed compared to districts like Purulia, Uttar Dinajpur and Malda. Thus,
the literacy rates are higher in the north districts of the state.

● Rural and Urban Population

West Bengal is an agricultural state with 6, 22, 13676 persons living in rural
areas (census 2011). Highest rural population is in Bankura, Koch Bihar,
Purba Medinipur, Uttar Dinajpur, and Paschim Medinipur, and the lowest can
be seen in Kolkata, Haora, North 24 Parganas, Barddhaman, and Darjeeling.
The total urban population in West Bengal was 2, 91, 34060 persons in 2011.
Areas in southern part of the state and along western borders have higher
rural population, and urban population is concentrated on eastern side.

Table 12.1: District-wise Population of West Bengal by Rural and Urban

Areas, 2011

Districts Rural Urban Total

Bankura 3295613 300679 3596292
Barddhaman 4644079 3079584 7723663
Birbhum 3054019 448368 3502387
Kolkata 0 4486679 4486679
Haora 1776970 3064668 4841638
Hugli 3388395 2131994 5520389
Purba Medinipur 4500770 593468 5094238
Paschim Medinipur 5228308 714992 5943300
Murshidabad 5697224 1405206 7102430
Nadia 3730897 1437591 5168488
North 24 Parganas 4275724 5807128 10082852
Puruliya 2554584 373381 2927965
South 24 Parganas 6065179 2087997 8153176

12.4.2 Settlements
According to Census 2011, urban agglomerations (Population of 1 lakh or
above) are Kolkata, Asansol, Siliguri, Durgapur, Bardhaman, Baharampur,
Howrah, Kharagpur, English Bazar, Shantipur, Dankuni, Ranaghat, Haldia,
Krishnanagar, Dhulian, Raiganj, Nabadwip, Medinipur, Balurghat, Basirhat,
Chakdaha, Darjeeling, Purulia, Jangipur, Alipurduar, Bangaon, and Cooch
Behar. Major cities in West Bengal are as follows:
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Table 12.2: Population of Major Cities in Lower Bengal Delta

Districts Population, 2011

Asansol 1243414
Baharampur 304487
Bankura 137386
Baranagar 245313
Barasat 287435
Barddhaman 346639
Barrackpore 152783
Bishnupur 67783
Bolpur 80210
Chandannagar 166867
Chinsurah 179931
Contai 92226
Durgapur 580990
Haldia 200827
Howrah 1370448
Kalyani 100,575
Kharagpur 207984
Kolkata 4496694
Krishnanagar 182010
Medinipur 169264
Murshidabad 44019
Nabadwip 125543
Purulia 126815
Ranaghat 234449
Sainthia 44601
Serampore 181842
Suri 67864
Tamluk 65306

SAQ 4
Briefly explain the population pattern of the Bengal Delta.

12.4.3 Economy
● Agriculture
Lower Ganga Delta is mainly suitable for agriculture, which supports 71.23
lakh farm families, and landholding size in this region is around 0.77 hectares.
Intensity of cropping is 184 percent, with 92 percent of arable land. Flat land
and high fertility of soil are favourable for agriculture accounting for 75 percent
of workers in this sector. Pisciculture is also well developed in this region as
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West Bengal is the major fish-producing and consuming state in India. West
Bengal is leading producer of rice and jute.

Fig. 12.7: Crops grown in Bengal Delta.

Schemes like Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) promote organic

agriculture in the state with small and marginal farmers' help. Department of
Agriculture introduced Krishak Bandhu (Death Benefit) to farmer family
members who died due to untimely death as a means of social security since
1st January 2019 (Economic Review 2020-21). Recent focus is on small and
marginal farmers, women empowerment in agriculture sector, Public-Private
partnerships and NGOs' involvement, etc.

● Irrigation
Irrigation is artificial means for moisture supply to crops by canals, tube wells,
and tanks. Region of lower Gangetic delta receives good amount of rainfall,
and agriculture is rainfed. But due to uncertainty of monsoon and uneven
distribution of rainfall, some parts of the region need timely supply of water
which is done through irrigation. It ensures double cropping and even multi-
cropping system. Mayurakshi Reservoir Project, which was completed in
1985, is one of the best irrigation projects in the country that operates in
Murshidabad, Burdwan and Birbhum. According to Economic Review (2020-
21), a fund of 409.36 crores has been released to bring 31,285 hectares of
area under irrigation.

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Fig. 12.8: Irrigation in Bengal Delta.

● Land Use, Land Utilisation, Cropping Pattern and Yields

Rice is major crop accounting for more than 75 percent of the net cropped
area. Total rice production in West Bengal was 15.57 million tonnes in 2019-
20. Aman, Aus and Boro are three rice crops grown in the delta plains of West
Bengal. Yield of Kharif (Aus + Aman) rice was 2817 kg/hectare, Boro Rice is
3630 kilogram per hectare, and total area for rice cultivation was 5490.975
hectares 2019-20. Boro is least significant in terms of area under cultivation.
Crop rotation is a common practice that ensures cropping intensity of crops.
Other important crops are maize, pulses, oilseeds, potatoes and jute. Total
jute production is 7901.396 Bales, which is reducing year after year.
(Economic Review 2020-21). Around 1, 32,745 acres of cultivable land had
been brought under cultivation by various irrigation schemes such as
Kangsabati Reservoir Project and Mayurakshi Reservoir Project in 2020-21.

Fig. 12.9: Land Use pattern in Bengal Delta.

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● Industrial Development
The region has easy access to the mineral belt of India and raw material for
other industries. Kolkata was industrially rich after independence, but it lost its
position due to policy failures. According to Economic Survey of 2006-2007,
total registered factories were 13210 in 2004. First jute mill in India was
established at Rishra in West Bengal near Hooghly river banks. Major
industries are located in Hooghly- Asansol- Durgapur districts.

Kolkata is primary business centre in Eastern India. Some major industries in

this region are jute, textiles, tea, paper, glass, timber, leather, electronics,
bicycles and aluminum, etc. State of West Bengal implemented macro-
economic policies for the growth and development of industry. Many
institutions, business houses, and countries are keen to invest in this region
because of metal and non-metal industries' vast potential. Industries with an
investment of more than Rs.10 crore in 'Machinery' are treated as large
industries. Some significant textiles factories are in 24 Parganas and Nadia
districts.

Jute factories are located at Hooghly and Howrah. Metal-based industries are
concentrated in Howrah, 24 Parganas and Burdwan. Durgapur is considered
the 'Ruhr of India', and important iron and steel factories are at Burnpur-
Hirapur-Kulti and Durgapur. India's first cotton textile industry was established
at Fort Gloster near Kolkata, and some significant cotton textiles factories are
located at Sodepur, Srirampur, Belgharia and Howrah etc. Paper factories are
situated in Titagarh, Kankinara, Naihati, Halishahar, Tribeni, Chakdaha,
Raniganj, and Asansol. This region is well developed in aluminium sector,
leather industry, and footwear industry, accounting for more than 2.5 million
workers.

● Foreign Trade
West Bengal exported goods worth around 9.49 Billion USD in 2019-2020
(Economic Survey, 2019-20). Major export items were metals, agricultural
products, chemicals, plastic, jewelry, tea and marine products etc. Major trade
of this region takes place with Bangladesh, United Arab Emirates, Singapore,
and Hong Kong. Trade facilities promote foreign trade with West Asia, China,
and Malaysia.

12.4.4 Transport and Communication

Water transport and surface borne transports are reasonably good options
and most comfortable mode of transportation for movement of goods in this
region. Britishers, Portuguese, and Arabs used sea routes to enter India.
Britishers developed railways in Bengal in 1862. Perennial rivers like Ganga
and Brahmaputra linked the delta region's interior parts and ports with railways
and roadways. Modes of transportation in Lower Ganga Delta can be divided
into:

● Roadways
Total road length in West Bengal is 92,023 kilometres, and road density is
around 103.69 kilometres per 100 square kilometres. NH 34, with total length

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of 438.3 kilometres, is longest national highway in this region, and SH 4 is
longest state highway running between Jhalda and Digha.

● Airways
Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport Kolkata connects India's
many parts with the world, and it accounts for 1.2 million passengers of
international traffic and approximately ten million domestic passenger traffic of
this region. It generates significant amount of employment and tourism in the
country. Some major airports are Kazi Nazrul Islam Airport Durgapur, Netaji
Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport, and some domestic airports are
Malda Airport, Behala Airport, and Balurghat Airport. Some helicopter services
are also operational in Gangasagar, Malda, Balurghat, Santiniketan, and
Durgapur.

● Waterways
Kolkata Port is one of the important ports. Boat transport is very successful in
Sundarbans. Cost of maintenance of roads and railways is higher and cheaper
mode is inland waterways. River stretch of Ganga from Allahabad to Haldia
has been declared National Waterway (NW1). Kolkata Port Trust manages
port facilities of Kolkata and Haldia docks. Ferry is primary transportation
mode in southern part of the state especially in Sundarbans.

● Railways
The region has largest suburban rail network in India with total railway route
length of about 4,481 kilometres with two zonal divisions- Eastern Railways
and South Eastern Railway. This region also has a tram network and is the
only part of India to have its tramway which is operated by Calcutta Tramways
Company Limited (CTC). Kolkata Metro Rail Service operates in Kolkata and
was the first underground railway network in the country.

SAQ 5
a) Write short note on major industries of Bengal delta region?
b) Discuss the various modes of transportation in Bengal delta region.
c) Briefly explain agriculture and irrigation pattern in Bengal delta region.

12.5 BENGAL DELTA: THE REGIONS

The Lower Ganga Plain can be divided into many divisions according to the
various physiographic characteristics. Authors like Bagchi (1944), Rashid
(1577), and Brammer (1989) identified regions.

Bagchi (1944) identified the deltaic region into three parts:

1. Moribund Delta
a) Murshidabad Plain
b) Nadia Plain

2. Mature Delta
a) Burdwan Plain
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b) Howrah- Hooghly Plain
c) Midnapur Plain

3. Active Delta
a) Northern
b) Southern

Lower Ganga Delta is a low-lying region comprising Murshidabad, Howrah,

Nadia, 24 Parganas, Kolkata and Hooghly. Some prominent features here are
chars, levees, swamps, Bils, and Dangas, etc. One of this region's main
features is the urbanized and agriculturally industrialised with dead and
decaying rivers.

Moribund Delta or 'dead delta' comprises of Murshidabad, Nadia, Kustia

(Bangladesh) and Jessore (Bangladesh) districts. This part is agriculturally
rich, but recently rivers have changed their channels, and the previous
channels have dried up, causing siltation and formation of land. People are
also engaged in household industries along with paddy cultivation.
Murshidabad plain is more urbanized divided into eastern and western parts,
while Nadia Plain has many industries.

Mature Delta is an area between Moribund and Active Delta lying to the west
of Bhagirathi- Hooghly. Burdwan Plain dominates in Aman paddy, and
Hooghly- Howrah Plain in Jute, many workers are engaged in manufacturing.
Midnapur plain is least developed.

Bagchi's 'Active Delta' occupies south-eastern part of the land characterized

by active streams, high urbanization level, and development. Northern part is
dominated by agricultural land (Aman-Jute region), whereas Sundarbans' tidal
forest dominate the lower delta (southern).

Rashid divided Ganga delta into in 1977:

a) Moribund Delta
b) Mature Delta
c) Active Delta
d) Central Delta Basin
e) Immature Delta

He separated the Central delta basin based on physiography from Bagchi's

Mature Delta. He even tried to separate Sundarbans from deltaic part, and his
Active delta comprises eastern coast of Ganga delta.

Brammer (1989) has classified the deltaic region into active Ganga floodplain.
These are high Ganga river floodplain, Ganga tidal floodplain, Gopalganj-
Khulna bils, Arial bil and Young Meghna estuarine floodplain. He tried to
regionalise the deltaic region based on morphology and classified the region
based on fluvial activities.

The divisions are as follows:

a) Old delta,
b) Mature delta,
c) Young delta, and
d) Tidal delta.
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The older part is similar to Moribund delta of Bagchi's classification; mature
delta comprises the central and eastern part of lower Gangetic plain. The tidal
delta is at the southern edge of mature delta comprising Sundarbans forest
region. Young delta occupies the south-eastern part of estuarine floodplains of
Meghna and Padma rivers.

12.6 BENGAL DELTA: PROBLEMS AND

PROSPECTS
Many agricultural civilisations started on fertile deltaic lands. Considerable
amount of sediments congested the drainage, and this impacted the
navigability of tidal channels. This region faces intensive agricultural practices
along with dam construction, deforestation and water diversion, leading to
change in flood route and increasing salinity, and dry seasonal flow of water.

Ganga-Brahmaputra delta region is vulnerable to climate change, causing

difference in this region's flooding pattern. Climate change may cause severe
impact on geomorphic processes operating here. Change in temperature;
rainfall will also affect the river flow and its discharge. This region faces
problems like habitat loss, rapid population growth, rising sea level, water
rights, soil fertility, change in river channels, increasing water pollution, and
fishing. Increasing salinity posed a threat to Sundarbans, which has been
affected after Farakka Barrage construction in 1970s, reducing Ganga River's
freshwater flow. One of the notable tree species of Sundari (Heritiera fomes)
and Goran (Cariops decandra) are affected by diseases. This region is very
rich in aquatic and floristic diversity, especially mangrove forests.
Deforestation of mangroves due to shrimp farming, salt farming, and
agriculture adversely affects marine fish production. It leads to loss of
biodiversity and livelihood of over 6 million people who depend on mangroves
(Anon, 1995). Many species such as marsh crocodiles, water buffalo, or Guar
became extinct in Sundarbans. One of the significant threats to biodiversity in
Ganga- Brahmaputra delta is because of oil spill, excessive fishing,
industrialisation, urbanisation, natural calamities, and global warming. The
focus should be on coastline management, preserving biodiversity, and
mangrove intensification. There is need for sustainable aquaculture and
conservation of flora and fauna.

12.7 INDO-GANGA DIVIDE: HISTORICAL

BACKGROUND
History of this region starts from very ancient times as the Indus Valley
Civilisation extended till Indo-Ganga Divide. Even Kurukshetra battlefield of
Mahabharata era of around 900 B.C. is situated within this region. Later even
during the times of Mughal rulers, the area had strategic importance. This part
of India has always been the centre of diplomatic and political activities.

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12.8 INDO-GANGA DIVIDE: PHYSICAL
BACKGROUND
12.8.1 Geology
Haryana-Delhi plains are part of Indo-Gangetic Plains formed due to the
flexing of the Indian Plate against the Asian Plate during the continent-
continent collision. The collision created Himalayan Mountain chain. It is not
surprising that Indian Plate is still under-thrusting Asian Plate under these
mighty Himalayas (Molnar and Tapponier 1977; Seeber et. al., 1981; Ni and
Barazangi 1984; Molnar 1984; DeCellers and Giles 1996; Wesnousky et. al.,
1999). It created Indo-Gangetic peripheral foreland basin in early Miocene,
which is on the flexed Indian Plate lithosphere (Lyon-Caen and Molnar 1985;
Singh 1987). The basin further expanded in middle Miocene, where sediments
from Himalaya started getting deposited as a result of fluvial processes (Singh
1996). The plain is dotted with several distinct regional geomorphic features
identified on the basis of their location, type of sediment, slope, and drainage
pattern formed in late Quaternary when changing climatic conditions were
witnessed. These were further modified in later periods, and are still evolving.
Geographical age of the plain is approximately between 65 to 2.6 million years
ago.

Geological structure of this region is new. This region is the creation of river
alluvium descending from Shivaliks. On the northern border lies the Malwa
region built up during the end of Cretaceous period. Delhi Range forms the
southern boundary; it is an extension of Aravalli range, which is made up of
most ancient rocks of Cuddapah group. This region acts as a water divide
between mighty rivers, Indus and Ganga. Its general slope is towards the
South and Southwest.

Fig. 12.10: Geology of Indo-Ganga Divide.

12.8.2 Physiography/Relief
This region is of recent origin and formed of sediments brought by Himalayan
rivers (Fig. 12.10). The plain is bounded by Malwa (North) of Punjab,

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Rajasthan desert (South) and Delhi Ridge (East). Delhi Ridge separates this
region from Ganga plains. Height of the plains varies from 200 metres in the
southeast to 300 metres in the North. The region has two regional slopes,
westward towards Indus River and southward towards Rann of Kachchh.

Main topographic feature of these plains is Bet and is found in Khadar belt.
Most of the region is drained by small seasonal streams known as chos. The
south-western part of the plain is semi-arid and eventually merges into
Rajasthan Desert.

Fig. 12.11: Physiography/Relief of Indo-Ganga Divide.

12.8.3 Drainage and Water Resources

 Rivers
Main river of the region is Yamuna, which originates from Yamunotri,
Bandarpoonch glacier, in Uttarakhand. Rivers have been shown in Fig. 12.12.

Saraswati River, a small ephemeral stream originating in Siwalik Hills and

flowing through paleochannel of Yamuna, is tributary of Ghaggar river. Tangri
river, originating in Shivalik Hills, is also tributary of Ghaggar river.
Tangri rises in Morni Hills of Siwalik Hills and confluences with Markanda river
at Haryana-Punjab border north of Sadhpur Viran. Ghaggar-Hakra River is
an intermittent and seasonal river which is known as Ghaggar before Ottu
barrage. Markanda river, another tributary of Ghaggar river, flows
through Sirmaur, Ambala and Kurukshetra districts.

Some worth mentioning seasonal rivulets of southern Haryana are Sahibi,

also called Najafgarh drain in Delhi; Dohan river, tributary of Sahibi;
Krishnavati river, former tributary of Sahibi river, and the Indori river, the
longest tributary of Sahibi River.

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Fig. 12.12: Rivers of Indo-Ganga Divide.

● Lakes
The region is dotted with numerous water bodies of which lakes that deserve
special mention include Badkal and Surajkund in Faridabad district, Blue Bird
Lake in Hisar district, Tilyar Lake in Rohtak, Damdama Lake in Gurugram,
Hathni Kund in Yamunanagar, Karna Lake in Karnal, Brahma Sarovar and
Sannihit Sarovar in Kurukshetra.

● Dams
Some of the important dams include Kaushalya Dam, Tajewala Barrage, and
Hathnikund barrage on Yamuna River; Ottu barrage on Ghaggar River and
Anagpur Dam (Faridabad district).

● Canal System
An efficient canal system in the region has enabled this region to become
Granary of India and Nucleus of the Green Revolution. There are 8 major and
minor canal systems in the region. These are -

1. Western Yamuna Canal: This canal offshoots from right bank of Yamuna
River at Tajewala (Haryana) constructed by Feroze Shah III during 14th
Century and remodelled by the British in 1873. It has a total length of 3229
kilometres along with its distributaries. It irrigates an area of about 4.88 lakh
hectares in Karnal, Rohtak, Jind, Sonipat, Ambala, Hisar and Kurukshetra

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districts of Haryana. Four branches of this canal are Delhi, Sirsa, Hansi, and
Butana.

2. Canals of Bhakra-Nangal Project: Bhakra Canal System, largest in the

country, is first such project which was completed after Independence in 1954.
It gets water from Bhakra Dam in Himachal Pradesh and irrigates about 15
lakh hectares of land in the districts of Hisar, Rohtak and Karnal of Haryana.
Main canal is 174 kilometres long and its length increases upto 3,360
kilometres with distributaries. Nangal canal (64 kilometres long) originates
from Nangal dam and acts as a feeder canal to Bhakra canal. It irrigates about
26.4 lakh hectares of agricultural land in districts of Karnal and Hisar in
Haryana and some parts of Rajasthan.

3. Gurgaon Canal: This canal takes off from river Yamuna near Delhi and
provides irrigation facilities to agricultural land in Gurgaon and Faridabad
districts and some parts of Rajasthan.

SAQ 6
a) Write a short note on physiography of Indo-Ganga Divide?
b) What is canal system? Describe the canals associated with Bhakra Nangal
Project.

12.8.4 Climate
In this region, three types of climatic conditions prevail i) sub-humid ii) semi-
arid and iii) arid. Very hot and cold conditions are basic characteristics as the
annual temperature in the region range between 20°C and 40°C. Months of
May and June experience hot and dry winds which are locally called loo,
followed by dust winds and occasional showers. Rainfall is mainly received in
July, August and September. Sometime western depressions/disturbances
bring a few centimetres of rainfall during winter months. Winter rainfall is quite
useful for Rabi Crop.

Fig. 12.13: Climate of Indo-Ganga Divide.

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12.8.5 Vegetation
Some common trees found here are - eucalyptus, shisham, kikar, and babul.
Dry deciduous vegetation predominates in the northern part. Desert vegetation
is found in the western fringes while a few specks of tropical moist deciduous
forest are also found in north–eastern part.

Fig. 12.14: Natural Vegetation of Indo-Ganga Divide.

12.8.6 Soil
Soil in Haryana-Delhi Plains is predominantly alluvial. Light sandy loams are
found in southern area, fertile Red loam in western part of the Bangar,
northern and eastern parts have soil abounding in lime and gravel.

12.8.7 Physical Resource Base

The region is devoid of rich mineral base. Iron deposits of 57 percent metal
fraction are found in southern part of Aravalli range in Ghnota, Dhanoli and
Narnaul. However, its production is not much. Good limestone deposits are
found in Ambala and Mahendragarh districts and slate in Mahendragarh and
Gurugram.

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Fig. 12.15: Minerals in Indo-Ganga Divide.

SAQ 7
a) Briefly discuss the climatic conditions of the Indo-Ganga Divide.
b) On the given map show the following minerals – Saltpetre, Kankar, Silica,
Potash and Clay?

12.4 Indo-Gangetic Divide: CULTURAL

SETTING
12.9.1 Population
Indo-Gangetic divide is among one of the most populated areas receiving
more rainfall and has better irrigation facilities. Northern and eastern districts
of the region are wetter and richer in sweet and potable underground water
than the semiarid south-western districts. These, therefore, have attracted
people to settle throughout history. Delhi, the capital city of the country and
one of the largest metropolitan cities of India lies in this region. Besides,
Jagadhri -Yamunanagar, Faridabad and Gurugram are important industrial
centres of the region.

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Fig. 12.16: Population of Indo-Ganga Divide.

12.9.2 Settlements
About 35 percent of the population lives in cities and towns (2011). Roughly
65 percent of population is rural in spite of the fact that some large cities of
northern India are situated here such as Delhi,
Faridabad, Rohtak, Panipat, Hisar, Sonipat and Karnal etc (Table 12.3). The
distribution of class-wise towns in Haryana is given in Table 12.4.

Table 12.3: Major Cities

Cities Population (2011) Category
Delhi 11,007,835 Mega City
Faridabad 1,414,050 Million Plus City
Gurugram 876,824 Class I
Rohtak 373,133 Class I
Panipat 294,150 Class I
Karnal 286,974 Class I
Sonipat 277,053 Class I
Yamunanagar 216,677 Class I
Panchkula 211,355 Class I
(Source: Census of India, 2011)

Table 12.4: Class-wise Distribution of Number of Towns/Cities in Haryana

(2011).

CLASSES HARYANA
Class I (1,00,000 and above) 20
Class II (50,000 to 99,999) 11
Class III (20,000 to 49,999) 45
Class IV (10,000 to 19,999) 34
Class V (5,000 to 9,999) 36
Class VI (Less than 5000) 8
Total 154
(Source: Census of India, 2011)

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12.9.3 Economy
Wheat is the main crop. It is cultivated mainly on irrigated land. Eastern
districts of Haryana State are important producers of wheat. It is leading crop
of Haryana with 35 percent area is under it. Productivity of wheat was 2602
kilograms per hectare in 2004-05 which increased to 3057 kilogram per
hectare in 2011-12. Gram is grown mainly in semiarid southwestern part of
this region. A few showers during winter are enough for successful growth of
gram. It is the chief Rabi crop in un-irrigated areas. Hisar and Sirsa districts
(Haryana) are important producers which account for nearly 40 percent of the
total gram produced in Haryana. Cotton is another important crop grown
mainly in relatively dry but canal-irrigated districts of Sirsa, Hisar and Jind.
Rice, the most important crop of Kharif season has more than half of the area
covered. Assured irrigation by tube-wells and canals have established paddy
as an important crop in the region.

● Dairy
Cattle and Dairy products are very important in Haryana-Delhi Plain. Cattle
and buffalo breeding are subsidiary occupation here. Haryana breed of bulls
and Murrah breed of buffaloes are famous in semiarid southwestern districts.
Buffaloes of Murrah breed yield relatively large quantities of rich milk which is
supplied even to far off cities namely Mumbai, Kolkata and Nagpur etc.
Modern dairy industries for producing milk products have recently been set up
in Rohtak districts.

● Irrigation
Alluvial plains of Haryana-Delhi have become prosperous because of tube-
wells and canal irrigation. Areas near rivers are served by canals. The region
has a high percentage of irrigated area with approximately 90 percent of total
sown area under irrigated in 2016-17. Well irrigation is more prominent in the
districts lying along the right bank of Yamuna canal in Haryana.

● Industrial Development
Some large-scale industries have been set up here which include automobile,
cotton textile, sugar and associated industries, fertilizers, bicycles, light
engineering goods and paper, etc. Small scale industries like sports goods,
handloom, hosiery etc. are also found in the region. Ambala is largest
manufacturer of Scientific Apparatuses, Gurugram and Faridabad has
automobiles and machine tools etc.

12.9.4 Transport and Communication

Roadways
Many important routes pass through Delhi. Grand Trunk route passes through
Delhi-Karnal, Ambala. Average density of metalled roads in Haryana is 52
kilometres per 100 square kilometres. Some National Highways are Delhi-
Amritsar (NH 1), Delhi-Fazilka (NH 10), Chandigarh-Manali (NH 21), and
Ambala-Shimla (NH 22). Recently, Kundli-Manesar-Palwal (KMP) Expressway
was inaugurated in November 2018. Government has taken measures to
improve connectivity and seven major roads in Haryana are to be developed
as important Highways. These roads are
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● Ghaziabad-Noida-Faridabad-Sohna (75 kilometres),

● Nuh-Mandkola-Palwal-Jewar-Bulandshahr (60 kilometres),
● Sohna- Ballabgarh-Tigaon-Gautambudh Nagar-Deota-Sikandrabad (85
kilometres),
● Palwal-Aligarh (83 kilometres),
● Hodal-Bhiruki-Hasanpur-Kashipur-Kushak-Barauli-Ghori-Dadota-Mohna-
Arwa-Chandpur-Manjhawali (65 kilometres),
● Faridabad (Kheri Bridge) Jasana-Cheersi- Manjhawali-Atta Gujran-Dankaur
Yamuna Expressway (25 kilometres), and
● Kaithal-Pehowa-Kurukshetra-Radaur-Yamuna Nagar (75 kilometres).

Railways
Haryana and Delhi have well developed railway networks. Delhi, Ambala, and
Rewari are major railway centres. Delhi is in railway Zone 1, Northern
Railways with its Headquarters at Delhi itself. Haryana is covered under
Railway Zone no. 11, i.e., North Western Railway Zone. Divisional
headquarters is located at Jaipur, Rajasthan. Freight is carried through
railways in the state. Metro in Delhi has been extended up to Haryana in
Gurugram, Faridabad and Bahadurgarh.

Airways
Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi is the major international airport of
this region. This airport is used for carrying international Cargo and
passengers. This airport has reduced the burden on Chandigarh airport, and
increased transport availability in the state of Haryana. Hisar and Karnal are
the other domestic airports for cargo and passenger services.

Fig. 12.17: Transport and Connectivity in Indo-Ganga Divide.

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SAQ 8
Write a short note on the settlement pattern of the Indo-Ganga Divide.

12.10 INDO-GANGA DIVIDE: THE REGIONS

Agricultural researchers and enterprising farmers have ensured a prosperous
agriculture in the region. The region produces marketable surplus of food
grains. Hence Haryana Plain has become Granary of India. At micro level, the
region can be divided into -

(a) Haryana Bagar: This sub-region lies in southern and south-eastern part of
Sirsa, Hisar and Bhiwani districts. Wind-blown sand forms a continuous strip
of significant concentration of sand dunes locally known as Bagar meaning
‘dry country’ as the region resembles practically a treeless undulating arid
desert.

(b) Bangar Tract: This alluvial plain is remarkably flat in Ambala, Yamuna
Nagar, Kurukshetra, Karnal, Kaithal, Jind, Sonipat and north-eastern part of
Hisar. Within the alluvial plain are narrow low-lying flood plains, known as
Khadar of Yamuna, Nali of Ghaggar, and Bet of Markanda. The old alluvial
plain (Bangar) at varying depths contains carbonate of lime, usually occurring
in nodules called Kankar, which are from less than one centimetre to more
than 5 centimetres in diametre. On the whole, the Bangar region is
characterised by patches of saline efflorescence which is the result of
mechanical composition of alluvium, gentle slope of land and capillary action
during hot dry season.

(c) Southern Haryana Plain: This region comprises of Mahendragarh, Charki

Dadri, Palwal, Mewat, Gurugram, Faridabad, Jhajjar, and Rewari districts of
Haryana. Aravalli outliers exist in Bhiwani, Mahendragarh, and Gurugram
districts. This region is known as Ahirwal-Mewat zone on the bases of ethnicity
and ecology. Ahirs and Meos are dominant ethnic groups and Ahirwati,
Mewati and Braj bhasha are major dialects of people here.

(d) Ambala Plains: These are extremely monotonous horizontal plains with
an average elevation of about 200 metres above mean sea level. The plain
here descends from Shivalik hills towards south-west. It is fertile plain which is
mainly composed of alluvial loam but is intercepted by gullies.

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Fig. 12.18: The Regions.

SAQ 9
On the given map show the various
micro-regions of Indo-Ganga divide.

12.11 INDO-GANGA DIVIDE: PROBLEMS AND

PROSPECTS
Around 72 percent of the total population is rural and predominantly engaged
in agricultural activities. An excessive irrigation has given rise to salinity
affecting fertility of soil. It has led to the problem of water logging as water
seeps through canals raising water-table making soil alkaline. Rising water
from sub-soil brings up salts, which causes salinity as water evaporates. Thus,
the region is facing number of problems. Moreover, uneven distribution of
urban centres has also restricted the development of the region as a whole.
But Haryana Government has started several development projects to bring
balanced regional development in the region. Some of these are –

● Development of sector-specific theme parks and sub-cities along the

Kundli-Manesar-Palwal (KMP) expressway.
● Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC), which covers nearly 14 districts of
Haryana.
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● Setting up of an international cargo airport at Bhaini Maharajpur and Bhaini
Bhairon villages.

12.12 SUMMARY
In this Unit, you have learnt the following:

 The delta of the Ganga and Brahmaputra is an important wetland

ecosystem. The lower Bengal Delta is formed by the deposition of three
main rivers: Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Meghna.
 Flooding is expected in the southern parts of the delta region. The deltaic
region is undergoing morphological and physiographical changes due to
anthropological and natural factors.
 The Lower Bengal Delta covers 14,054 square kilometres and comprises
the districts of North 24 Parganas and South 24 Parganas.
 The Ganga and the Brahmaputra carry the most extensive sediments as
they originate in the Himalayas and are the most significant delta in the
world.
 The forest cover of West Bengal is 12,413 square kilometres, accounting
for 13.99 percent of the geographical area.
 The region accommodates a population of about approx. 9.13 crores
(Census 2011).
 The Ganga-Brahmaputra delta region is vulnerable to climate change,
causing a difference in this region's flooding pattern.
 It is a fertile alluvial plain which can be demarcated as a unique
geographical unit. Khadar belt is agriculturally valuable as it is drained by
many rivers resulting into an extensive canal irrigation system.
 The major rivers in this region are Yamuna, Sirsa, etc. Some of the
important dams include the Tajewala Barrage and Hathnikund barrage.
Canals irrigate nearly 40 percent of net irrigated area in Haryana.
 The climatic condition of this region is sub-humid, semi-arid and arid. Dry,
deciduous vegetation with thorny shrubs and bushes dominate the plain.
 It is the most populated region and people here grow crops like cotton,
wheat, rice, etc. This region is known for its cattle and dairy products, and
industries such as cotton textiles, sugar, fertilizers, locomotive, paper, etc.
 The salinity in the soil, water logging and excess use of fertilizers and
pesticides has degraded the quality of the soil.
 Large-scale industries such as cotton textile, woollen textile, sugar, and
small-scale industries like sports goods, handloom, hosiery etc are present
in this region.
 This region is divided into micro levels such as the Bangar Tract, Haryana
bagar, Ambala Plain and southern Haryana Plain.
 This plain region is well connected with roadways, railways and air
networks.

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 About 35 percent of the population lives in cities whereas 70 percent in

rural areas.

12.13 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Write any five common problems that lower Bengal delta is facing today
and give solutions to them.

2. Mention the drainage and the water resources of the Bengal Delta region
briefly.

3. Discuss the regional scheme of Lower Bengal Delta.

4. Explain how soil of the Haryana-Delhi plain affects the physical and cultural
setting of the region.

5. Write a short note on both the meso regions:

a. Settlement
b. Economy

6. What are the challenges and prospects of Indo-Gangetic Divide as a meso

region?

7. Explain the micro level division of Haryana-Delhi Plain.

12.14 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. The Lower Bengal Delta experiences a tropical monsoon climate with high
temperatures and distinct wet and dry seasons. Heavy rainfall, averaging
over 2000 mm annually, occurs during the June to September monsoon
season, often leading to flooding. Cyclones from the Bay of Bengal pose
risks, while the Sundarbans mangrove forest mitigates storm surges and
supports biodiversity, shaping the region's unique climatic conditions.
2. The Bengal Delta region hosts diverse vegetation, including mangrove
forests, marshlands, and agricultural fields. The Sundarbans, the largest
mangrove forest in the world, dominates the landscape with species like the
Sundari tree. Other flora includes Nipa palms, salt-tolerant grasses, and
various aquatic plants. This vegetation sustains a rich ecosystem of wildlife,
providing habitat for numerous species of birds, mammals, reptiles, and fish.
3. The Bengal Delta's physical resource base includes fertile alluvial soils,
abundant water resources from rivers like the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and
Meghna, and extensive mangrove forests in the Sundarbans. These
resources support agriculture, fisheries, and forestry, contributing to the
region's economy and biodiversity. However, the delta is vulnerable to
natural disasters like cyclones and flooding, necessitating sustainable
resource management practices.
4. The population pattern of the Bengal Delta is characterized by high
population density, particularly in urban centers like Kolkata. Rural areas
along riverbanks and coastal regions also have significant populations

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engaged in agriculture and fishing. However, the delta faces challenges
such as overpopulation, poverty, and inadequate infrastructure, which
impact socio-economic development and environmental sustainability.
5. The Bengal Delta hosts diverse industries, including agriculture, fisheries,
textiles, and manufacturing. Agriculture is a primary industry, with rice, jute,
and sugarcane being major crops. The region also has a significant textile
industry, particularly in Bangladesh, producing garments for export. Fishing
is prominent along the coastal areas. Additionally, emerging sectors like
information technology and pharmaceuticals contribute to the delta's
economic growth.
6. The Bengal Delta employs diverse transportation modes. Waterways,
including rivers like the Ganges, are vital channels for boats and ferries.
Extensive road networks connect urban centers, rural areas, and
agricultural lands. Railways facilitate efficient travel between cities. Airports
in key locations offer domestic and international flights. Additionally, cycles,
cycle rickshaws, and traditional boats provide local transportation options,
particularly in rural areas.
7. In the Bengal Delta, agriculture is predominant, with rice, jute, and
sugarcane as major crops. The region relies on irrigation systems, including
canals and tube wells, to mitigate water scarcity during dry periods.
Traditional floodplain farming methods are prevalent, utilizing the natural
flooding cycles of rivers. Additionally, modern techniques such as drip
irrigation are increasingly adopted to improve water efficiency and crop
yields.

8. The settlement pattern along the Indo-Ganga divide varies, with urban
centers like Delhi serving as central hubs for commerce, industry, and
administration. Rural areas consist of villages and small towns,
predominantly engaged in agriculture and allied activities. Settlements are
clustered along riverbanks and transportation routes, reflecting historical,
cultural, and economic influences. However, challenges such as
overpopulation and inadequate infrastructure persist in some areas.

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9. Refer to section 12.10.

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to section 12.6.
2. Refer to sub-section 12.3.3.
3. Refer to section 12.5.
4. Refer to sub-sections 12.8.6, 12.8.7 and 12.9.
5. Refer to sub-sections 12.9.2 and 12.9.3
6. Refer to section 12.11.
7. Refer to sub-sections 12.10.

12.15 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Akter, Jakia & Sarker, Maminul & Popescu, I. & Roelvink, Dano J.A.
(2015). Evolution of the Bengal Delta and Its Prevailing Processes.
Evolution of the Bengal Delta and Its Prevailing Processes. 321.
10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-14-00232.1.
2. Allison, M. (1998). Geologic Framework and Environmental Status of the
Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta. Journal of Coastal Research, 14, 826-836.
3. Bandyopadhyay, Sunando. (2007). Evolution of the Ganga–Brahmaputra
delta: A review. Geographical review of India. 69. 235–268.

4. Census 2011. Retrieved from

([Link]
5. Census of India 2011. West Bengal. Series-20. Part XII-B. District Census
Handbook. Kolkata. Village and Town Wise Primary Census Abstract
(PCA).

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Unit - 12 Meso Regions 2
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6. Economic Survey (2020-21). Department of Planning and Statistics.
Government of West Bengal
7. Economic Survey (2020-21). Statistical Appendix (Vol 2). INDIA BUDGET.
8. Gazetteer of the Ambala District, 1883-84 Sang-e-Meel Publications, 2000
- Ambāla (India : District) - 82 pages
9. Geddes, A. (1960). The alluvial morphology of the Indo-Gangetic Plain: Its
mapping and geographical significance. Transactions and Papers
(Institute of British Geographers), (28), 253-276
10. Geological Survey of India, Northern Region, Lucknow, Briefing Book,
December 2017.
11. Government of West Bengal. Health and Family Welfare Department.
District wise population of West Bengal by Rural and Urban areas, 2011.
12. Islam, S.N. Deltaic floodplains development and wetland ecosystems
management in the Ganga–Brahmaputra–Meghna Rivers Delta in
Bangladesh. Sustain. Water Resour. Manag. 2, 237–256 (2016).
[Link]
13. Islam, Shafi & Gnauck, Albrecht. (2008). Mangrove Wetland Ecosystems
in Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta in Bangladesh. Front Earth Sci China. 2.
439-448. 10.1007/s11707-008-0049-2.
14. Khullar, D. R. (1999). India: A comprehensive geography. Kalyani
Publishers.
15. Kuehl, Steven & Allison, Mead & Goodbred, Steven & Kudrass, Hermann.
(2005). The Ganga–Brahmaputra Delta. 10.2110/pec.05.83.0413.
16. Mani., M. S. (1974 ) Biogeography of Indo Gangetic Plain, Ecology and
Biogeography in India, (ed.) Dr. W. Junk b.v., The Hague Publishers.
17. Nag, P., & Sengupta, S. (1992). Geography of India. Concept Publishing
Company.
18. Sanchita Saha, Dr. Gopal Chandra Debnath. Status of literacy in West
Bengal: A geographical appraisal. Int. J. Appl. Res. 2016; 2(8): 657-664.
19. Sengupta, P. S. and Mitra K. (2011). Regional Geography of India, 2nd
Edition, Kalyani Publishers.
20. Singh, R. L. (1971). India; a regional geography. India; a regional
geography.
21. Singh, U. (2016). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the
Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson.
22. Statistics Times. Population of West Bengal. (Retrieved from
[Link]
23. Tiwari, R. C. (2003). Geography of India. Prayag Pustak Bhawan.
24. West Bengal State Portal. Retrieved from ([Link]
[Link]?id=D170907140022669&page=Agriculture#:~:text=Westperc
ent20Bengalpercent20ispercent20predominantlypercent20an,nearlyperce
nt208percent25percent20ofpercent20itspercent20population.&text=Thepe
rcent20netpercent20croppedpercent20areapercent20is,Thepercent20crop
pingpercent20intensitypercent20ispercent20184percent25).
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25. [Link]
[Link].
26. [Link]
27. [Link]
28. [Link]
transport/

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 UNIT 13

MESO REGIONS 3
Structure
13.1 Introduction 13.8 Malabar Coast: The Physical
Expected Learning Outcomes Setting
13.2 Chotanagpur Plateau: 13.9 Malabar Coast: The Cultural
Historical Background Setting
13.3 Chotanagpur Plateau: The 13.10 Malabar Coast: The Regions
Physical Setting 13.11 Malabar Coast: Problems and
13.4 Chotanagpur Plateau: The Prospects
Cultural Setting 13.12 Summary
13.5 Chotanagpur Plateau: The 13.13 Terminal Questions
Regions 13.14 Answers
13.6 Chotanagpur Plateau: 13.15 References and Further
Problems and Prospects Reading
13.7 Malabar Coast: Historical
Background

13.1 INTRODUCTION
Chotanagpur Region marks the northern part of Eastern Plateaus, which itself
is the north-eastern region of Peninsular Plateau. There is difference of
opinion regarding the delimitation of Chotanagpur region. R. L. Singh (1971)
delimits Chotanagpur between 2200' - 25030' north latitudes and 83047' -
87050' east longitudes covering an area of 86, 239 square kilometres, which
incorporates the present state of Jharkhand and Purulia district of West
Bengal. While the physiographic map of National Atlas includes the eastern
margins of Chhattisgarh, the monograph on Economic Regionalization of India
(Census of India) includes parts of northern hills of Odisha. S. P Chatterjee
considers the region coterminous with the current state of Jharkhand. We
have adopted Chotanagpur region as delineated by R. L. Singh (Fig. 13.1).

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Fig. 13.1: Location Map of Chotanagpur Plateau Region.

Chotanagpur is surrounded by South Bihar Plains in the north, Bengal Basin in

the east, Utkal Plains in the southeast, Garhjat Hills in the south, Upper
Mahanadi Basin in the southwest, Baghelkhand Plateau in the west and
Vindhyan Scrap Lands in the northwest. Surrounded by plains, river basins
and hills, Chotanagpur region stands out as a distinct natural entity of
predominantly uniform plateau topography with varying elevations. These
variations are clearly displayed in its different regional units of Palamau
Uplands, Hazaribagh Plateau, Damodar Valley, Santhal Pargana Uplands, Pat
land, Ranchi Plateau, Singhbhum, and Manbhum (Puruliya) Plains. The
distinctiveness of the region is also manifested in its cultural as well as political
characteristics. Chotanagpur has been the homeland to several aboriginal
tribal communities since time immemorial such as Santhal, Ho, Kharia,
Munda, and Oraon to name a few. Until the interventions of the colonial
administration into the region with the desire to exploit its extremely rich
mineral and forest resources, the tribes enjoyed almost complete exclusive
rights of their homeland. Since then and particularly after Independence and
subsequently after the formation of Jharkhand as a separate state (15
November, 2000), coinciding by and large with the natural margins of
Chotanagpur, the region has been experiencing rapid changes in every
sphere of its life.

The Malabar Coast region is a tiny stretch of coastline on India's south

western coast. It is one of the wettest areas in south India. Spices, coir, and
coconuts grow abundantly along the Malabar coast. The region has attracted
both traders and tourists from within and outside the subcontinent, including
China, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Jerusalem, Persia, and Arabia
since time immemorial (Singh, 2014). The region comprises of Malappuram,
Thiruvananthapuram, Ernakulam, Thrissur, Kozhikode, Palakkad, Kollam,
Kannur, Alappuzha, Kottayam, Kasaragod, Pathanamthitta, Idduki and
Wayanad districts of Kerala, and Heggadadevankote taluk of Mysore,
Mangalore, Bantval, Puttur, and Sulya taluks of Dakshina Kannada, Madikeri
and Virajpet taluks of Kodagu districts of Karnataka, and Panthalur, Gudalur,

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Udagamandalam, Coonoor and Kundah taluks of The Nilgiris, and
Vilavancode, Kalkulam and Agastheeswaram taluks of Kanyakumari districts
of Tamil Nadu (Fig. 13.2).

Fig. 13.2 (a): Location and Extent of Malabar Coast.

(Source: Singh, 2014)

Fig. 13.2 (b): Location and Extent of Malabar Coast.

(Source: Census of India)

Sections 13.2 to 13.6 are devoted to the study of historical background,

physical setting, cultural setting, and the regions along with problems and
prospects of Chotanagpur plateau and Malabar coast.
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Fig. 13.2 (c): Location and Extent of Malabar Coast.

Fig. 13.2 (d): Location of Malabar Region.

(Source: Extracted from Google Earth)

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Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
 to present the regional personality of the Chotanagpur region in terms of
its physical and cultural settings as well as its sub-regions;
 to understand the present characteristics of the region and its historical
background;
 to present the regional personality of the Malabar region in terms of its
physical and cultural settings as well as its sub-regions; and
 to understand the present characteristics of the region, it is necessary to
throw some light on its historical background.

13.2 CHOTANAGPUR PLATEAU: HISTORICAL

BACKGROUND
As mentioned above, Chotanagpur Plateau with its rugged topography and
dense forest cover, provided refuge to the ancient hunters and gatherers. The
agriculturally not so suitable ecological setup of the region was avoided by all
the major dynasties. Until the beginning of the colonial era, the large scale
agricultural economies of the surrounding plains displayed no economic
interest on the resources of the region. This densely forested plateau lying
between Rohtas in the west, Panchet Hill in the east, and Ratanpur in Central
India extending up to the borders of Odisha in the south was known as
Jharkhand (jungle land) or Kokrah during the Moghul period. The region was
loosely annexed by the Moghuls, whose interest remained confined to the
tributes from the small princely states, namely Ramgarh, Kharagdiha, and
Kendy etc., and the diamond mines of the region. The East India Company
acquired Diwani rights from Sha Alam II in 1765. Gradually, effective and
larger control over the region was obtained through the 1772 invasion of the
region by Capt. Camac, followed by construction of roads connecting Patna to
Chotanagpur and systematic survey of the region that revealed vast reserves
of coal, iron and other mineral resources. This revelation prompted the
colonial authorities to create road and subsequently rail infrastructure with the
purpose of exploiting the large mineral and forest resources of the region.
Consequentially, the region experienced unprecedented socio-economic,
cultural, demographic and administrative transformation.

13.3 CHOTANAGPUR PLATEAU: THE

PHYSICAL SETTING
13.3.1 Geology
"The structural base of the region is provided by a series of batholithic
intrusions of granite into Dharwar strata, which was intensely metamorphosed
by orogenetic movements. The earliest floor, on which the Dharwars were
deposited, has not been recognized anywhere since it was subsequently
metamorphosed" (Singh, 1970, 14). Being part of the Peninsular Block,
Chotanagpur happens to be geologically a highly stable plateau mostly
covered with granite and gneiss rocks.

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Fig. 13.3: Geology Map of Chotanagpur.

(Source: India: A Regional Geography by Singh, R. L. Reprint, 2010)

The Dharwar (phyllite, mica-schists etc.) rocks protrude in the northern and
southern margins and are manifested in the iron ore and Kolhan series of
Singhbhum district. Besides, the Archaean lava flows are marked in the Dalma
Range. Peneplaination of the ancient fold mountains extends east-west across
north Singhbhum and south Ranchi, and into north Dhalbum and south
Manbhum. The great shear or thrust zone runs approximately ENE-WSW and
E-W for nearly 100 miles turning S-E near the eastern end. There are two
other thrust zones to the north of the great shear zone running almost parallel
to each other. The Gondwana rocks of Damodar valley are made up of
sandstones of great thickness with some slate and clay. The Pat land on the
western margin is covered with Deccan trap which is converted into laterite
and bauxite due to weathering. Rajmahal Hills in north-eastern fringe of the
Plateau are also covered with lava, which were probably linked with the
initiation of the Himalayan orogeny. Rajmahal Traps consist of dolerites, basalt
and andesites.

13.3.2 Physiography/Relief
The relief of Chotanagpur is marked with a series of plateaus descending in
elevation in all directions from mid-western portion known as Pat land,
particularly towards the east. With an average elevation of about 1,100
metres, the Pat lands reach the maximum elevation of 1,370 metres at the
Parasnath Hills. To the west, the Plateau merges into the plateau in the
Surguja district of Chhattisgarh. General slope of the Plateau is in north and
southeast directions. To the east of the Pat land, Ranchi Plateau which is the
largest of all the plateaus of Chotanagpur is separated from Hazaribagh
Plateau by Damodar trough. Both Ranchi and Hazaribagh Plateaus have the
same general elevation of 600 metres. The slope of Chotanagpur Plateau is
marked with sharp breaks distinguishable by steep scarps where the river
courses are interrupted by waterfalls. Chotanagpur Plateau descends abruptly
with similar scarps and waterfalls towards Manbhum Plain in the east and
Chaibasa Plain in the southeast. Baghmundi Highland tract with a similar

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elevation of 600 metres is separated from Ranchi Plateau by the
Subarnarekha River. South of Chaibasa Plain lies lower dissected upland of
Kolhan and Porhat regions.

Subscribing to Dunn's proposition, most scholars suggest that the varying

successive levels from Pat land to Chaibasa Plain and Manbhum Plain are the
products of three successive uplifts of the same peneplain. The first upliftment
that took place in early Tertiary times created the highest Pat region, followed
by block-upliftment of the central Ranchi Plateau and higher Pat during the
Late Tertiary period leaving the original peneplain marked by the Chaibasa
and Panch-Pargana (stretches from the south-eastern Ranchi District to some
parts of West Singhbhum, Saraikela-Kharsawan and Puruliya districts) plains
at the original level. The last upliftment was in the nature of a tilt so that there
is no steep scarp on the outer edge of Chotanagpur.

North of Damodar trough lies Hazaribagh Plateau with similar features and
elevation like Ranchi Plateau and is encircled by Kodarma Plateau which has
a lower (300 metres) general elevation and is bordered by steep scarps in the
north but slopes gradually to the east. To the northwest of Hazaribagh Plateau
and west of Kodarma Plateau lie Palamau Plateau which has highly broken
relief similar to the southern dissected portion of Ranchi Plateau.

North eastern part of Chotanagpur Plateau is the Rajmahal Highlands

comprising a chain of level lava plateaus and sculptured hills interrupted with
valleys and undulating divided surface with a general elevation 300 to 450
metres. The Permo-Triassic trough fault in-between the two main plateau
blocks is drained by Damodar River. The trough exhibits a variety of
topography characterized by sandstone hills such as the Panchet and Mahudi,
Ramgarh Peneplain, steep sided scarps on both banks of the river and scarp
edge interfluves between pairs of rivers.

SAQ 1
Chotanagpur plateau is mostly covered with which rocks?

13.3.3 Drainage and Water Resources

Chotanagpur Plateau is the source region to a number of rivers and streams
which exhibit different drainage patterns and drainage densities. These have a
highly fluctuating regime with continuous flow only during the monsoon
season. Among all, South Koel, North Koel, Subarnarekha, Damodar and
Barakar Rivers have developed extensive drainage basins.

Ajai, Mor, Brahmani, Gumani and several other smaller rivers draining
Rajmahal Highlands flow into West Bengal Plain. A number of small rivers and
streams such as Punpun, Phalgu, Sakri and Kiul flow into the South Bihar
Plain. Damodar is the most important and largest (592 kilometres) river of
Chotanagpur Plateau of which Barakar is the major tributary.

Flowing over the flat plateaus, rivers of Chotanagpur Plateau exhibit youthful
characteristics marked by steep-sided narrow valleys and gorges. The river
courses are also marked by several rapids and waterfalls. Some of the
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prominent waterfalls are Gautamghagh (36 metre), Ghaghri (42 metre),

Burhaghagh (40 metre), Sadnighagh (60 metre) in the Pats; Handru (73
metre), Johna, Dasam (39 metre) and Hirni (37 metre) in Ranchi Plateau;
Motijhara (45 metre) in Rajmahal Hills; and Kakolat (24 metre) in the
Hazaribagh Plateau.

Fig.13.4: Drainage Map of Chotanagpur.

(Source: India: A Regional Geography by Singh, R. L. Reprint, 2010)

Drainage pattern of most rivers of the Plateau is dendritic, which signifies

lesser structural control despite the varying character and hardness of the
plateau surface on which these are flowing. Nevertheless, there are several
other patterns depicted by individual rivers. For example, Damodar River
flowing in a trough, displays a variety of trellis pattern. Sankh River displays a
barbed drainage pattern as its tributaries join it in 'boathook bends'. The higher
plateau surfaces of the Pats, Ranchi Plateau and Hazaribagh Plateau have
developed radial pattern. 'Angulate' pattern has developed in the Palamau
Plateau due to the joints in the granite-gneiss areas.

Drainage density of the rivers also varies from 65-95 kilometres in the
Subarnarekha and South Koel basins to 35-65 kilometres per 250 square
kilometres in the North Koel and Damodar basins. Drainage density is lowest
in the Rajmahal Highlands.

SAQ 2
What is the drainage pattern of most of the rivers of Chotanagpur Plateau and
what does it signify?

13.3.4 Climate
Chotanagpur Plateau has a typical monsoonal climate. With the northward
movement of sun, temperature starts rising and remains between 290C to

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320C in May-June. Consequentially, low-pressure conditions develop in the
north-eastern part of the Plateau attracting wind from the west at 9.6 to 14.4
kilometres per hour. Temperature remains high all through this period, with
intermittent respite caused by rains due to Norwester of West Bengal.

With the onset of south west monsoon, temperature as well as wind velocity
gradually starts decreasing. By July-August, the seasonal trough of low
pressure shifts south from its earlier location over Ganga plain and settles
over the Plateau. Moisture bearing winds blowing from the east and southeast
cause heavy rainfall accounting for almost 80 percent of the annual rainfall
during this season spread over June to October. The region receives an
annual average rainfall ranging between 100 to 150 centimetres with notable
spatial variations. Although, rainfall gradually decreases from south to north
and from east to west, rainfall distribution in the region is significantly affected
by the relief. Higher areas such as Netarhat in the Pats, Ranchi, Hazaribagh
and Dhanbad generally receive much higher rainfall despite their inner
location, with Netarhat in the lead. Contrarily, Chaibasa plains lying in the
south eastern fringe with a much lower elevation of 300 metres, receives lower
rainfall, and Puruliya is a drought prone area with high evaporation and low
precipitation.

Winter season conditions prevail on the Plateau between November and

February when low velocity winds of four to six km/ph blow from the
northwest. The north western disturbances bring mild rains to the region
during this season. Winters on the Plateau are marked with bracing sunny
days with relatively less muggy conditions. Although the mean temperature
remains around 230C during December, higher elevations experience as low
as 160C to 170C. On the whole, the Plateau experiences a pleasant climate all
through the year excepting at lower levels during the summers of April and
May.

SAQ 3
During which months/season Chotanagpur receives maximum of its rainfall?

13.3.5 Vegetation
The natural vegetation of the Plateau can be classified into three categories,
such as (i) Dry Deciduous Forests; (ii) Dry Peninsular Sal; and (iii) Moist
Peninsular Sal. The two hundred odd years of interventions have of course
caused much depletion of the natural flora of the region excepting in
inaccessible areas.

Dry deciduous forests are characteristics of river valleys of Hazaribagh

Plateau and adjoining areas where annual average rainfall is lower than 125
centimetres. Important species of trees of this part includes Amaltas, Semal,
Harra, Khair, Palas, Mahua, and Asan etc. along with bamboo and Sabai
(Kus) grass. Flat plateau surfaces are mostly covered with grass.

Dry Peninsular Sal is a common variety of Hazaribagh Plateau, lower

Palamau and Pat lands. It is also seen in scattered patches over Ranchi

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Plateau, and in Singbhum and Puruliya districts. Sal, bamboo and catechu
(Katha) are also common varieties of these forests.

Moist Peninsular Sal forests yield valuable timber from Teak, Sal, Mahua,
Kusum, Asan, Piar, Khair, Gambar, Anjan and Karjan trees. These varieties
are mostly found in Singhbhum district accompanied by bamboo and grass.
Teak is however, the least prominent specie, confined to Saranda and Kolhan
areas.

13.3.6 Soils
Chotanagpur Plateau is mostly covered with red soils formed out of the gneiss
and granite bed rocks. At certain locations, these soils are black in colour due
to presence of highly ferruginous biotite and hornblende. These are rich in
potash and lime but deficient in nitrogen, phosphoric acid and humus.
Damodar Valley, the Pats and lava surface of Rajmahal Hills however, are
distinctly different from this general pattern of soil distribution over the Plateau,
with loose sandy soils, high level laterite, regur and laterite soils respectively.
While the regur of Rajmahal Hills is highly fertile with siliceous matter, kaoline,
potash, magnesia and iron oxides, the laterite soil of Pats and Singhbhum is
infertile. Overall, the depth and fertility of the soil of Chotanagpur Plateau vary
according to topography and rock constituents.

13.3.7 Physical Resource Base

Chotanagpur is well endowed with physical resources, particularly forests and
minerals and is called the 'Ruhr of India'. However, with respect to land
resources, Chotanagpur poorly matches with neighbouring plains of Bihar,
Odisha and West Bengal. Excepting in river valleys and depressions, the soil
cover is thin and infertile. Due to lack of proper irrigation facility, double
cropping is highly limited. However, large tracts of culturable wastes assure
great scope for expansion of land under cultivation.

Despite depletion of the vegetative cover due to indiscriminate exploitation,

mineral extraction and overgrazing, Chotanagpur contributes a significant
proportion of the forest resources of the country. Singhbhum valley has
considerable reserves of good quality timber such as Sal, teak, asan, karam,
kath and gamhar. Large quantities of sabai grass are also obtained from
Singhbhum district. Forests of Palamau district provide much of bamboo used
in preparing paper pulp in the country. Other districts with rich forest reserves
are Ranchi and Hazaribagh. More than two-third of the lac (sealing wax)
production of the country comes from Chotanagpur.

Chotanagpur is one of the richest mineral reserve regions of India. It

contributes cent per cent of copper and apatite production, and significant
proportion of a few more minerals of India. Gondwana rocks of Damodar
valley starting from Hutar fields in the west to Jharia fields in the east, and
other fields in Daltonganj and Giridih contain good quality bituminous coal
accounting for almost 80 percent known coal deposits in the country. Iron Ore
Series of Dharwars in Kolhan area of Singhbhum district contain haematite
having more than 60 percent iron content. These occur in two narrow horse-
shoe like parallel ridges of which the western side is known as the 'Iron Ore
Range'. Limestone extracted from the districts of Palamau, Hazaribagh,
74
Unit - 13 Meso Regions 3
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Ranchi and Singhbhum have given rise to several cement factories in the
region. Nearly 128 kilometres long and 32 kilometres wide belt in the northern
fringe of Kodarma Plateau provides a large source of mica. A discontinuous
130 kilometres belt in Singhbhum district from Duarpuram near Chakradharpur
through Kharsawan, Turandih, Rakha, Musabani and Bahargora is the only
source of copper in the country. Parts of Pat land area of the western parts of
Ranchi and Palamau districts, provide bauxite. It is mined near Lohardaga and
transported to Muri for processing into alumina. Besides, Chotanagpur has
rich reserves of asbestos, byrites, chromite, kyanite, steatite and uranium.
With excellent combination of many important minerals, the Chotanagpur
region has given rise to the Damodar Valley Industrial Complex, where several
ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgical industries and thermal power plants
have emerged. The hydro-electricity generated through the Damodar Valley
Project not only supports the industrial processes of the region but also
transmits power to neighbouring industrial centres of West Bengal and Uttar
Pradesh. Occurrence of several important minerals, like iron ore, limestone,
copper and bauxite etcetera along with ample thermal and hydro-electric
power resources, provides unique opportunity for the economic progress of
the region.

SAQ 4
(i) What types of vegetation are found in Chotanagpur region?
(ii) Which soils in Chotanagpur are rich in potash and lime but deficient in
nitrogen, phosphoric acid and humus?

13.4 CHOTANAGPUR PLATEAU: THE

CULTURAL SETTING
13.4.1 Population
The population of the Chotanagpur (Jharkhand) has increased steadily from
only 14,324,421 persons in 1961 to 29,482,345 persons and 35,918,249
persons in 2001 and 2011 respectively. However, due to terrain conditions
and forest cover, population is highly unevenly distributed. Its average density
was 436 persons per square kilometres (2011), which compares very poorly
with that of 1,106 persons per square kilometres in Bihar. Much of the
population is concentrated in comparatively level portions of Hazaribagh and
Ranchi Plateaus, Rajmahal Hills and Singhbhum Plain, and lower portions of
Damodar Valley including Puruliya district (Fig. 13.5). Lower Damodar Valley
with greater urban-industrial activities has attracted great influx of population
making it the most densely populated part of Chotanagpur.

75
Block - 4 Select Meso Regions of India
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Fig. 13.5: Density of Population (Census, 2011).

Fig. 13.6: Decadal Population Growth Rate (2001-2011).

Table 13.1: District-Wise Population Characteristics (2011).

Sl. District/ Total Percent to DGR Pop. Sex Ratio Literacy Rate
No. Region Population Region’s (2001- Density Total Child Total Male Female
Total 2011) (Per
2
Population km )
1. Garhwa 1,322,784 3.68 27.75 327 935 960 60.33 72.19 47.58
2. Chatra 1,042,886 2.90 31.77 280 953 967 60.18 69.92 49.92
3. Kodarma 7,16,259 1.99 43.42 282 950 949 66.84 79.78 53.23
4. Giridh 24,45,474 6.81 28.41 493 944 942 63.14 76.76 48.72
5. Deogarh 14,92,073 4.15 28.03 602 925 950 64.85 76.85 51.80
6. Godda 13,13,551 3.66 25.35 580 938 960 56.40 67.84 44.14

76
 Unit - 13 Meso Regions 3
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. Sahibganj 11,50,567 3.20 24.01 588 952 960 52.04 60.34 43.31
8. Pakur 9,00,422 2.51 28.33 514 989 975 48.82 57.06 40.52
9. Dhanbad 26,84,487 7.48 12.00 1608 909 916 74.52 83.81 64.29
10. Bokaro 20,62,330 5.74 16.01 1061 922 923 72.01 82.51 60.63
11. Lohardaga 4,61,790 1.29 26.68 307 985 970 67.61 77.41 57.69
12. Purbi 22,93,919 6.39 16.73 572 949 923 75.49 83.75 66.81
Singhbhum
13. Palamau 19,39,869 5.40 26.17 475 928 945 63.63 97.97 96.48
14. Latehar 7,26,978 2.02 29.61 169 967 968 59.51 69.97 48.68
15. Hazaribagh 17,34,495 4.83 20.62 488 947 933 69.75 80.01 58.95
16. Ramgarh 9,49,443 2.64 13.10 708 921 927 73.17 82.44 63.09
17. Dumka 13,21,442 3.68 19.42 351 977 966 61.02 72.96 48.82
18. Jamtara 7,91,042 2.20 21.10 454 954 954 64.59 76.46 52.15
19. Ranchi 29,14,253 8.11 24.00 572 949 938 76.06 84.26 67.44
20. Khunti 5,31,885 1.48 22.32 207 997 964 63.86 74.08 53.69
21. Gumla 10,25,213 2.85 23.16 191 993 963 65.73 75.55 55.90
22. Simdega 5,99,578 1.67 16.58 159 997 969 67.99 76.08 59.92
23. Paschim 15,02,338 4.18 21.75 279 1005 983 58.63 71.13 46.25
Singhbhum
24. Sarikela 10,65,056 2.97 25.47 573 956 943 67.70 79.03 55.88
Kharsawan
25. Puruliya 29,30,115 8.17 15.52 468 957 953 64.48 77.86 50.52
Chotanagpur 35,918,249 100.00 21.90 436 949 948 66.25 76.92 55.00
Gap - 21.92

Although, the average growth rate of population of the region remained below
or nearer to the National average during the first four decades after
Independence (1961-17.57/21.51 percent, 1971- 23.91/24.80 percent,1981-
22.97/24.66 percent and 1991-23.64/23.87 percent) (1951-61 - Region 17.57
percent /Nation 21.51 percent; 1961-1971 - Region 23.91 percent/Nation
24.80 percent; 1971-1981 - Region 22.97 percent / Nation 24.66 percent; and
1981-1991 - Region 23.64 percent/Nation 23.87 percent), it has remained
constantly higher since then, of course with a declining trend (2001-22.49
percent/Nation 21.54 percent and, 2001-2011-Region 21.90 percent/Nation
17.70 percent). The mining and industrial districts of Chotanagpur particularly
Dhanbad, Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Puruliya attracted large number of
immigrants mostly from the neighbouring Bihar plains, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh
and West Bengal. However, it is worthy to note that during 2001 and 2011,
population in most of the newly formed districts like Kodarma (43.42 percent),
Chatra (31.77 percent), Latehar (29.61percent), Giridh (28.41 percent), Pakur
(28.33 percent), Deogarh (28.03 percent), Garhwah (27.75 percent),
Lohardaga (26.68 percent), Palamau (26.17 percent), Saraikela Kharsawan
(25.47 percent), Godda (25.35 percent) and a few others, has grown much
above the regional average of 21.90 per cent, surpassing the growth rate in
the districts of major urban-industrial centres like Ranchi (24.00 percent),
Hazaribagh (20.62 percent), Bokaro (16.01 percent), Puruliya (15.52 percent)
and Dhanbad (11.99 percent) etc. (Fig. 13.6). The change in the spatial
pattern of population growth in the recent decades may be related to
decentralized processes of development in the State.

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Block - 4 Select Meso Regions of India
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Fig. 13.7: Sex Ratio (Census, 2011).

Sex ratio in Chotanagpur has remained more balanced in comparison to the

Nation as a whole. Sex-ratio of 942 females/1000 males and 949
females/1000 males in Chotanagpur was higher than the corresponding
National figures of 933 and 943 in 2001 and 2011 respectively. With respect to
child (0-6 years) sex ratio of 965 in the region was much better than the Nation
as a whole where it was 941 in 2001 but came down to 948 and became equal
to the National average in 2011. In fact, excepting for Dhanbad (909),
Ramgarh (921), Bokaro (922), Deogarh (925), Palamau (928), Garhwa (935),
and Godda (938), where in-migration has been male-selective, all other
districts of Chotanagpur registered higher sex ratio than the country as a
whole. Some of the districts namely, Paschim Singhbhum (1005), Khunti and
Simdega (997), Gumla (993), Pakur (989) and Lohardaga (985) have
displayed an almost balanced sex ratio in 2011 (Fig. 13.7 and 13.8).

Fig. 13.8: Child Sex Ratio (Census, 2011).

78
Unit - 13 Meso Regions 3
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Performance of Chotanagpur in terms of literacy has not been very
satisfactory. Chotanagpur is one of the least literate regions of the country with
only 66.25 percent literacy. Excepting for Ranchi (76.06 percent), Purbi
Singhbhum (75.49 percent) and Dhanbad (74.52 percent), no other district of
the region has attained literacy above the National level (74.04 percent, Fig.
13.9). It may however be noted that, proportion of total literates in the region
has increased substantially from 53.74 percent in 2001 to 66.25 percent in
2011. Progress in female literacy during the decade from 38.66 to 55.00
percent is even more encouraging.

Fig. 13.9: Literacy Rate (Census, 2011).

Chotanagpur Plateau had been the traditional abode of a large number of

tribes since long. However, with passage of time, penetration of non-tribal
segments from the adjoining plains has drastically altered the social
composition of the population. The tribes constituted more than 35 percent of
the total population of the region in 1951. Latest available data of 2011 show
significant decline in their share to 25.57 percent. More than 90 percent of the
tribal population is rural. The region houses around 30 major and minor tribes,
of which Santhals (34 percent), Oraon (19.60 percent), Munda (14.80
percent), and Ho (10.50 percent) are most predominant. These four tribes
along with Kharia, Bhumij, Lohra, and Kharwar constitute around 90 percent of
the total tribal population. Tribal segment of Chotanagpur population is mostly
concentrated in two clusters of districts, one in the southwest and the other in
the northeast. The continuity of this corridor is interrupted by the east central
urban-industrial districts of Bokaro and Dhanbad etc. While Dumka (43.22
percent), Pakur (42.10 percent), Sahibganj (26.80 percent), and Godda (21.26
percent) districts in the northeast have a significant proportion of tribal
population, Khunti (73.25 percent), Simdega (70.78 percent), Gumla (68.94
percent), Paschim Singhbhum (67.31 percent), and Lohardaga (56.89
percent) districts in the southwest are predominantly tribal (Fig. 13.10).

79
Block - 4 Select Meso Regions of India
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Fig. 13.10: Schedule Tribe Population - 2011

Being a traditional abode of the tribes, Chotanagpur has a smaller proportion

(12.68 percent) of SC population, which is less than the National average
(16.60 percent). Most of the districts adjoining Bihar plains and urban-
industrial districts of Dhanbad and Bokaro (Fig. 13.11), accommodate higher
proportion of SC population in their total population, indicating spill over of SC
population from the neighbouring plain areas over time.

Fig. 13.11: Schedule Caste Population - 2011

Urbanization of the Chotanagpur region is highly lopsided and is much below

at 23.13 percent, compared to the National average of 31.20 percent. More
than three-fourth accounting for 76.87 percent of its total population is rural.
Excepting in a continuous stretch of six east central districts of Dhanbad
(58.13 percent), Purbi Singhbhum (55.56 percent), Bokaro (47.70 percent),
Ramgarh (44.13 percent), and Ranchi (43.14 percent) population in the
80
Unit - 13 Meso Regions 3
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
remaining districts is predominantly rural. More than 80 percent of population
in 17 out of the 25 districts live in rural areas. Together, the four urban-
industrial districts of Dhanbad, Purbi Singhbhum, Ranchi and Bokaro
accommodate closer to two-third (61.12 percent) of the region's total urban
population. These four districts respectively share 18.80 percent, 15.34
percent, 15.14 percent and 11.84 percent of the region's total urban
population. Urban population growth rate of Chotanagpur during 2001-2011
has been marginally higher (32.11 percent) in comparison to the National level
(31.20 percent). However, it is worthy to note that almost all the less urbanized
districts have recorded urban population growth rate much higher than the
National rate, with Palamau (128 percent), Latehar (97.18 percent), Pakur
(87.38 percent) districts in the lead. The exceptions to this generalization are
Paschim Singhbhum (14.11 percent), Lohardaga (24.28 percent), and
Simdega (26.38 percent), where the proportion of urban population in the
district total population is also low. On the other hand, districts with higher
percentage of urban population, such as Purbi Singhbhum (15.12 percent),
Bokaro (22.24 percent), Dhanbad (24.30 percent), and Ramgarh (24.38
percent), have recorded growth rates lower than the National average.

Table 13.3: Urbanization.

Sl. District Urban Percent to Percent to District’s DGR
No. Population Region’s Total Population
2011 Total Urban 2001 2011 2001-2011
Population
1. Garhwa 69,670 0.84 4.12 5.27 63.40
2. Chatra 62,954 0.76 5.31 6.04 49.82
3. Kodarma 1,41,246 1.70 17.37 19.72 62.82
4. Giridih 2,08,024 2.50 6.43 44.18 70.00
5. Deogarh 2,58,361 3.11 13.72 17.32 61.63
6. Godda 64,419 0.78 3.53 4.90 74.07
7. Sahibganj 1,59,666 1.92 10.58 13.88 62.71
8. Pakur 67,512 0.81 5.13 7.50 87.38
9. Dhanbad 15,60,394 18.80 52.37 58.13 24.30
10. Bokaro 9,83,644 11.84 20.88 47.70 22.24
11. Lohardaga 57,411 0.70 6.11 12.43 24.28
12. Purbi 12,74,591 15.34 55.03 55.56 15.12
Singhbhum
13. Palamau 2,26,003 2.72 8.14 11.65 128.76
14. Latehar 51,858 0.62 38.94 97.18
15. Hazaribagh 2,75,307 3.31 23.23 15.87 43.22
16. Ramgarh 4,18,955 5.04 44.13 24.38
17. Dumka 90,178 1.09 6.53 6.82 52.54
18. Jamtara 75,746 0.91 9.58 35.76
19. Ranchi 12,57,335 15.14 35.11 43.14 32.55
20. Khunti 44,982 0.54 8.46 53.62
21. Gumla 65,081 0.78 5.48 6.35 63.68
22. Simdega 42,944 0.52 7.16 26.38
23. Paschim 2,18,034 2.62 16.85 14.51 14.11
Singhbhum
24. Sarikela 2,58,746 3.11 24.29 42.17
Kharsawan
25. Puruliya 3,73,314 4.50 11.20 12.74 46.15
Chotanagpur 83,06,375 100.00 5791703/19.66 23.13 32.11
81
Block - 4
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Select Meso Regions of India

Work participation rate in Chotanagpur at 32.72 percent is much lower than

the National rate of 39.80 percent. However, Chotanagpur registered a much
higher proportion of agricultural workers of 62.81 percent in comparison to the
all-India average of 54.60 percent in 2011. Only 3.78 percent of the workers
are engaged in the household industries. However, around one-third (33.41
percent) of the workers in the region have returned themselves as 'other
workers' in 2011. This indicates absorption of greater proportion of workers of
the region in the mining and other urban-industrial activities. However, perusal
of the district level proportion of such workers reveals otherwise. Excepting in
the mining and industrialized districts of Kodarma (57.26 percent), Ranchi
(51.17 percent), Ramgarh (44.08 percent), Bokaro (38.51 percent), Purbi
Singhbhum (38.45 percent) and, Dhanbad (23.75 percent), share of
agricultural workers in other districts is more than 60 percent, touching the
three-fourth mark particularly in the predominantly tribal districts. Another
noteworthy point pertains to the higher share of agricultural labourers in the
total agricultural workforce (Table 13.4).

Table 13.4: Work Participation - 2011.

Sl. District Percentage Agricultural Workers Household Other
No /Region of Total Industry Workers
Cultivators Agricultural Total
Workers Workers
Labourers
(Main +
Marginal) to
Total
Population
1. Garhwa 43.20 19.87 57.52 77.39 2.54 20.07
2. Chatra 38.13 30.00 47.40 77.40 3.57 19.03
3. Kodarm 35.94 32.29 24.97 57.26 3.08 39.66
a
4. Giridh 42.38 35.70 34.99 70.69 3.14 26.17
5. Deogarh 36.96 23.33 38.02 61.35 7.14 31.51
6. Godda 42.04 26.19 55.74 81.93 3.39 14.69
7. Sahibga 42.61 22.43 42.21 64.64 8.81 26.55
nj
8. Pakur 44.93 26.04 37.08 63.12 4.81 32.07
9. Dhanba 31.46 11.50 12.25 23.75 3.07 73.18
d
10. Bokaro 33.23 20.07 18.44 38.51 3.16 58.33
11. Loharda 47.93 45.08 36.52 81.60 2.01 16.38
ga
12. Purbi 36.50 13.39 25.06 38.45 2.56 58.99
Singhbh
um
13. Palama 36.76 18.73 53.42 72.15 2.79 25.06
u
14. Latehar 43.11 33.09 45.55 78.64 2.94 18.43
15. Hazarib 37.74 37.04 26.33 63.37 2.47 34.16
agh
16. Ramgar 32.87 29.08 15.00 44.08 2.67 53.25
h
17. Dumka 47.28 30.96 48.51 79.47 3.70 16.84
18. Jamtara 41.29 32.45 41.54 73.99 3.54 22.47
19. Ranchi 39.22 27.78 23.39 51.17 3.36 45.46

82
Unit - 13 Meso Regions 3
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
20. Khunti 48.88 63.96 19.02 82.98 3.56 13.46
21. Gumla 47.55 65.90 20.09 85.99 2.62 11.39
22. Simdeg 48.14 54.75 31.26 86.01 2.78 11.22
a
23. Paschim 46.25 35.14 38.49 73.63 3.57 22.79
Singhbh
um
24. Sarikela 40.38 27.14 33.24 60.38 2.38 37.23
Kharsaw
an
25. Puruliya 42.65 21.51 39.39 60.90 7.01 32.10
Chotanagp 14,347,734/3 4,083,632/2 4,928,257/34 9,011,889/ 5,42,722/3. 4,793,123
ur 2.72 8.46 .35 62.81 78 /33.41

13.4.2 Settlement
Around three-fourth of the population of Chotanagpur region lives in 31,651
villages (Table 13.9). These villages are scattered all over the region with
varying density per 100 square kilometres and in varying sizes. Although one
finds 38 villages per 100 square kilometres in the region, the density of villages
is as low as 12, 18, and 21 in the districts of Simdega, Gumla, Latehar and
Garhwa respectively. On the other hand, the districts of Deogarh (98), Godda
(74), Dumka (72), Sahibganj (65), Pakur and Dhanbad (63) and Jamtara (61)
display much higher density of villages. The region has very small proportion
(2.03 percent) of villages with population of more than 5,000 persons. Excepting
in the urban-industrial districts of Dhanbad (4.93 percent), Bokaro (4.91
percent), Ramgarh (4.26 percent) and Garhwa (3.08 percent), proportion of such
villages is either negligible or nil. On an average, around three-fourth (73.61
percent) of the villages in the region have population between 200 to 1999
persons. Another 17.12 percent villages are very small in population size (less
than 200 persons). In other words, 90.73 percent villages of Chotanagpur have
less than 2000 persons. The topographical and climatic condition of the region
has given rise to mostly dispersed types of rural settlements (Table V).

Table 13.9: Rural Settlements (2011)

Sl. Districts Number Density of Percentage of Villages by Population Size
No. of Villages Less 200- 500- 1000- 2000- 5000- 10000
inhabited (Per Than 499 999 1999 4999 9999 &
2
villages 100km ) 200 Above
1 Garhwa 844 21 9.95 13.74 24.53 27.73 20.97 2.73 0.35
2 Chatra 1,377 37 24.33 28.47 24.69 15.61 6.32 0.58 0.00
3 Kodarma 577 41 16.12 23.40 26.33 22.87 10.40 0.68 0.20
4 Giridh 2,558 53 17.63 27.99 28.07 17.55 7.51 0.98 0.27
5 Deogarh 2,354 98 26.64 36.96 23.62 10.24 2.46 0.08 0.00
6 Godda 1,688 74 29.27 24.41 22.92 16.23 7.88 0.30 0.00
7 Sahibganj 1,349 65 43.44 20.16 17.57 11.34 5.93 0.81 0.74
8 Pakur 1,141 63 24.89 31.64 24.72 12.27 5.26 1.14 0.09
9 Dhanbad 1,075 63 12.93 22.00 27.00 24.00 9.11 4.93 0.00
10 Bokaro 611 25 5.40 12.11 22.42 29.13 26.02 4.42 0.49
11 Lohardaga 352 24 7.39 21.31 27.56 27.27 15.62 0.85 0.00
12 Purbi 1,609 48 21.09 33.00 27.97 14.24 3.48 0.06 0.06
Singhbhum

83
Block - 4 Select Meso Regions of India
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
13 Palamau 1,711 42 17.30 19.99 27.64 22.79 11.22 0.99 0.06
14 Latehar 749 21 10.55 28.57 30.57 20.57 9.21 0.53 0.00
15 Hazaribagh 1,193 28 13.58 19.95 24.81 23.97 15.59 1.84 0.25
16 Ramgarh 305 26 5.57 11.47 21.64 31.15 25.90 3.93 0.33
17 Dumka 2,688 72 25.52 44.01 22.84 6.10 1.49 0.03 0.00
18 Jamtara 1,082 61 17.37 33.46 31.61 13.12 4.34 0.09 0.00
19 Ranchi 1,296 28 5.09 17.82 31.94 27.85 15.28 1.77 0.23
20 Khunti 754 29 10.88 41.11 30.24 14.46 3.32 0.00 0.00
21 Gumla 942 18 3.82 22.61 37.90 26.22 8.49 0.85) 0.11
22 Simdega 449 12 3.56 21.38 29.40 29.84 14.25 1.56 0.00
23 Paschim 1,642 30 10.23 29.48 34.23 21.25 4.81 0.00 0.00
Singhbhum
24 Sarikela 1,146 43 14.57 30.45 35.08 15.71 03.93 0.26 0.00
Kharsawan
25. Puruliya 2,459 39 10.74 21.47 30.42 24.93 11.59 0.85 0.00
Chotanagpur 31,651 38 5420 8776 8699 5823 / 2604 / 294 / 35/0.11
/17.12 /27.73 /27.48 18.40 8.23 0.93

The predominantly rural Chotanagpur region experienced urbanization only

with the beginning of mining and related industrial activities. There were total
of 70 urban centres including only two cities of Jamshedpur and Ranchi
having population of 3.28 lakh and 1.2 lakh persons respectively in 1961.
During the next fifty years, the number of urban centres increased to 256 with
11 urban settlements having more than one lakh population during the next 50
years. Dhanbad and Ranchi have acquired the status of M5 city with more
than 10,00,000 population. Dhanbad particularly has experienced very high
growth rate of 483 per cent during 2001-2011 and become the largest city of
the region, leaving behind Jamshedpur and Ranchi (Table VI). Together these
eleven cities accommodate nearly 54.56 percent of the total urban population
of the region. Adding the population of the twelve Class II cities (50,000 to
99,999 population) of the region to it, this share touches almost two-third
(64.36 percent) of the total urban population of Chotanagpur. On the other
hand, most of the smaller towns have recorded either low or negative growth
during the last two decades. This is a clear indication of gradual concentration
of the urban population in the larger urban centres of the region (Table 13.10).

Table 13.10: Urban Settlements (2011)

Sl. Districts Number of Number of Urban Centres by Population Size (Class
No. Urban / Sub-Class)
Centres
20012011 1,00,000 & 50,000 20,000- 10,000 5,000 Below
Above (I) - 49,000 - - 5,000
99,999 (III) 19,000 9,999 (VI)
(II) (IV) (V)
1 Garhwa 2 3 1 1 1
2 Chatra 1 2 1 1
3 Kodarma 2 5 1 1 1 2
4 Giridih 5 12 1 (Giridih -M1) 1 10
5 Deogarh 4 2 1(Deogarh - 1
M2)
6 Godda 1 3 1 1 1
7 Sahibganj 2 8 1 1 1 4 1

84
Unit - 13 Meso Regions 3
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8 Pakur 1 4 1 3
9 Dhanbad 47 46 1(Dhanbad - 3 6 23 13
M5)
10 Bokaro 16 27 2 (Chas _ M1 & 1 6 5 7 6
Bokaro Steel
City - M3)
11 Lohardaga 1 1 1
12 Purbi 15 15 2 (Mango _ M2 2 6 4 1
Singhbhum & Jamshedpur -
M4)
13 Palamau 5 9 1 2 5 1
14 Latehar 4 1 1 1 1
15 Hazaribagh 24 17 1(Hazaribagh - 5 9 2
M1)
16 Ramgarh 24 2 4 5 10 3
17 Dumka 4 5 1 2 2
18 Jamtara 3 2 1
19 Ranchi 8 15 1 (Ranchi - M5) 4 4 5 1
20 Khunti 2 1 1
21 Gumla 2 3 1 2
22 Simdega 1 1
23 Paschim 20 11 2 4 4 1
Singhbhum
24 Saraikela 7 1(Adityapur - 1 1 3 1
Kharsawan M1)
25 Puruliya 12 28 1 (Puruliya - 3 4 19 1
M1)
Chotanagpur 172 257 11 12 41 52 109 32
(Number / (100.00) (4.28) (4.67) (15.95) (20.23) (42.42) (12.45)
percent)
Note: Class I UAs/Towns are further sub classified in to seven sub classes namely M1
to M7 depending on the population size of UA/City/Town. These are M7 (5,000,000
and above); M6 (2,000,000 to 4,999,999); M5 (1,000,000-1,999,999); M4 (500,000-
999,999); M3 (300,000-499,999); M2 (200,000-299,999) and M1 (100,000-199,999)
towns.

13.4.3 Economy
Land Use: Chotanagpur has almost equal share of land under forest cover
(28.17 percent) and cultivation (32.50 percent) (Fig. 13.12 and Table 13.13).
However, forest cover displays wide variation across the districts. With more
than 40 percent of area of four districts of Chatra (46.55 percent), Hazaribagh
(46.44 percent), Latehar (44.06 percent) and Garhwa (43.44 percent) are
under forests. Together, these account for more than 30 (31.01 percent) per
cent of the total forest area of Chotanagpur. By adding forest area of Kodarma
(38.99 percent) and Palamau (37.50 percent) districts, this share increases to
almost two-fifth (39.65 percent). This is indicative of the fact that much of the
land under forest cover is confined to north and northwest Chotanagpur. On
the other hand, industrialized districts in east and central Chotanagpur have
low forest cover (Table 13.13).

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Fig. 13.12: Land-use/Land Cover (2011).

Table 13.13: Land Use (2011).

Sl. Districts Total Percentage to Total Area
No Area Fores Non- Barren Perma Miscellan Cultiv Fallo Curr Net
(in Sq. t Agricul & nent eous able w ent Sown
Km.) tural Uncultiv Pastur Tree Waste othe Fallo Area
able e Crops Land r w
+Other than
Grazin Curr
g Land ent
Fallo
w
1 Garhwa 4003.4 43.43 6.10 3.61 0.95 2.57 4.27 4.60 8.18 26.30
3
2 Chatra 3757.9 46.55 6.64 1.12 0.50 0.76 7.73 3.27 4.08 29.35
8
3 Kodarma 1413.3 38.99 9.78 3.78 2.05 1.46 6.28 6.24 6.54 24.88
3
4 Giridh 4848.7 28.01 8.28 6.04 2.91 2.95 6.50 9.09 10.9 25.28
0 4
5 Deogarh 2414.0 6.72 13.57 3.71 5.04 2.23 9.09 6.02 7.23 46.38
3
6 Godda 2268.9 9.11 12.81 2.70 1.89 1.42 7.88 9.09 8.14 46.96
2
7 Sahibganj 2085.0 10.57 17.30 4.74 1.66 1.88 11.12 7.05 8.58 37.10
1
8 Pakur 1801.4 7.48 9.32 6.38 4.50 3.04 7.46 13.4 19.0 29.41
3 0 1
9 Dhanbad 1715.1 9.44 18.79 7.04 2.32 2.58 10.56 11.9 9.59 27.76
0 3
10 Bokaro 2428.3 26.50 16.20 3.40 .0.80 1.00 11.70 7.60 7.00 25.90
7
11 Lohardaga 1476.1 27.64 11.61 2.97 0.59 1.89 10.17 8.99 5.35 30.78
2
12 Purbi 3365.2 18.58 11.46 5.82 1.73 2.42 6.48 9.34 11.8 32.32
Singhbhu 5 0
m
13 Palamau 3754.4 37.50 8.68 4.18 0.65 1.06 6.10 6.86 11.5 23.38

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6 9
14 Latehar 3601.7 44.06 7.33 2.55 0.59 0.69 4.40 4.46 6.19 29.74
9
15 Hazaribag 4213.5 46.44 8.54 2.92 1.09 1.05 3.48 8.42 11.5 16.55
h 8 2
16 Ramgarh 1151.5 29.80 15.75 3.37 1.32 0.75 5.72 7.75 9.46 26.07
0
17 Dumka 3710.1 8.47 12.90 6.24 4.88 2.66 10.67 6.60 7.97 39.61
4
18 Jamtara 1777.1 4.85 12.64 4.09 3.47 1.51 12.14 6.13 7.78 47.40
6
19 Ranchi 4683.5 20.42 10.14 3.98 0.62 1.32 6.51 8.30 9.14 39.57
3
20 Khunti 2577.8 16.49 10.63 3.36 0.59 0.37 6.29 11.3 10.0 40.85
6 7 4
21 Gumla 5300.8 25.44 8.53 5.83 2.34 2.77 7.30 9.11 12.4 26.21
8 7
22 Simdega 3716.4 25.66 10.27 4.97 1.17 2.79 5.06 5.78 8.03 36.27
7
23 Paschim 5389.8 21.57 14.12 5.84 1.18 0.93 7.67 6.04 6.46 36.20
Singhbhu 1
m
24 Saraikela 2649.2 21.41 11.05 7.20 1.87 0.93 6.80 5.48 6.28 38.98
Kharsawa 1
n
25 Puruliya 6076.3 10.86 17.65 0.00 0.00 0.00 14.20 0.00 0.00 57.29
5
Chotanagpur 82845. 23336 8996.38 3323.32 1015.8 1297.63 / 6174.2 5291 6483 2692
48 / .65 / / 10.86 / 4.00 5 / 1.23 1. 57 9/ .94 / .77 / 5.65 /
100.00 28.17 7.45 6.39 7.83 32.50

The percentage of net sown area varies between 16.55 in Hazaribagh and
57.29 percent in Puruliya districts. Majority of the districts however, have
around one-fourth to one-third of their area under cultivation. In this case too,
a clear distinction can be made between the western and eastern districts.
While most of the eastern districts have around two-fifth of area under
cultivation, the western districts have around one-fourth of such area. The
percentage of cultivated land seems to be intimately related to availability of
flat land in different districts. Culturable waste land is relatively high (6.92
percent) in the region. Its proportion is much above this average in Puruliya
(14.20 percent), Sahibganj (11.12 percent), Dhanbad (10.56 percent), Bokaro
(11.70 percent), Lohardaga (10.17 percent), Dumka (10.67percent) and
Jamtara (12.14 percent) districts. Grazing land and fallow land also account
for significant proportions of area in the region due to limited irrigation facility,
sallow soil cover and vagaries of monsoon. Land not available for cultivation is
between 6 to 19 percent in the districts (Table VII).

Agriculture: Rice monoculture under rain fed agriculture is common to most

parts excepting the eastern districts, where low lands and valley bottoms
provide flat lands for cultivation. Of the three agricultural seasons of Kharif,
Bhadoi and Rabi, the former is most prominent and devoted mostly to the
cultivation of rice. The uplands are dedicated to the cultivation of wheat, oil
seeds, pulses and maize etcetera. The level of technology adoption is poor
leading to low output in general. Climatic conditions of the region favour
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cultivation of a wide range of horticultural crops such as fruits (aonla, banana,

citrus, guava, lichi and mango), vegetables, flowers and plantation crops,
although their productivity is low. Despite having vast inland fishery resources
in the form of large number of tanks (15496 Government and 85849 Private),
reservoirs (258), check dams and aahars (258) and 1,800 kilometres of river,
the annual per capita fish availability is only 2.44 kilogram as compared to
National average of 6.31 kilogram due to poor productivity. The main reason
for this poor performance is because most of the tanks are very old and
unsuitable for fish culture due to heavy siltation and weed infestation.
Livestock raising and poultry farming are also practiced as subsidiary to
agriculture. However, the cattle raised are of poor quality as they depend on
natural pastures. Average milk productivity of cow is 1.59 kilogram per day
against the National average of 3.0 kilogram per day. Similarly, the region
compares very poorly with annual per capita availability of milk, meat and
eggs which is 47.45 kilogram, 1.42 kilogram and 13 eggs respectively against
the National averages of 96.0 kilogram, 3.32 kilogram and 51 eggs (ICAR,
Available online).

Industrial Economy: The region is well endowed with a rich mineral and
forest resource base necessary for industrial development. Besides, the
region enjoys location-specific advantage as it is close to the vast market and
ports of eastern India. These have helped the establishment of several major
mining and mineral extraction industries in the region. There are 26 mega
industries, 106 large and medium industries and 18,109 micro and small
industries in the region. Organizations like Industrial Area Development
Authorities, Ranchi Industrial Area Development Authority (RIADA), Adityapur
Industrial Area Development Authority (AIADA) and Bokaro Industrial Area
Development Authority (BIADA), State Khadi Board, Jharkhand Industrial
Infrastructure Development Corporation (JIIDCO) and JHARCRAFT are
making significant contribution in industrialization of Chotanagpur. But, desired
progress in areas like IT, Biotechnology, Special Economic Zone (SEZ), Food
Processing, Down Stream Processing etcetera is yet to be achieved.
However, industrial activities in the region are highly localized to specific
industrial belts like Jamshedpur-Saraikela-Chaibassa, Ramgarh-Patratu-
Hazaribagh, Latehar-Chandwa, Ranchi-Lohardaga, Bokaro-Chandankiyari-
Dhanbad-Giridih etcetera ([Link]).

SAQ 5
(i) What obstacles are faced in developing the agricultural sector of
Chotanagpur?
(ii) What steps can enhance the development of Chotanagpur?

13.4.4 Transport and Communication

As pointed out earlier, Chotanagpur remained loosely connected with the
neighbouring plains until the British intervention for the exploitation of its
mineral and forest resources. The main line of eastern railway was laid in
1871, followed by the south-eastern main line and Raniganj-Jharia extension
in 1876-1900. The process continued with the building of the Grand Chord line
connecting Dhanbad with Gaya in 1906 and the Barkakana loop passing
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through coalfields of Damodar valley in 1929. During the first quarter of 20th
Century, several extensions have been made and today most of the major
urban centres like Dhanbad, Deogarh, Garwah, Ranchi, Jamshedpur,
Lohardaga, Bokaro, Sahibganj and Adra are well connected with other cities
and ports of the country by railways. Most of the lines have been converted
into broad gauge, double track and electrified routes. Railways in Chotanagpur
carry heavy traffic consisting of mineral and manufactured goods besides
passengers. The Grand Chord line serves as the primary artery for the flow of
coal traffic in the country while the mainline of the south-eastern railway
serves three steel plants at Jamshedpur, Rourkela and Bhilai. Dhanbad is the
first station in the country to have an AC double-decker express running in
between Dhanbad and Howrah.

Well-developed road network criss-cross the region connecting all district

headquarters. Twelve National Highways of 1,844 kilometres and several
State Highways of 6,880 kilometres length serve their primary purpose of
linking different urban centres of the region. Most of the National Highways
and other roads have been widened to 6 or 8 lanes. The most important roads
of the region include, the Grand Trunk Road running diagonally through
Hazaribagh Plateau, the Garhwa-Daltonganj-Ranchi-Muri Road passing
through Ranchi plateau, the Aurangabad-Daltonganj Road, the Dumka-
Sahibganj road and the Nawada-Barhi-Ramgarh-Ranchi Road. Roads of
Chotanagpur are interlinked by several smaller roads which facilitate inter-
regional freight and passenger traffic. Air traffic to the region uses the Birsa
Munda Airport (Ranchi) which is only fully operational airport of the region.

SAQ 6
(i) Which parts of Chotanagpur region have the maximum forest cover?
(ii) Why Chotanagpur has a relatively higher proportion of grazing land and
fallow land?
(iii) Which conditions have favoured Chotanagpur to emerge as one of the
most important industrial regions of India?

13.5 CHOTANAGPUR PLATEAU: THE REGIONS

Notwithstanding its distinctively multi-level plateau topography as compared to
the adjoining Baghelkhand, Garhjat Hills of Odisha, Bihar Plains or Bengal
Plains, the Chotanagpur region displays remarkable internal heterogeneity in
terms of both physical and human characteristics. Based on differences in
relief, the Chotanagpur North and Chotanagpur South emerge out as two first
order regions. While the former has relatively less rugged topography with rich
reserves of coal and mica, the latter has a bold multi cyclic relief, with distinct
erosion surfaces differentiated by series of scarps. The two are demarcated
from each other by the bold scarps of the Pats and the Ranchi Plateau. These
two first order regions can further be sub-divided into second order and third
order regions based on nature of economy and relief.

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1. Chotanagpur North
Areas north of the Pat lands and Ranchi Plateau overlooking Damodar and
North Koel valleys form the Chotanagpur North region. The relatively subdued
relief of the Plateau with isolated hills and rugged plateau fringes, descends in
all directions from the upper Hazaribagh Plateau occupying the central
position. It's second order regions are; (a) Palamau Uplands, (b) Hazaribagh
Plateau, (c) Damodar Valley and (d) Santhal Pargana Uplands.

(a) Palamau Uplands: To the west of Hazaribagh Plateau, these uplands

form a highly dissected region with varied relief, poor soils, scrub forests and
poor agriculture. It has three sub-regions.

(i) Western Palamau Upland: This is a tabular land sloping towards Son
River in the north. The Upland is a poorly connected region with fewer roads
and railways. It is sparsely populated and economy is mostly based on
subsistence agriculture. Garhwa is the main urban centre of the region.
(ii) North Koel Valley: This is the basin of North Koel River, a tributary of Son
flowing in the centre of Palamau Uplands. While the southern part of the
Valley is broad, the northern part is interspersed with small hills. The main
town of Daltonganj and Daltonganj coal fields are located in the southern part.
The Valley is relatively densely populated. Rice, sugarcane and groundnut are
cultivated under rain fed agriculture in its moist fertile sandy-loam soil.
(iii) Eastern Palamau Upland: This region is marked with numerous
interlocked spurs projecting westward from Hazaribagh Plateau. These spurs
are dissected by Auranga, Amanat and Burha Rivers, which join North Koel
from the east. Lac collection from deciduous forests and cultivation of rice in
the valleys are the main occupation of the population.

(b) Hazaribagh Plateau: It covers almost the entire Hazaribagh district and
parts of the adjoining districts of Chatra, Kodarma, Giridh and Bokaro, and
Gaya and Monghyr districts of Bihar. The Plateau can be further sub-divided
into four third order regions.

(i) Upper Hazaribagh Plateau: With an average elevation of 600 metres, it is

marked by scarps on all sides. The scarps on the southern portion of the
Plateau overlooking Damodar valley are dissected by numerous tributaries of
Damodar River. Valleys of these streams are densely forested and permit
cultivation mainly of rice in tiny patches during rainy season excepting on the
flat areas around Hazaribagh town.
(ii) Lower Hazaribagh Plateau: It is the northern part of Hazaribagh Plateau
with an average elevation of 300 metres. The eastern portion is drained by
Barakar River and is mostly broken. Relict hills including the Parasnath rising
to 4,480 feet, are common. Rice is the main crop cultivated with marua (a type
of basil), maize and some mixed crops. Extent of uncultivable area is high due
to gully erosion. Most activities including cultivation, location of settlements
and roads use the interfluves.
(iii) Chatra Plateau: To the west of Lower Hazaribagh Plateau is Chatra
Plateau. The two rivers of Lilajan and Amanat along with their numerous
tributaries drain the region. Dense forests cover the highly undulating and
dissected topography of the Plateau. Cultivable area is relatively less. Rice,

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Unit - 13 Meso Regions 3
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maize, pulses and oil seeds are generally grown in the tiny and scattered
patches. Chatra is the main town of the region.
(iv) Northern Dissected Fringe: The topography of the region is highly
rugged. Steep forested scarps, scrub forested gravel screes, deep ravines and
sandy beds are characteristic features of the region. This is the region where
mica is mined in valley bottoms.

(c) The Damodar Valley: The region is marked with a variety of features such
as flat valleys, isolated hills, scarp fringes and miniature plateaus. Areas with
resistant upper Gondwana rocks have much higher elevation than the
surroundings reaching more than 600 metres, e.g. Panchet Hill (630 metre)
and Mahudi Hill (600 metre). Soil types also vary from clay and heavy loam in
lowlands to coarser and lighter sandy soils on the uplands. As the valley
contains best coalfields in the country, mining happens to be the most
prominent economic activity. Parts of the Valley are devoted to cultivation of
rice. The region has two third-order regions.

(i) Dhanbad Region: This is the lower valley of the region and has a large
number of coal mines, various mineral based industries, the largest number of
urban centres including Dhanbad, Jharia and Sindri; and has the highest
density of population.
(ii) Ramgarh-Patratu Region: This is upper portion of the Valley in the west,
flanked by forests and rugged scarps or hill slopes. Important economic
activities include coal mining, glass and cement manufacturing, and rice
cultivation in the valley floors. Ramgarh is the main town in this region and
Patratu is emerging as an industrial nucleus.

(d) Santhal Pargana Uplands - This is the north eastern part of Chotanagpur
covering Rajmahal Highlands and Rajmahal Hills. Several small streams flow
out of the hills in both east and west directions with wide valleys, particularly in
the east, e.g., Burhait valley. While lateritic soils cover the upper surface,
humus-rich clayey soils cover the valleys. Rice, maize, gram and pulses are
cultivated here, at places with the help of tank irrigation. Hills are covered with
dense forest with Sal as predominant species. The Uplands have been the
traditional homeland of Santhal tribe who apart from cultivation, engage in
wood cutting, cattle rearing, poultry keeping and vegetable growing. The region
is relatively less urbanized. Dumka, Deoghar, Godda, Pakur and Sahibganj are
the main towns. The region can be sub-divided into three sub-regions.

(i) Santhal Pargana Highland: This sub-region is characterized by undulating

terrain and subsistence agriculture. Western part is relatively more level,
where culturally important Deogarh town is located.
(ii) Rajmahal Hill: It is the least populated part due to its rocky surface, steep
slopes and poor lateritc soil.
(iii) Marginal Plains: This is the most fertile and populated sub-region of the
Uplands. Fertility permits rice cultivation and is enriched by numerous tributary
streams flowing down hills in the west.

2. Chotanagpur South
The southern part of Chotanagpur Plateau is made up of three distinct
erosional surfaces, which gradually descend from west to east. It's second
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order regions are; (a) Pat Land Region, (b) Ranchi Plateau, and (c) South
Eastern Chotanagpur.

(a) Pat Land Region: This is an extension of Deccan Trap and has an
average elevation of 900 metres. As the region receives highest amount of
rainfall in Chotanagpur, major parts are covered with luxuriant forest cover of
bamboo and Sal trees. It is relatively less accessible and the population is
mostly confined to broad rice growing valleys. Hill resort of Netarhat (1071
metre), popularly known as "Queen of Chotanagpur" is located in this region. It
has two sub-regions.

(i) Ranchi Pat Land: This part of Pat land is spread over western Ranchi
district, which is more urbanized, populated and accessible. Economy of the
region is based on Bauxite mining near Lohardaga, and rice cultivation is
found in valleys.
(ii) Palamau Pat Land: Northwest of Ranchi Pat Land, this region is mostly
covered with thick forest, and is less accessible and almost uninhabited.

(b) Ranchi Plateau: This plateau incorporating the eastern Ranchi district, is
surrounded by steep scarps on all sides. The region is drained by
Subarnarekha and South Koel Rivers flowing towards east and south
respectively. Subsistence agriculture is practiced in the river valleys which
sustains relatively larger population. The Plateau can be divided into three
sub-regions.

(i) Northern Ranchi Plateau: Ranchi city is situated in this sub-region.

Several industries have come up in this region giving it a character of an
industrial nucleus. Villages are located on uplands (taur), mostly engaged in
rice, ragi, fruit and vegetable cultivation on terraced fields of the lowlands
(dons). The sub-region is well connected with air, rail and, road networks.
(ii) Southern Ranchi Plateau: This plateau is distinguished for its dissected
and rugged hill terrain, turbulent streams, steep hill-sides, cliffs and narrow
valleys. This is a thinly populated region with scattered settlements. A few
urban settlements namely Khunti, Gumla and Simdega have come up in the
periphery of this densely forested plateau.
(iii) Southern Hilly Region: Southern part of Ranchi Plateau is an area of
tangled hills and deep valleys covered with dense forest. The region is less
accessible and has only a few settlements.

(c) South Eastern Chotanagpur: This south-eastern tip of Chotanagpur

covering Purbi Singhbhum, parts of Saraikela Kharsawan, Paschimi
Singhbhum districts of Jharkhand and Purulia district of West Bengal, has
varied relief and diverse economy. The region has five sub-regions.

(i) Chaibasa Plain: This is the valley of Kharkai River, a tributary of

Subarnarekha River, joining it from the south-west. With a slope from south to
north along Kharkai River and south-west to north-west along Garra Valley,
the Plain has mainly agricultural economy with rice as the leading crop. Iron
ore is mined at Gua and Noamundi. Chaibasa is the main town in the region.
(ii) Subernarekha Valley: Originating near Ranchi, the valley extends from
north-west to south-east. While the upper reaches are predominated by rice

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cultivation between numerous residual hills, the lower reaches have industries
where Jamshedpur and Manbhander towns are located. The valley has an
average width of 10-16 kilometres and is also known as the mica-schist plain.
(iii) Dhanjori Higlands: In between Chaibasa Plains and Subarnarekha
Valley lie Dhanjori Highlands. Jaduguda uranium mines are located in this
region.
(iv) Dalma Range: This volcanic range of Archaean period is situated to the
north of Subarnarekha Valley. This densely forested tract has Dalma Wildlife
Sanctuary and is almost uninhabited.
(v) Purulia Upland: This is the easternmost portion of Chotanagpur,
administratively it lies in West Bengal. Sloping towards the east it finally
merges with West Bengal Plains. It includes Baghmundi Plateau, which is an
extension of Ranchi Plateau. Rice dominated agriculture is the main economy
of the region. Purulia is the main town.

SAQ 7
(i) On what bases Chotanagpur region can be regionalized into regions of
different order?
(ii) Name the regions of Chotanagpur.

13.6 PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS

13.6.1 Problems
Chotanagpur is called the 'Ruhr of India' or 'the mineral heartland of India as it
possesses more than 40 percent of the mineral resources of the country.
Nevertheless, Chotanagpur (Jharkhand - 42.16 percent) is the second poorest
region after Bihar (Bihar - 51.91 percent) Plains (Niti Aayog, 2021). According
to NFHS - 5 (2019-21) Chotanagpur (Jharkhand) is the second poorest region
with 28.81 percent multi-dimensionally poor population after Bihar (38.76
percent). Large-scale exploitation of natural resources of the region through
development of mines, industries and commercial exploitation of forests, has
not benefitted the indigenous communities. Bereft of alternative economic
opportunities, the rural population depend mostly on agriculture. However,
lack of good quality agricultural land excepting in the valleys and depressions,
thwart crop production resulting in rural poverty. Double cropping is limited
because of almost complete dependence on monsoon rains and limited
irrigation facilities.

13.6.2 Prospects
However, scientifically planned measures of the rich resources of the region
can boost the economy in the desired manner. Scientifically establishing
viable soils and vegetation at mining sites with degraded soils, can help
reclamation of lost fertility of soils. Similarly, treatment of water and emissions
can be planned. Poverty reduction measures by generating employment
opportunities and skill development would be of immense help.
Decentralization of industries can be planned to reduce regional imbalances.

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Chotanagpur has tremendous tourism prospects, which can be developed to

boost tourism industry in the region.

However, of late, the government is making concerted efforts to address the

problem of imbalance between food and plantation crops by not only
strengthening traditional crops but also crops like rubber. It aspires to achieve
self-sufficiency in the production of rubber and other agricultural crops
(Tharian et. al., 1988). Government initiatives are encouraging people to go for
fishing. Tourism is being encouraged, and jobs are being created in the
tourism industry as well. It is expected that these initiatives would help in
creating employment opportunities within the region and distract people to
migrate out in search of employment.

13.7 MALABAR COAST: HISTORICAL

BACKGROUND
As is evidenced from the rock engravings of Edakkal Caves in Wayanad, the
historical antecedents of Malabar Coast dates back to Neolithic period.
According to the Puranas, the region is said to have been reclaimed from the
sea by the Brahmin sage Parashuram. The region finds its mention as 'Garden
of Spices' or 'Spice Garden of India' in different ancient West Asian writings
including that of Sumerians, Greek historian Herodotus, geographer Ptolemy
of Roman Empire and writer Pliny the Elder. Malabar Coast had trading
relations with Egypt, Greece, Rome, China, Philippines, Java, and Sumatra
prior to the British era. Gold, spices, sandalwood, and peacock feathers were
major trade items.

Mention of Malabar Coast is also seen in Asokan inscriptions (Singh, 1993),

which documents the rule of the Cheras over the region during Asokan period.
The Chera rule continued till 12th Century with intermittent breaks. The Cheras
are credited for creating trade linkages with all major Mediterranean and Red
Sea ports as well as those of the Far East. Furthermore, this region was
divided into three parts, each ruled by three different dynasties. The Kolathiri
dominated the northern section of Malabar, the Zamorins (Samoothiri in
Malayalam) ruled Calicut/Kozhikode, and Valluvanand was ruled by the
Valluvakonathiri.

The Portuguese navigator, Vasco da Gama arrived in Calicut on 20th May,

1498. This event opened the doors to India via sea route not only for the
Portuguese but also for other European colonisers including the British (Singh,
2014). With the support of the Arabs, the Zamorins of Kozhikode kept the
Portuguese invaders at bay. From mid-18th Century till the formation of
Independent India, major parts of the region remained under the control of the
Travancore Royal family, Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan, and subsequently
the British. Till Independence, Malabar Coast region remained under the
British Madras Presidency and subsequently till 1956 under Independent
Indian Madras state. After bifurcation of Madras state in 1956, major parts of
the region remained within the administrative boundary of the newly formed
Kerala state.

During the 16th and 17th Centuries, Malabar Coast emerged as a major trading
region especially for the Portuguese, the Dutch and the British, and remained
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Unit - 13 Meso Regions 3
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major supplier of silk, pepper and other spices. The region continues to retain
its economic importance for the modern-day Kerala ([Link]).
External contacts for economic reasons have also influenced the culture of the
region to a great extent.

13.8 MALABAR COAST: THE PHYSICAL

SETTING
Malabar Coast is a recently developed 550 kilometres long and 20 to 100
kilometres wide coastline. It is very narrow in the north and south, but broad in
the middle. The maximum width is marked near the Palakkad or Palghat gap.
It has experienced upliftment for at least two times. Lateritic mud banks have
formed near the river mouths as a result of this process. Alluvial coastland,
lateritic plateau and gneissic highlands (Spate, 1972) are also found here.
Eastern section of the region is marked with steep highlands, while the
western part descends to a small coastal plain. Along the coastal areas, a
typical form of sand dunes (locally known as the Teris) is found. Metamorphic
and igneous rocks cover most parts of the highlands. The coastal plains
contain Miocene to recent sedimentary formations, such as soft sandstone
and clay shale with marl or limestone, as well as sand and peat containing
gravels. Aquifers can be found 400 feet beneath the surface of the sand and
gravel beds.

13.8.1 Geology
The Archeans, which are the earliest rocks, Tertiary rocks (upper Miocene to
Pliocene), and the recent (Quaternary) deposits are the three main geological
formations in this region. The north-south alignments can be found in majority
of the rocks. The rocks can be split into two groups: Crystalline rocks and
Precambrian rocks.

Major formations of the Crystalline rocks are:

(i) Dharwar Formation: These are prevalent in Malabar region and are
represented by garnetiferous-ferruginous quartzite, mica, talc, schist,
and other minerals. They may be found exposed in Wayanad and
Gudalur.
(ii) Peninsular Gneiss: These are found in South and South-East
Wayanad and have gold-bearing veins; in Thiruvananthapuram, the
gneiss comprises quartz.
(iii) Closepet granite: Archaean intrusions have been discovered in the
Malabar region. Biotite granite intrusions have been discovered in the
Kalpetta hills and Sulthan Bathery.

Major formations of Precambrian System are:

(i) Basic Dykes: These are fractured rocks having composition similar to
dolerite and are primarily found in South Malabar region.
(ii) Residual Laterites: These are lateritised rocks found in Kozhikode,
west of crystalline rocks on Malabar's eastern limit. Laterite is less

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compact and retains the structure of its parent rock. The Warkalli beds
from Pliocene period are linked to these.
(iii) Recent Deposits: These are made up of sand and silt. These deposits
are typically found in backwater tracts and all along the Malabar
seashore. This area is important because it contains precious mineral
sands.

13.8.2 Physiography/Relief
Alluvial shore land and lateritic plateau characterise Malabar region. The
Malabar region's eastern border is marked by the Western Ghats, with a break
at Palakkad Gap. Malabar region's western side is largely sandy. Elevation of
Western Ghats is 1,500 metres above mean sea level. The Ghats are on the
eastern side of Kozhikode taluk, and after passing through the Nilambur
valley, they continue south up to Palakkad Gap in Palghat taluk. Anaimudi with
an altitude of 2,694 metres (8842 feet) is the highest peak of the region.
Others are Mukurthi (2,554 metre) summit in Nilambur region near Nilgiri hills,
Anginda peak (2,383 metre) in Malappuram-Palakkad-Nilgiris district border,
Vavul Mala (2,339 metre) at a trijunction of Malappuram's Nilambur taluk,
Waynad, and Kozhikode's Thamarassery taluk. Sand dunes from the
Pleistocene to recent periods have formed lagoons and backwaters known as
Kayals in the region (Singh, 1993).

SAQ 8
a) The Malabar Coast region has been addressed by which name in the
ancient West Asian writings?
b) When did Vasco da Gama arrive on the Malabar Coast and at which port?
c) Briefly mention the physical setting of Malabar Coast region.
d) Name the three main geological formations in Malabar Coast region.

13.8.3 Drainage and Water Resources

The Malabar coast is home to a vast number of streams. These are usually
very short in length. The streams are only 60 kilometres long on an average.
Periyar, with a length of 230 kilometres, is the region's longest river (Singh,
1993). The Valapattnam River, which drains into the Arabian Sea near
Kannur, is one of the important rivers in north Malabar region. Kabini River in
Wayanad flows eastward, while the Bhavani River flows towards the
Walluvanad taluk. Both rivers are tributaries of Kaveri River. The major rivers
of the south Malabar region are Bharathapuzha (locally known as Nila),
Chaliyar and Kadalundippuzha. These rivers of southern Malabar have
tremendous influence on its culture ([Link]). The Malabar
coast is primarily made up of lakes and backwaters. The backwaters are also
connected through man-made canals.

13.8.4 Climate
Climate in Malabar is hot and humid throughout the year. It receives rain from
both the south-west and north-east monsoons. Summers in this area are hot
to mild, with a long rainy season and a short winter season. The average
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Unit - 13 Meso Regions 3
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annual rainfall in this area is more than 200 centimetres. Summer
temperatures range from 29°C to 39°C. Persistent rain keeps the temperature
low for rest of the year. Temperatures during winter months range between
14°C to 25°C (Singh, 2014). Lighter sea wind blows between March and May.
"Mango Showers" or pre-monsoonal showers (also known as 'April rains' or
'Summer Showers') occur in April and May and are noteworthy in this region.

13.8.5 Vegatation
The region has a tropical monsoon rain forest as the rainfall varies from 165-
330 centimetres in the coastal parts and more than 500 centimetres in the
highlands. Tropical evergreen forests or rain forests are seen along the hill
ranges of the region spread over the districts of Wayanad, Malappuram
(Chaliyar valley at Nilambur) and Palakkad (Attappadi Valley). Together it
constitutes some parts of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Palms can be seen all
over the Malabar coast. Scrubs, bushes and bamboo can also be observed in
spite of the heavy rainfall.

13.8.6 Soils
Red loams, lateritic soil and alluvium-derived soil, particularly around the coast
are characteristic soils of Malabar region. Laterite soils are predominantly
gravelly and sandy with low amount of clay. These soils are deep, clayey and
acidic to a moderate degree. Iron and aluminium are abundant in them, while
lime is scarce. These soils are highly fertile. Soil along the backwaters is
saline, low in organic matter and deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus, potash and
calcium, resulting in low fertility. Kuttanad is known for its peaty or kari soils.
This soil has a lot of organic matter, and is dark, heavy, and acidic. Patches of
forest soil can be seen in Palghat, Kozhikode and Kannaur districts.

13.8.7 Physical Resource Base

Mineral sands are abundant in the area. With 4,681 blooming species
belonging to 1,415 taxa and 188 families, Malabar has a wide range of floristic
richness (Nayar, et. al. 2006). This region has also been recognised for the
construction of a world-class management system of surplus water and
backwaters.

SAQ 9
What types of vegetation are found in Malabar Coast?

13.9 MALABAR COAST: THE CULTURAL

SETTING
13.9.1 Population
The population of the Malabar Coast has increased from 39,366,867 persons
in the 2001 to 38,216,999 persons in 2011. The region is relatively highly
populated with 3.15 percent of country's population. Population is unevenly
distributed across districts, with Malappuram in the lead with 10.76 percent of
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population of the region. It is followed by Thiruvananthapuram district with

8.64 percent, Ernakulam with 8.59 percent, Thrissur with 8.17 percent and
Kozhikode with 8.08 percent of the region's population. A few more central
and southern districts account for more than 6 percent of the region's total
population. Population thins out on the periphery of this core region. Density of
population is also two to three times higher than the regional average of 536
persons per square kilometres in the former set of districts with
Thiruvananthapuram (1508 persons per square kilometres) and Alappuzha
(1504 persons per square kilometres) in the lead. Density of population is
much lower than the regional average in the districts of Nilgiris (26 persons
per square kilometres), Kodagu (112 persons per square kilometres), Mysore
(168 persons per square kilometres), Idukki (255 persons per square
kilometres), Wayanad (384 persons per square kilometres), and
Pathanamthitta (452 persons per square kilometres). The western coastal
areas are densely populated, whilst the eastern highlands are sparsely
populated, with much lower population density.

Table 13.5: District-Wise Population Characteristics (2011)

Sl. District / Region Total Percent of DGR Pop. Sex Ratio Literacy Rate
No Population Urban (2001- Density Total Child Total Male Female
Population 11) (Per
2
Km )
1. Mysore 2,63,706 9.76 7.23 168 986 994 64.11 71.25 56.86
2. Dakshina Kannada 18,23,060 53.83 10.41 930 1019 945 89.23 93.60 84.97
3. Kodagu 3,48,014 16.93 1.57 112 1015 975 83.26 87.06 79.53
4. Malappuram 41,12,920 44.18 13.40 1159 1098 965 93.57 95.76 91.62
5. Thiruvananthapuram 33,01,427 53.66 2.10 1508 1087 964 93.02 95.06 91.17
6. Ernakulam 32,82,388 68.07 5.69 1072 1027 961 95.89 97.36 94.46
7. Thrissur 31,21,200 67.17 4.94 1031 1108 950 95.08 96.78 93.56
8. Kozhikode 30,86,293 67.15 7.20 1316 1098 969 95.08 97.42 92.99
9. Palakkad 28,09,934 24.09 7.35 627 1067 967 89.31 93.10 85.79
10. Kollam 26,35,375 45.05 1.90 1061 1113 973 94.09 96.10 92.30
11. Kannur 25,23,003 65.04 4.73 852 1136 971 95.10 97.19 93.29
12. Alappuzha 21,27,789 53.96 0.88 1504 1100 951 95.72 97.40 94.20
13. Kottayam 19,74,551 28.63 1.00 895 1039 964 97.21 97.97 96.48
14. Kasaragod 13,07,375 38.94 8.60 657 1080 961 90.09 94.05 86.49
15. Pathanamthitta 11,97,412 10.99 - 3.00 452 1132 967 96.55 97.36 95.83
16. Idukki 11,08,974 4.69 - 1.80 255 1006 964 91.99 94.56 89.45
17. Wayanad 8,17,420 3.86 4.71 384 1035 965 89.03 92.51 85.70
18. The Nilgiris 6,26,710 62.72 - 3.37 26 1038 990 85.58 91.74 79.67
19. Kanyakumari 17,49,448 83.99 11.76 1087 1019 965 91.85 93.69 90.06
Malabar Coast 38,216,999 18,863,333 / 5.29 536 1076 / 964 / 90.29 / 92.57 / 88.20 /
49.36 18,409,391 2,009,277 30,942,571 15180879 15761692
m/ m/ Gap - 4.37
19,807,608 f 1,936,763 f
(Source: Census of India, 2011)

The decadal population growth rate (DGR) in the districts of Malabar Coast
was exorbitantly high in the initial post-Independence decades. However, over
the decades, it has reduced remarkably. Overall population growth rate of the
region was 5.29 percent during 2001-2011 which is much below the National
growth rate of 17.64 percent. Excepting for the districts of Malappuaram
(13.40 percent), Kanyakumari (11.76 percent), and Dakshina Kannada (10.41
percent), all districts registered population growth rate lower than 10 per cent.
Some districts experienced decline like Nilgiris (-3.37 percent), Pathanamthitta
(-3.00 percent), and Idukki (-1.80 percent). Lower rates of population growth,
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Unit - 13 Meso Regions 3
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
especially the negative rates may be ascribed to large-scale male selective
emigration from the region.

With sex-ratio of 1076 females per 1000 males, Malabar Coast displays
predominance of females in its population (Table 13.5). Total sex ratio in the
region with 1046 female per 1000 males and 1076 females per 1000 males
was much higher than the corresponding National figures of 933 and 943
females per 1000 males in 2001 and 2011 respectively. In fact, excepting for
Mysore (986), all districts of Malabar Coast have registered sex ratio in favour
of females. Even some districts namely, Kannur (1136), Pathanamthitta
(1132), Kollam (1113), Thrissur (1108), and Alappuzha (1100) have 1100 or
more females per 1000 males. Performance of the region with respect to child
(0-6 years) sex ratio of 961 and 964 is better than the Nation as whole 941
and 948 females per 1000 males in 2001 and 2011 respectively. However, it
compares poorly with the region's overall sex ratios for the corresponding
years. This is indicative of the fact that overall sex ratio would reduce in future.

Performance of Malabar coast in terms of literacy has been very satisfactory.

It is one of the most literate regions of the country with 90.29 percent literate
adult population, more than 15-point percentage higher than the National
average of 74.04 percent. Excepting for the district of Mysore (64.11 percent),
percentage of literates in all the remaining districts of the region remains much
higher than the regional average, with Kottayam (97.21 percent) at the top. It
is also heartening that the gap between male (92.57percent) and female
(88.20 percent) literacy is only 4.37, compared to 16.68-point percentage at
the National level (82.14 percent and 65.46 percent). Progress of literacy in
the region from 2001 to 2011 has also been impressive. The region had
registered 72.72 per cent total, 78.89 percent male, and 66.91 percent female
literates in 2001.

The region is also home to a number of tribes, although proportionately they

account for only 1.82 percent of the region's total population (Table 13.6).
Wayanad district (18.50 percent) of Kerala, and Mysore (23.61 percent) and
Kodagu (13.65 percent) of Karnataka have much higher proportion of tribal
population. The tribal share is between 5 to 10 percent in the districts of
Kannur (8.50 percent) and Idukki (5.03 percent). The remaining districts of the
region have negligible proportion of tribes in their total population. Majority of
these people live in forested and hilly areas. Previously, they worked as food
gatherers and firewood collectors, but now they work as farmers. The
Cholanaickans are the oldest tribe found only in Malappuram area.

Table 13.6: Share of Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribe (ST)
Population (2011)
District (Tahsil)/Region Percentage to Total Population
Scheduled Caste Schedule Tribe
1. Mysore 27.78 23.61
2. Dakshina Kannada 6.74 3.65
3. Kodagu 11.22 13.65
4. Malappuram 7.50 0.60
5. Thiruvananthapuram 11.30 0.80
6. Ernakulam 8.18 0.50
7. Thrissur 10.39 0.30

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Block - 4 Select Meso Regions of India
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. Kozhikode 6.50 1.50
9. Palakkad 14.37 1.70
10. Kollam 12.50 0.40
11. Kannur 2.70 8.50
12. Alappuzha 9.46 0.31
13. Kottayam 7.79 1.11
14. Kasaragod 4.08 3.74
15. Pathanamthitta 13.70 0.70
16. Idukki 13.12 5.03
17. Wayanad 4.00 18.50
18. The Nilgiris 32.88 4.23
19. Kanyakumari 3.48 0.39
Malabar Coast 9.07/3,468,069 1.82/6,94,630
(Source: Census of India, 2011)

Scheduled Caste (SC) population have relatively higher proportion at 9.07

percent of the region's total population. Their share widely varies across the
districts with the highest being in Nilgiris (32.88 percent) and Mysore districts
(27.78 percent). The other districts with higher proportion of SC population
than the regional average are Palakkad (14.37 percent), Pathanamthitta
(13.70 percent), Idukki (13.12 percent), Kollam (12.50 percent),
Thiruvananthapuram (11.30 percent), Kodagu (11.22 percent), and Thrissur
(10.39 percent). Remaining districts have less than 10 percent SC population,
with Kannur (2.70 percent) being at the bottom.

Table 13.7: Urbanization

Sl. District (Tahsil) / Urban Percent to Percent to DGR
No. Region Population Region’s District’s Total
2011 Total Urban Population
Population 2001 2011 2001-2011
1. Mysore 25,738 0.14 4.90 9.76 113.68
2. Dakshina Kannada 981299 5.20 43.72 53.83 35.91
3. Kodagu 58933 0.31 16.04 16.93 7.20
4. Malappuram 18,17,211 9.63 9.82 44.18 410.21
5. Thiruvananthapuram 17,71,596 9.39 33.75 53.66 62.28
6. Ernakulam 2,234,363 11.85 47.56 68.07 51.27
7. Thrissur 20,96,406 11.11 28.22 67.17 149.74
8. Kozhikode 20,72,572 10.99 38.25 67.15 88.21
9. Palakkad 6,76,810 3.59 13.62 24.09 89.81
10. Kollam 11,87,158 6.29 18.02 45.05 154.77
11. Kannur 16, 40,986 8.70 50.35 65.00 35.29
12. Alappuzha 11,48,146 6.09 29.46 53.96 84.76
13. Kottayam 5,65,393 3.00 15.35 28.63 88.59
14. Kasaragod 5,09,047 2.70 19.41 38.94 117.82
15. Pathanamthitta 1,31,613 0.70 10.00 10.99 6.31
16. Idukki 52,045 0.28 5.10 4.69 - 9.63
17. Wayanad 31,580 0.17 3.79 3.86 6.65
18. The Nilgiris 393065 2.08 63.33 62.72 - 4.30
19. Kanyakumari 1469372 7.79 66.39 84.00 41.39
Malabar Coast 18,863,333 100.00 28.95 49.36 79.55
(Source: Census of India, 2001 & 2011)

Overall rural-urban share is almost balanced with 49.36 percent urban

population. However, urbanization is highly lopsided in the region (Table 13.7).

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Unit - 13 Meso Regions 3
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The three highly urbanized districts of Ernakulam (68.07 percent), Thrissur
(67.17 percent), and Kozhikode (67.15 percent) accommodate around one-
third (32.53 percent) of the total urban population of the region. Addition of the
two adjoining districts of Kannur (65 percent) and Malappuram (44.18
percent), and the southern districts of Thiruvananthapuram (53.66 percent)
and Kanyakumari (84 percent) to this list, increases this share to 67.75
percent. In other words, two-third of the urban population of the region is
concentrated in seven out of its 19 districts. It also implies that all the coastal
districts, excepting for Kodagu (16.93 percent), have very high share of urban
population with Kanyakumari in the lead, while the inland western hilly districts
such as Kottayam (28.63 percent), Palakkad (24.09 percent), Pathanamthitta
(10.99 percent), Idukki (4.69 percent), and Wayanad (3.86 percent) are
predominantly rural. Growth of urban population in Malappuram district has
been exceptionally high (410.21 percent) during 2001-2011. The remaining six
districts have registered growth between 35 to 150 percent. However, along
with Malappuram, the districts of Kollam (154.77 percent), Kasaragod (117.82
percent), Palakkad (89.81 percent), Kottayam (88.59 percent), and Alappuzha
(84.76 percent), which were less urbanized at the 2001, displayed higher
growth rates. On the other hand, the progress is insignificant or negative in the
remaining districts. Nilgiris (-4.30 percent) and Idukki (-9.63 percent) districts
have recorded decrease in the share of urban population during the decade.
Compared to the country as a whole (39.80 percent), slightly less proportion of
the population of Malabar Coast region (35.88 percent) is engaged in
economically gainful work (Table 13.8). However, majority (79.73 percent) of
this working population has been enumerated under the 'other workers'
category in 2011. Agricultural sector (16.88 percent) and household industries
(3.39 percent), accommodate much smaller proportions of the workers of the
region. It is only in the less urbanized and inland districts of Mysore (80.56
percent), Idukki (47.76 percent), Wayanad (45.40 percent), Palakkad (30.49
percent), The Nilgiris (28.42 percent), and Pathanamthitta (24.66 percent), the
share of agricultural workers is higher than the regional average. Vice versa is
the case with the other workers. The share of other workers almost touches 90
percent mark in more urbanized and littoral districts. It is also worth noting that
in almost all districts the share of agricultural labourers is higher than that of
cultivators.

Table 13.8: Work Participation (2011).

Sl. District (Tahsil) Total Cultivators Agricultural Agricultural Household Other
No / Region Workers Labourers Workers Industry Worker
(Main + Workers s
Marginal)
1. Mysore 50.72 36.88 43.68 80.56 1.45 18.00
2. Dakshina 47.16 2.75 2.27 5.02 17.75 77.22
Kannada
3. Kodagu 50.32 3.87 3.32 7.19 0.54 92.27
4. Malappuram 25.83 5.42 11.05 6.47 1.73 81.80
5. Thiruvananthap 37.31 3.15 7.67 10.82 2.32 86.86
uram
6. Ernakulam 38.10 4.04 5.71 9.75 1.92 88.33
7. Thrissur 35.11 3.81 6.75 10.56 2.54 86.89
8. Kozhikode 30.70 2.80 6.80 9.60 1.40 89.00

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Block - 4 Select Meso Regions of India
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
9. Palakkad 37.09 6.51 23.98 30.49 2.40 67.11
10. Kollam 34.61 6.22 10.11 16.33 2.36 81.32
11. Kannur 32.66 4.43 10.07 14.50 1.56 83.93
12. Alappuzha 37.81 3.14 8.91 12.05 4.46 83.49
13. Kottayam 37.26 6.79 8.57 15.36 2.52 82.12
14. Kasaragod 35.41 5.13 8.37 13.50 8.37 81.21
15. Pathanamthitta 32.80 10.54 14.12 24.66 2.82 72.52
16. Idukki 46.56 19.54 28.22 47.76 1.33 50.91
17. Wayanad 41.60 15.51 29.88 45.40 1.34 53.26
18. The Nilgiris 46.65 4.68 23.74 28.42 1.06 70.52
19. Kanyakumari 36.14 2.21 9.70 11.91 5.29 82.80
Malabar Coast 13,712,28 777,665 / 1,537,329 / 2,314,994 / 4,65,079 / 10,932,
4 / 35.88 5.67 11.21 16.88 3.39 211 /
79.73
(Source: Census of India, 2011)

13.9.2 Settlements
Around half (50.64 percent) of the region's population lives in its 1,651 villages
(Table 13.11). Villages of the region are highly scattered with around four
(4.29) villages per 100 square kilometres. Excepting for the three districts of
Karnataka with Dakshina Kannada (18.50) in the lead, and Alappuzha (6.28),
Kasaragod (5.57), and Thrissur (5.28) of Kerala, The Nilgiri (7.23) and
Kanyakumari (5.17) of Tamil Nadu, all the districts of the region have a smaller
number of villages per 100 square kilometres than the regional average.
Coastal districts with larger plain areas and abundance of water, offering
greater economic opportunities, are marked with dispersed settlements.
Nucleated settlements are common in less favourable areas of eastern hilly
districts. Settlement pattern is dependent upon specific and unique geographic
features of the districts as well as socioeconomic factors, including social
cohesion (Sreekumar, 1990; Ramakumar, 2018). Villages of the region are
mostly large in population size. Around 60 (59.62 percent) percent of the
villages have population of more than 5,000 persons. Addition of the villages
with more than 2,000 persons takes this share above 75 (76.28 percent)
percent. In fact, all villages of Malappuram, Thiruvananthapuram, Palakkad,
and Kannur districts, have more than 5,000 population. However, a closer look
reveals that this generalization does not apply to the portion of Malabar Coast
region in Karnataka.
Table 13.11: Rural Settlements (2011)
Sl. District / Number Density of Percentage of Villages by Population Size
No. Region of Villages per Less 200- 500- 1000- 2000- 5000- 10000
2
inhabited 100/km Than 499 999 1999 4999 9999 &
villages 200 Above
1. Mysore 241 15.01 20.33 15.77 25.32 26.55 12.03 0 0
2. Dakshina 252 18.50 0 0.40 3.57 20.63 57.54 17.06 0.80
Kannada
3. Kodagu 161 5.23 0.62 3.11 26.09 39.75 26.70 3.73 0
4. Malappuram 83 3.16 0 0 0 0 0 1.20 98.80
5. Thiruvanantha 68 4.23 0 0 0 0 0 4.41 95.59
puram
6. Ernakulam 61 3.20 0 0 1.64 0 1.64 4.92 91.80
7. Thrissur 8 5.28 0 0 0 1.02 25.51 35.70 37.77

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Unit - 13 Meso Regions 3
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. Kozhikode 51 3.66 0 0 0 0 1.96 5.88 92.16
9. Palakkad 131 3.21 0 0 0 0 0 15.27 84.73
10. Kollam 69 3.35 1.45 0 0 0 0 5.80 92.75
11. Kannur 56 2.85 0 0 0 0 0 21.43 78.47
12. Alappuzha 51 6.28 0 1.96 0 1.96 0 7.84 88.24
13. Kottayam 80 4.16 0 0 0 2.50 1.25 16.25 80.00
14. Kasaragod 93 5.57 0 0 0 5.38 26.88 32.26 35.48
15. Pathanamthitta 64 2.42 0 0 1.56 0 0 6.25 92.19
16. Idukki 64 1.38 0 0 1.56 1.56 7.81 12.50 76.56
17. Wayanad 48 2.30 0 0 0 2.08 0 12.50 85.42
18. The Nilgiri 26 7.23 0 3.85 0 7.69 15.38 42.31 30.77
19. Kanyakumari 44 5.17 9.09 4.55 2.27 2.27 25.00 40.91 15.91
Malabar Coast 38516.77/ 4.29 55/3.16 48/2.7 116/6. 194/1 290/16. 224/1 814/
1,651 6 66 1.14 66 2.87 46.75
(Source: Census of India, 2011)

As noted earlier, Malabar Coast is a one of the most urbanized regions of

India. Excepting for the western hilly districts, most of the districts have high to
very high share of urban population. Seven coastal districts of Ernakulam,
Thrissur, Kozhikode, Kannur, Malappuram, Thiruvananthapuram and
Kanyakumari accommodate about two-third (69.46 percent) of urban
population of the region. These districts also have similar proportion (70.70
percent) of urban centres of the region. Out of the total 669 urban centres in
the region, 473 are in these seven districts. This share was slightly lower in
2001, when 97 out of 167 or 58.08 percent of the region's urban centres were
in these seven districts. This implies, while the increase has been remarkable
in these seven districts with Thrissur in the lead, replacing Kanyakumari, the
situation in other districts is no different, excepting in Kodagu, Pathanamthitta,
Idukki, Wayanad, and The Nilgiris districts. Besides, the region is dotted with a
large number (73.69 percent) of small towns, belonging to towns of III and IV
Class categories. Interestingly, most (97.77 percent) of the towns of Thrissur,
which has the highest number (135) of towns, belong to Class III to VI
categories. In the entire region, only the two cities of Thiruvananthapuram
(7,62,531), and Kozhikode (5,50,440) are of M4 status with 5 to 9.99 lac
population.

Table 13.12: Urban Settlements (2011)

Sl. District / Number of Number of Urban Centres by Population Size (Class/Sub-
No. Region Urban Class)
Centres
2001 2011 1,00,000 & 50,000 - 20,000 - 10,000 - 5,000 - Below
Above 99,999 49,000 (III) 19,000 9,999 5,000
(I) (II) (IV) (V) (VI)
1. Mysore - 1 2 - - - 2 - -
2. Dakshina 26 39 1 (Mangalore 2 4 6 25 1
Kannada - M3)
3 Kodagu 3 3 - - 1 1 1 -
4 Malappuram 5 44 1 6 37 - - -
(Malappuram
- M1)
5 Thiruvanant 5 31 1 3 21 6 - -
hapuram (Thiruvananth
apuram - M4)
6 Ernakulam 9 56 1 (Kochi - M3) 4 38 11 2 -
7 Thrissur 7 135 1 (Thrissur - 2 13 64 49 6
M3)

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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. Kozhikode 3 51 1 (Kozhikode 4 35 11 0 0
- M3)
9. Palakkad 4 21 1 (Palakkad - 1 14 5 0 0
M1)
10 3 27 1 (Kollam - 0 26 0 0 0
Kollam M3)
11 Kannur 7 67 0 4 27 34 1 1
12 5 38 1 (Alappuzha 1 23 13 0 0
Alappuzha - M2)
13 Kottayam 4 17 0 1 15 1 0 0
14 Kasaragod 2 27 0 1 3 13 9 1
15 Pathanamthi 3 4 0 1 2 1 0 0
tta
16 Idukki 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
17 Wayanad 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
18 The Nilgiris 16 16 - 2 4 2 8 -
19 Kanyakumar 61 89 - - 15 44 27 3
i
Malabar Coast 167 669 / 9/ 33 / 279 / 214 / 122 / 12 / 1.79
(Number / 100.00 1.35 4.93 41.70 31.99 18.24
percent)
(Note: Class I UAs/Towns are further sub classified in to seven sub classes namely
M1 to M7 depending on the population size of UA/City/Town. These are M7
(5,000,000 and above); M6 (2,000,000 to 4,999,999); M5 (1,000,000-1,999,999); M4
(500,000-999,999); M3 (300,000-499,999); M2 (200,000-299,999) and M1 (100,000-
199,999) towns).

SAQ 10
a) Name the major ethnic groups of Malabar Coast region.
b) Which district shares the maximum proportion of population of Malabar
Coast region?
c) What could be the probable reason of lower or negative population growth
rate in Malabar Coast region?
d) Which districts of Malabar Coast region have registered sex ratio of more
than 1100 females per 1000 males at the 2011 Census?
e) Name the districts of Malabar Coast region with the highest proportion of
SC and ST populations.
f) Which is the most urbanized district of Malabar Coast region?

13.9.3 Economy
Land Use: With wide variation across the districts, the region as a whole has
slightly less than one-third (30.96 percent) of area under forest cover (Table
13.14). Forest cover is mostly confined to the eastern hilly districts, with The
Nilgiris in the lead with 56.89 percent of forest area. Most of the eastern
districts have forest cover more than or almost matching the international
standard of 33 per cent. Four districts of Iduki (15.42 percent), Pathanamthitta
(11.62 percent), Palakkad (11.09 percent), and Kodagu (10.53 percent),
together account for about half (48.66 percent) of the forest area of the region.
On the other hand, a good number of coastal districts like Kannur (8.74
percent), Kottayam (4.08 percent), Kasaragod (3.21percent) have very low
proportion under forest cover and Alappuzha is completely devoid of forest.

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Table 13.14: Rural Land Use.
Sl. District Total Percentage to Total Rural Area
No (Tahsil)/ Rural Fores Non- Barren Perma Miscella Cultiv Fallow Curre Net
. Region Area ted Agricul & nent neous able other nt Sown
(Total Area (in Area tural Unculti Pastur Tree Waste than Fallo area
2 2
/ Km ) Km ) vable e + Crops Land Current w
Other Fallow
Grazin
g Land
1 Mysore 1605. 24.64 5.45 4.30 1.95 0.11 24.88 1.19 1.08 36.40
(1608.38) 90
2 Dakshina 1362. 44.85 3.74 6.81 1.00 8.03 6.19 1.63 1.20 26.55
Kannada 03
(1959.31)
3 Kodagu 3075. 40.81 4.17 2.73 0.27 1.11 7.73 1.37 1.22 40.59
(3097.68) 67
4 Malappuram 2623. 13.50 14.90 0.39 0 0.12 1.69 2.02 2.82 64.56
(3554.46) 53
5 Thiruvanant 1608. 27.22 9.22 .13 0 0.02 0.17 .19 1.68 61.37
hapuram 46
(2187.81 )
6 Ernakulam 1908. 34.25 8.79 0.20 0.00 0.05 2.83 2.39 2.40 49.06
(3063.00) 45
7 Thrissur 1857. 51.40 7.54 0.07 0.00 0.10 2.75 1.82 2.02 34.30
(3029.19) 58
8 Kozhikode 1394. 18.76 15. 55 0.53 0 0.09 1.39 0.44 1.55 61.68
(2346.41) 59
9 Palakkad 4076. 32.45 10.16 0.32 0 0.37 3.07 2.25 3.24 48.14
(4475.84) 11
10 Kollam 2068. 33.91 11.82 0.10 0 80 / 0.04 0.71 0.73 1.74 50.94
(2487.88) 54
11 Kannur 1963. 8.74 13.08 0.91 0 0.09 3.20 1.54 0 72.44
(2971) 66
12 Alappuzha 811.6 0.00 15.38 0.04 0.04 0.16 0 3.86 3.85 76.67
(1,410.11) 5
13 Kottayam 1921. 4.08 12.27 0.60 0 0.06 2.08 1.56 2.59 76.76
(2204.42) 71
14 Kasaragod 1671. 3.21 8.10 3.72 0 0.35 6.42 1.09 0 67.11
(1991.00) 13
15 Pathanamthi 2649. 52.28 5.96 0.07 0 0.03 0.56 1.07 1.58 38.43
tta 50
(2652.77)
16 Idukki 4621. 39.80 5.70 0.27 0.02 0.05 0.34 0.13 0.26 53.43
(4363.28) 75
17 Wayanad 2085. 38.92 5.27 0.06 0 0.05 0.52 0.38 0.83 53.97
(2129.66) 72
18 The Nilgiris 359.6 56.89 2.11 0.59 4.31 0.59 1.49 0.55 4.03 29.44
(24190.4) 8
19 Kanyakumar 851.1 50.47 10.22 1.36 0.00 1.58 0.21 0.29 0.03 35.84
i (1609.57) 1
Malabar Coast 3851 1192 3535.21 407.18/ 70.32/0 198.54/0. 1291.8 488.19 612.2 19987
(71332.17) 6.79 6.10/ /9.18 1.06 .18 52 8/3.35 /1.27 8 .09/
30.96 1.59 51.89

Net sown area is 26.55 per cent in Dakshina Kannada district and 76.76
percent in Kottayam district. More than half of the districts have higher
proportion of net sown area than the regional average, and most of these are
the coastal districts. Around one-tenth (9.18 percent) area of the region is put
to non-agricultural use. Here again one can see significant difference between
the eastern hilly and western coastal districts. Most of the latter category

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districts have devoted higher proportion of area to non-agricultural use. Areas

under the remaining types of land use are markedly insignificant in the region.

Agriculture: Agriculture is the major form of economy of Malabar region,

flourishing along coastal districts since long. More than 50 percent of land is
under cultivation in these districts not only because of availability of suitable
land, but also for demand of agricultural products. A small fraction of land
which is not suitable to agriculture is utilized for pastoralism. Due to availability
of sufficient moisture from the heavy rains, irrigation becomes necessary only
in case of drought conditions or for multiple cropping. Agriculture is largely
done using manual labour, be it cereal crop or cash crop. Major crops in this
region are paddy, tapioca, pulses, sugarcane, ginger, groundnut, sesame,
oilseed, ragi (figure millet), chilli, and vegetables. Along with the major crops,
plantation crops like coconut, pepper, cardamom, rubber, coffee, tea and
areca nuts are significant all along the Malabar Coast (Singh, 1993).

Industrial Economy: Small scale and cottage Industries are common in

Malabar Coast region, which are mostly scattered in Dakshina Kannada
district. Mangalore is a major industrial centre. Major industries are coffee
processing, cashew processing, automobile, metallurgy, textile, chemical, rice
mills, oil mills, tobacco and bidi making, tile factories, paper mills, electrical
goods and transport equipment. Malabar Coast of Kerala has mainly agro-
based and cottage industries. Major agro-based industries are cashew
processing, fish product industries, tea processing, coffee processing, bidi
making, and coir making. Major industrial centres are Kollam, (cashew
processing), Kozhikode, Ernakulam, Kochi (fish product), and Kannur (tea,
coffee and bidi) and Alappuzha (coir making).

Saw mills, furniture making and plywood as well as paper industries are
significant among forest-based industries. Major industrial centres are
Kozhikode (saw mills), Kannur, Kottayam, Thrissur, Palakkad, (plywood
factories), Kollam (boat building) and Kochi (ship building yard).

The major mineral based industries are aluminium, cement, titanium, fertilizer,
tile and brick, porcelain, ceramic, rayon and electrical goods. Major industrial
centres are Aluva (aluminium and fertiliser), Kundara (aluminium, ceramic and
electrical goods), Kottayam and Chavara (cement), Thiruvananthapuram
(titanium), Thrissur and Kollam (tile and brick), Kannur, Kozhikode, Palakkad,
and Thrissur (porcelein), Ernakulam (electrical motors, cycle parts and rayon).

Another major economy prevalent in the region is tourism. Malabar Coast

region is blessed with scenic beauty and rich heritage sites. There is an array
of tourist attractions in the region for which the region is called 'God's Own
Country'. Major tourism sites include Alappuzha, Wayanad, Cochin, Munnar,
Kumarakom, Kovalam, Thekkady, Kollam, Vagamon, Kozhikode, Ashtamudi,
Bekal, Guruvayur, Idukki, Kannur, Kasargod, Kavvayi Backwaters, Kizhunna
Beach, Kuttanad, Malampuzha, Malappuram, Marari, Munroe Island,
Nelliampathy, Palakkad, Ponmudi, Poovar, Thiruvananthapuram, Thrissur and
Varkala etc.

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13.9.4 Transport and Communication
Transportation is an important aspect that influences trade (Rao, 2003). There
is a link between the availability of transportation options and economic
growth. Transport infrastructure is a pre-requisite for economic growth,
although economic growth may not be necessary for development of transport
facilities (Ibrahim, 1978). Being a coastal region and experiencing thriving
trade since long, Malabar has a well-developed transportation infrastructure.
To begin with, the coastal city of Mangalore is well connected with Chennai by
rail net work. Another route connects Kochi with Chennai. Ernakulam is
connected with Thiruvananthapuram. Kollam on this route, is connected with
Tamil Nadu through Shencottah gap. Passenger density remains higher in
Kozhikode, Kollam, Ernakulam, and Thiruvananthapuram.

With regard to roadways, Mangalore is significant for passengers as well for

freight transport. It is well connected with Shimoga, Bhadravati and Hassan.
Important items transported through this route are salt, fish, cotton goods and
building materials. Down south, maximum road density network is found
between Thiruvananthapuram and Ernakulam. Other significant routes are
between Kochi-Coimbatore through Palakkad and Ernakulam-Kanyakumari.
Freight traffic remains more in Thiruvananthapuram, Kozhikode, Alappuzha,
Ernakulam and Kollam districts.

Apart from the above, inland waterway transportation also holds significance.
For example, Thiruvananthapuram and Hosdurg (Kasaragod) are well
connected by canal waterways. Ashtamudi and Vambanad lakes too provide
outstanding navigation facilities. Mangalore, Kochi, Kozhikode, Alappuzha,
Thiruvananthapuram are the important ports along Malabar coast. Important
imports at Kochi and Kozhikode are petroleum, hardware, machinery, fertilizer
and food grains, while important export items include coconut, copra, pepper,
ginger, cardamom, cashew kernels, tapioca, tea, coffee and ilmenite.
Thiruvananthapuram, Mangalore and Kochi are important airports in the
region providing connections with major cities of India.

SAQ 11
Which parts of Malabar Coast region have the maximum forest cover?

13.10 MALABAR COAST: THE REGIONS

The Malabar Coast region is part of the fourth macro region of India, i.e., the
Coastal Plains and Islands. It is further regionalized into (i) Gujarat Coastal
Plains, (ii) Western Coastal Region, (iii) Eastern Coastal Region, and (iv) The
Islands. The Western Coastal Region can be again dub-divided into (i)
Maharashtra Littoral, (ii) Goa Coast, (iii) Karnataka Coast, (iv) North Kerala
Coast, (v) Central Kerala Coast and (vi) South Kerala Coast. The Malabar
Coast region extends over 19 districts including parts of the three southern
districts of Karnataka Coast region adjoining Kerala, all the districts of North,
Central and South Kerala regions, and also parts of The Nilgiris and
Kanyakumari districts of Tamil Nadu (Singh, 2014). On the basis of

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geographical characteristics, three sub-regions of the Malabar Coast region

can be identified.

1. Eastern Highlands

Eastern Highlands of Malabar Coast region are part of the Sahyadri mountain
ranges or Western Ghats. Parts of Mysore and almost the entire Wayanad,
Palakkad, Idukki and Pathanamthitta districts, and the eastern segments of all
other districts in varying proportions are covered under this region. With an
average elevation of about 900 metres, the region has a number of peaks
reaching up to 2,000 metres, the highest being Anaimudi with an altitude of
2694 metres (8842 feet). Most of the rivers of the region originate from this
region. The region is a great source of spices such as cardamom, black
pepper, clove and cinnamon. It grows lot of spices with cardamom being major
one. A hill range is also called Cardamom Hills which has the highest peak of
the region.

2. Central Highlands

Central Highlands are a bunch of undulating hills and valleys sandwiched

between the Western Ghats and the Western Coastal Lowlands. The region
covers all the coastal districts of the region. Primarily, much of the area of the
region is devoted to cultivation. Most farmers of the region grow cashew,
coconut, areca nut and banana under intensive agriculture system.

3. Western Lowlands

This region is also known as the Coastal Plains. The region is characterized
by interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries and rivers. The available
areas are suitable for cultivation of coconut and paddy. Kuttanad area
covering parts of Kottayam, Alappuzha, and Pathanamthitta districts are
considered as 'The Rice Bowl of Kerala'. Rice is grown over three seasons in
this region, at places below sea level, claiming large parts of Vembanad lake,
the longest lake of India and the largest lake of Kerala. This part also has lot of
population engaged in fishing related activities.

SAQ 12
i. Name the three sub-regions of Malabar Coast region?
ii. Which area of Malabar Coast region is called 'The Rice Bowl of Kerala
and why?

13.11 MALABAR COAST: PROBLEMS AND

PROSPECTS
13.11.1 Problems
Major problems of the region are centred around agriculture. There is
misbalance between food crop and plantation crop production. Although the
region has World ranking in the production of plantation crops, it lags much
behind in food crop production, despite having favourable geographical
conditions permitting crop cultivation all the round year. Besides, the problems
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of declining profitability of the crops (Abraham and Kumar, 2021), lack of
marketing and easy credit facilities, crop failures, and uneconomic size of
holdings, large scale out-migration particularly of males in the working age
group have direct adverse affects on agricultural operations.

Out-migration from Malabar Coast region started long back. Earlier people
migrated internally in search of cultivable land, which brought forth
transformation in agriculture and socio-economic development (Rani and
Vijayan, 2019). Subsequently, migration of the skilled and semi-skilled labour
force in search of employment, mostly to Gulf and Arabian countries
(Vishwanathan, 2014 and Joseph, 2020), almost emptied the labour pool of
the region. Without mechanized agriculture, dependence on migrant labour
from north India has been to a great extent impacting the social fabric of the
region.

Another problem of this region is related to the fisheries. Without modern

equipments, much of the fishing activities are done with traditional small boats,
confined to the shallow sea. Although, the region has tremendous potential for
tourism industry, it has not developed in the right earnest.

13.11.2 Prospects
Malabar region entails number of prospects for its comprehensive
development. These are related to its resources base including both natural
and human resources.

13.12 SUMMARY
In this Unit, you have learnt the following:

 Chotanagpur is a land locked plateau with distinctive physical and cultural

characteristics.
 Geologically, this region is a part of the Peninsular Plateau. Relief is
marked with a series of plateaus descending in elevation in all directions,
particularly towards the north and the southeast.
 Chotanagpur is the source region to a large number of rivers and streams
which exhibit different drainage patterns and densities. Damodar is the
main river of the region which flows through the Permo-Triassic fault in
between the two main plateaus of Ranchi and Hazaribagh.
 The region has a typical monsoonal climate with significant seasonal
variations in temperature, wind velocity and rainfall.
 Three broad categories of natural vegetation, namely (i) Dry Deciduous
Forests, (ii) Dry Peninsular Sal, and (iii) Moist Peninsular Sal are found in
the region.
 Chotanagpur is well endowed with physical resources, particularly forests
and minerals.
 Chotanagpur is one of the richest mineral resource regions of the country
with huge stocks of copper, apatite, coal, iron ore, limestone, mica, bauxite,
asbestos, byrite, chromite, kynite, steatite and uranium.

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 Population of Chotanagpur has multiplied almost three times between 1961

and 2011.
 The region has been the traditional abode of around 30 tribes of which
Santhals, Oraon, Munda and Ho account for almost 80 per cent of its total
tribal population.
 Occupational structure of the region reveals that agriculture provides
relatively lesser opportunities.
 The percentage of cultivated land seems to be intimately related to
availability of flat land in different districts.
 The rich mineral and forest resource base of the region and its location-
specific advantage in terms of proximity to market and ports, has helped
the establishment of several major industries within the region.
 The Malabar Coast region is comprised of parts of the districts of
Dakshina Kannada, Kodagu, and Mysore in Karnataka, all districts of
Kerala, and parts of The Nilgiris and Kanyakumari districts of Tamil Nadu.
 The Archaeans, Tertiary rocks, and the recent deposits are the three main
geological formations in this region.
 This region has tropical monsoon rain forest. The Malabar region's soils
include red loams, lateritic soils, and alluvium-derived soils, particularly
around the coast.
 According to the 2011 census, Malappuram is the most populous district in
Malabar, whereas Wayanad is the least populous district in Kerala and The
Nilgiris is the least populous district in Tamil Nadu. The rural-urban share of
population in the region is almost balanced with wide spatial variations.
 Agriculture related pursuits have been the backbone of the region's
economy since long. The industrial landscape of the region is marked with
the prominence of small scale and cottage industries.

 Transport network of all forms is well developed in the region, connecting it

with places, both within and outside the country. Major problems faced by
the region pertain to agriculture and out migration.

 Located on the southwest corner of India, Malabar Coast region

incorporates within its boundary parts of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu states and
the entire Kerala state. The region has a reach resource base in terms of
land, marine, forest, minerals and tourism.

 The three sub-regions of Malabar Coast are endowed with distinct human
and physical resources. It is one of the most literate regions of the country.
The population structure is female dominated, wherein the sex ratio is in
favour of the females in almost all the districts.

 Since long the region has been the major supplier of spices and many
plantation cops. Although the region has great potential in terms of food
crop cultivation, fishing and tourism sectors, concerted efforts are required
for their proper development.

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13.13 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. What do you perceive about the physical resource base of Chotanagpur?

2. Elucidate the characteristics of Chotanagpur in terms of different population

parameters.

3. Briefly discuss the economic characteristics of Chotanagpur.

4. Divide Chotanagpur into smaller order regions and briefly explain their
characteristics.

5. Briefly explain the physical base of Malabar Coast region in terms of its
geology, relief, drainage.

6. Discuss about the rural and urban settlements of Malabar Coast region.

7. Briefly discuss the economic characteristics of Malabar Coast region.

8. Divide Malabar Coast region into sub-regions and briefly explain their
characteristics.

13.14 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. Refer to Section 13.2.1.
2. Drainage pattern of most of the rivers of the Plateau is dendritic, which
signifies lesser structural control despite the varying character and
hardness of the plateau surface on which they are flowing. Refer to
Sections 13.3.3.
3. Refer to sub-Sections 13.3.4.
4. (i) Refer to sub-Sections 13.3.5 and (ii) 13.3.6.
5. (i) Refer to sub-Section 13.4.3 and (ii) Section 13.6.
6. (i), (ii) and (iii) Refer to sub-Section 13.4.3.
7. (i) and (ii) Refer to Section 13.6.
8. Refer to Section 13.8 and sub-Sections 13.8.1 to 13.8.3.
9. Refer to sub-Section 13.8.5.
10. a) The Nairs or Naimars, the Kurgas or Kudagas, the Tulus, the
Konkanis and the Kanaras are the major ethnic groups that have
settled along the Malabar coast.
b) The Malappuram district shares the maximum proportion of 9.87
percent of the total population of Malabar Coast region.
c) Lower or negative rates of population growth may be ascribed to
large-scale male selective emigration from Malabar Coast region.
d) Kannur, Pathanamthitta, Kollam, Thrissur, and Alappuzha districts
of Malabar Coast region have registered sex ratio of more than 1100
females per 1000 males at the 2011 Census.

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e) The Nilgiris district with 32.08 per cent SC and Wayanad district with
18.50 per cent of ST population, are the two districts with the
highest proportion of SC and ST population in Malabar Coast region.
f) With 68.07 per cent urban population the Ernakulam district is the
most urbanized district of Malabar Coast region.
11. Refer to sub-Section 13.9.3.
12. (i) Refer to Section 13.10 and (ii) 13.9.3.

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Section 13.3.
2. Refer to Section 13.3.
3. Refer to Section 13.4.
4. Refer to Section 13.6.
5. Refer to Section 13.8.
6. Refer to Section 13.9.2.
7. Refer to Section 13.9.3.
8. Refer to Section 13.10.

13.15 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Singh, R. L. (1971): India - A Regional Geography, National Geographical
Society of India, Varanasi.
2. Spate, O. H. K., A. T. A. Learmonth & B. H. Farmer (1972): India, Pakistan
and Ceylon, Metheun Publishing Ltd., London.
3. Tiwari, R. C. (2008): Geography of India, Pryag Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad.
4. Singh R. P. (1970): Geomorphological Evolution of Chotanagpur Highlands,
NGSI, Varanasi.
5. Dunn, J. A. (1944): "Past Mesozoic Movements in the Northern Part of the
Peninsula", Memoirs, Geological Survey of India, Vol.73.
6. Indian Council of Agricultural Research: Jharkhand Agriculture
Development Vision, New Delhi - Available online. [Link]
7. [Link]. assessed on 20th April,2022.
8. Ibrahim, P. (1978): “The Development of Transport Facilities in Kerala: A
Historical Review", Social Scientist, Vol. VI (8), pp. 34-48.
9. Joseph, J. V. (2020): “Impact of Malabar Migration on the Agricultural
Sector of Kerala - A Case Study of Kannur”, Journal of Engineering
Sciences, Vol. XI (4), pp.1423-1433.
10. Nayar T. S., A. R. Begam, N. Mohanan and G. Rajkumar (2006): Flowering
Plants of Kerala, Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Palode,
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India.
11. Ramakumar, R. (2018): “Selecting a 'Village' in the Malabar Region, Kerala,
India: A Note", Review of Agrarian Studies, Vol. VIII (1), pp.100-108.

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12. Rani, Surabhi and P. K. Vijayan (2019): "Malabar Migration and Socio-
Economic Status of Migrants: A Study in Taliparamba Block of Kannur
District, Kerala", International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews
(IJRAR), Vol. VI (I), pp. 279-289.
13. Rao, Nogendra (2003): "Trade and Transport in South Kanara", Arthra
Journal of Social Science, Vol. I (2), pp. 149-160.
14. Singh, Anirudh K. (2014): “Probable Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Sites
in India: XXI, The Malabar Region", Asian Agri-History, Vol. XVIII (4), pp.
311–341.
15. Sreekumar T. T. (1990): “Neither Rural nor Urban: Spatial Formation and
Development Process”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXV (35/36),
pp. 1981-1990.
16. Tharian George K., V. Haridasan and B. Sreekumar (1988): "Role of
Government and Structural Changes in Rubber Plantation Industry",
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXIII (48), pp. M158-M166.
17. Viswanathan, P. K. (2014): "Farmer Migration and Agrarian Transformation
in Kerala: Impacts on the Local Economy, Society and the Agrarian
Landscape in the Erstwhile Malabar Region", Discussion Paper No. 43,
Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvantapuram. pp.1-38.
18. Abraham, M. P. and Pradeep Kumar (2021): "Leading Issues and
Challenges in the Agriculture Sector of Kerala", MPRA Paper No. 108759,
posted 19 Jul 2021 01:43 UTC Online at [Link]
[Link]/108759/ assessed on 20th April, 2022.

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GLOSSARY
Aquifer : It is a porous layer of rock or sediment saturated with
water.
Bangar : Bangar is the older alluvial floodplains.
Chang : It is a kind of local brew made from barley.
Deciduous : Refers to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed their
leaves.
Deciduous forest : A deciduous forest is a type of forest dominated by
trees that lose their foliage at the end of the growing
season.
Exorbitant : Unreasonably high.
Jhum cultivation : Jhum cultivation is a traditional agricultural process
that involves clearing the land from trees and other
vegetation, burning it, and then cultivating it for a set
period of time.
Kankar : It denotes the nodular calcium carbonate of less than
one centimetre to more than 5 centimetres in
diametre.
Mineral Sand : Sands containing economically important 'heavy
minerals' are called mineral sands. These minerals
are much heavier than quartz, which is common
mineral found in sand. The economically important
minerals found in mineral sand are, zircon, rutile,
leucoxene, ilmenite, monazite, xenotime, magnetite,
and garnet.
Norwester : Also called Kalbaishaki is a local rainfall and thunder
storm which occurs in India and Bangladesh.
Orogeny : A process in which a section of the earth's crust is
folded and deformed by lateral compression to form a
mountain range.
Patland : Pats are Mesas. Mesas are isolated flat topped hills
with steep slopes on all sides.
Region : Region, in the social sciences, refers to
a cohesive area that is homogeneous in
defining criteria and is distinguished from
neighbouring areas or regions by those criteria.
Sex ratio : It is the ratio of males to females in population.
Shear : Break off or cause to break off, owing to a structural
strain.
Upliftment : When vertical rise occurs on the Earth's surface due
to natural causes like warping, or epeirogeny
(relatively slow and gentle uplift), it is called
upliftment. Earth's surface also gets uplifted due to

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Glossary
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orogeny (sudden upliftment caused due to

earthquake and mountain building.

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