Strategos - Wikipedia 01/01/2025, 12:34
Strategos
(Redirected from Strategoi)
Strategos, plural strategoi, Latinized strategus, (Greek: στρατηγός, pl. στρατηγοί; Doric
Greek: στραταγός, stratagos; meaning 'army leader') is used in Greek to mean military
general. In the Hellenistic world and the Eastern Roman Empire the term was also used to
describe a military governor. In the modern Hellenic Army, it is the highest officer rank.
Etymology
Strategos is a compound of two Greek words: stratos and agos. Stratos (στρατός) means
'army',[1] literally 'that which is spread out',[2] coming from the proto-Indo-European root
*stere-, 'to spread'.[3] Agos (ἀγός)[4] means 'leader', from agein (ἄγειν), 'to lead',[5] from the
pelasgic root *ag-, 'to drive, draw out or forth, move'.[6]
Classical Greece
Bust of Pericles, statesman and
Athens general during the Golden Age of
Athens; Hadrianic Roman copy of a
In its most famous attestation, in Classical Athens, the office of strategos existed already in Greek sculpture of c. 400 BC
the 6th century BC, but it was only with the reforms of Cleisthenes in 501 BC that it assumed
its most recognizable form: Cleisthenes instituted a board of ten strategoi who were elected
annually, one from each tribe (phyle). The ten were of equal status, and replaced the polemarchos, who had hitherto been the
senior military commander.[7] At the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC (according to Herodotus) they decided strategy by majority
vote, and each held the presidency in daily rotation. At this date the polemarchos had a casting vote, and one view among
modern scholars is that he was the commander-in-chief; but from 486 onwards the polemarchos, like the other archontes, was
appointed by lot. The annual election of the strategoi was held in the spring, and their term of office coincided with the ordinary
Athenian year, from midsummer to midsummer. If a strategos died or was dismissed from office, a by-election might be held to
replace him.
The strict adherence to the principle of a strategos from each tribe lasted until c. 440 BC, after which two strategoi could be
selected from the same tribe and another tribe be left without its own strategos, perhaps because no suitable candidate might be
available.[7] This system continued at least until c. 356/7 BC, but by the time Aristotle wrote his Constitution of the Athenians in
c. 330 BC, the appointments were made without any reference to tribal affiliation. Hence, during the Hellenistic period, although
the number of the tribes was increased, the number of strategoi remained constant at ten.[7]
In the early part of the 5th century, several strategoi combined their military office with a political role, with Themistocles,
Aristides, Cimon, or Pericles among the most notable; nevertheless their power derived not from their office, but from their own
personal political charisma. As political power passed to the civilian rhetores in the later 5th century, the strategoi were limited
to their military duties.[7] Originally, the strategoi were appointed ad hoc to various assignments. On campaign, several—usually
up to three—strategoi might be placed jointly in command. Unlike other Greek states, where the nauarchos commanded the
navy, the Athenian strategoi held command both at sea and on land.[7] From the middle of the 4th century, the strategoi
increasingly were given specific assignments, such as the strategos epi ten choran (στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὴν χώραν) for the defence of
Attica; the strategos epi tous hoplitas (στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τοὺς ὁπλίτας), in charge of expeditions abroad; the two strategoi epi ton
Peiraia (στρατηγοὶ ἐπὶ τὸν Πειραιᾶ), responsible for the war harbour of Piraeus; and the strategos epi tas symmorias
(στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὰς συµµορίας), responsible for the equipment of the warships.[7] This was generalized in Hellenistic times, when
each strategos was given specific duties. In the Roman Imperial period, the strategos epi ta hopla (στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὰ ὅπλα)
became the most prominent magistrate in Athens.[7] The other generals had disappeared by the end of the first century BC.
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The Athenian people kept a close eye on their strategoi. Like other magistrates, at the end of their term of office they were
subject to euthyna and in addition there was a vote in the ekklesia during every prytany on the question whether they were
performing their duties well. If the vote went against anyone, he was deposed and as a rule tried by jury. Pericles himself in 430
was removed from office as strategos and fined, and in 406 six of the eight strategoi who commanded the fleet at the Battle of
Arginusae were all removed from office and condemned to death.
Other Greek states
The title of strategos appears for a number of other Greek states in the Classical period, but it is often unclear whether this refers
to an actual office, or is used as a generic term for military commander.[7] The strategos as an office is attested at least for
Syracuse from the late 5th century BC, Erythrae, and in the koinon of the Arcadians in the 360s BC.[7]
The title of strategos autokrator was also used for generals with broad powers, but the extent and nature of these powers was
granted on an ad hoc basis.[7] Thus Philip II of Macedon was elected as strategos autokrator (commander-in-chief with full
powers) of the League of Corinth.
Hellenistic and Roman use
Under Philip II of Macedon, the title of strategos was used for commanders on detached assignments as the quasi-
representatives of the king, often with a title indicating their area of responsibility, e.g. strategos tes Europes ('general of
Europe').[8]
In several Greek city leagues the title strategos was reserved for the head of state. In the Aetolian League and the Achaean
League, where the strategos was annually elected, he was the eponymous chief of civil government and the supreme military
commander at the same time. Two of the most prominent leaders re-elected many times to the office in the Achaean League,
were Aratus of Sicyon and Philopoemen of Megalopolis. Strategoi are also reported in the Arcadian League, in the Epirote
League and in the Acarnanian League, whereas the leaders of the Boeotian League and the Thessalian League had different titles,
Boeotarch and Tagus respectively.
In the Hellenistic empires of the Diadochi, notably Lagid Egypt, for which most details are known, strategos became a
gubernatorial office combining civil with military duties.[8] In Egypt, the strategoi were originally responsible for the Greek
military colonists (klerouchoi) established in the country. Quickly, they assumed a role in the administration alongside the
nomarches, the governor of each of the country's nomes, and the oikonomos, in charge of fiscal affairs. Already by the time of
Ptolemy II Philadelphus (r. 283–246 BC), the strategos was the head of the provincial administration, while conversely his
military role declined, as the klerouchoi were progressively demilitarized.[8] Ptolemy V Epiphanes (r. 204–181 BC) established
the office of epistrategos (ἐπιστράτηγος, lit. 'over-general') to oversee the individual strategoi. The latter had become solely
civilian officials, combining the role of the nomarches and the oikonomos, while the epistrategos retained powers of military
command. In addition, hypostrategoi (sg.: hypostrategos, ὐποστράτηγος, 'under-general') could be appointed as
subordinates.[8] The Ptolemaic administrative system survived into the Roman period, where the epistrategos was subdivided in
three to four smaller offices, and the procurator ad epistrategiam was placed in charge of the strategoi. The office largely
retained its Ptolemaic functions and continued to be staffed by the Greek population of the country.[8]
The Odrysian kingdom of Thrace was also divided into strategiai ('generalships'), each headed by a strategos, based on the
various Thracian tribes and subtribes. At the time of the kingdom's annexation into the Roman Empire in 46 AD, there were 50
such districts, which were initially retained in the new Roman province, and only gradually fell out of use. It was not until c. 136
that the last of them were abolished.
Under the Roman Republic and later through the Principate, Greek historians often used the term strategos when referring to
the Roman political/military office of praetor. Such a use can be found in the New Testament: Acts of the Apostles 16:20 refers
to the magistrates of Philippi as strategoi.[9] Correspondingly, antistrategos (ἀντιστράτηγος, 'vice-general') was used to refer
to the office of propraetor.
Byzantine use
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The term continued in use in the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire. Initially, the term was used along with stratelates and, less
often, stratopedarches, to render the supreme military office of magister militum (the general in command of a field army), but
could also be employed for the regional duces. In the 7th century, with the creation of the Theme system, their role changed: as
the field armies were resettled and became the basis for the territorial themes, their generals too assumed new responsibilities,
combining their military duties with the civil governance of the theme.[10] The first themes were few and very large, and in the
8th century, the provincial strategoi were in constant antagonism with the emperor at Constantinople, rising often in rebellion
against him. In response, the themes were progressively split up and the number of strategoi increased, diluting their power.
This process was furthered by the conquests of the 10th century, which saw the establishment of several new and smaller frontier
themes: while in c. 842 the Taktikon Uspensky lists 18 strategoi, the Escorial Taktikon, written c. 971–975, lists almost 90.[10]
Throughout the middle Byzantine period (7th–12th centuries), the strategos of the Anatolic theme enjoyed precedence over the
others and constituted one of the highest offices of the state, and one of the few from which eunuchs were specifically barred. At
the same time, the Eastern (Anatolian) themes were senior to the Western (European) ones. This distinction was especially
marked in the pay of their presiding strategoi: while those of the Eastern themes received their salary directly from the state
treasury, their counterparts in the West had to raise their—markedly lower—pay from the proceeds of their provinces.[11] During
the 11th century, the strategoi were gradually confined to their military duties, their fiscal and administrative responsibilities
being taken over by the civil kritai ('judges'). Senior military leadership also devolved on the hands of a new class of officers
titled doukes or katepano, who were placed in control of regional commands combining several themes. By the 13th century, the
term strategos had reverted to the generic sense of "general", devoid of any specific technical meaning.[10]
The Byzantines also used a number of variations of the title strategos: strategetes (στρατηγέτης, 'army leader') was an
infrequently used alternative term; the term monostrategos (µονοστράτηγος, 'single-general') designated a general placed in
command over other strategoi or over the forces of more than one theme; the terms strategos autokrator, archistrategos
(ἀρχιστράτηγος, 'chief-general') and protostrategos (πρωτοστράτηγος, 'first-general') designated commanders vested with
supreme authority; and the term hypostrategos (ὐποστράτηγος, 'under-general') denoted a second-in-command, effectively a
lieutenant general.[10]
In Messina
The city of Messina, in Sicily, also had a strategos. In 1345 Orlando d'Aragona, illegitimate son of Frederick II of Sicily, held that
position.
Modern use
In the modern Hellenic Army, a stratigós (the spelling remains στρατηγός) is the highest officer rank. The superior rank of
stratárchis (Field Marshal) existed under the monarchy, but has not been retained by the current Third Hellenic Republic.
Under the monarchy, the rank of full stratigós in active service was reserved for the King and a few other members of the royal
family, with very few retired career officers promoted to the rank as an honorary rank. Since c. 1970, in accordance with NATO
practice for the member nations' chiefs of defence, the rank is held in active service by the Chief of the General Staff of National
Defence, when he is an Army officer, and is granted to the retiring Chief of the Hellenic Army General Staff.
All but one of the other Greek general officer ranks are derivations of this word: antistrátigos (Antistrategos) and
ypostrátigos (Hypostrategos), for Lieutenant General and Major General, respectively. A Brigadier General however is called
taxíarchos, after a táxis (in modern usage taxiarchía), which means brigade. The ranks of antistrátigos and ypostrátigos are
also used by the Hellenic Police (and the Greek Gendarmerie before), the Greek Fire Service and the Cypriot National Guard,
which lack the grade of full stratigós.
Cypriot Ground Forces[12]
(1964–today)
Αντιστράτηγος Υποστράτηγος
Antistrátigos Ypostrátigos
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Hellenic Army[13]
(1975–today)
Στρατηγός Αντιστράτηγος Υποστράτηγος
Stratigos Antistratigos Ypostratigos
Hellenic Army
(1909–1937)
Στρατηγός Αντιστράτηγος Υποστράτηγος
Stratigos Antistratigos Ypostratigos
Hellenic Police
(1984–today)
Αντιστράτηγος Υποστράτηγος
Antistratigos Ypostratigos
Hellenic Fire Service
Αντιστράτηγος Υποστράτηγος
Antistratigos Ypostratigos
Greek commissioned officer ranks
NATO
OF-1 OF-2 OF-3 OF-4 OF-5 OF-6 OF-7 OF-8 OF-9
code:
Simaioforos &
Navy: Ypoploiarchos Plotarchis Antiploiarchos Ploiarchos Archiploiarchos Yponavarchos Antinavarchos Navarchos
Anthypoploiarchos
Anthypolochagos
& Ypolochagos Lochagos
Army: Ypilarchos & Ilarchos Tagmatarchis Antisyntagmatarchis Syntagmatarchis Taxiarchos Ypostratigos Antistratigos Stratigos
Anthypilarchos (Armoured)
(Armoured)
Air Anthyposminagos Taxiarchos
Sminagos Episminagos Antisminarchos Sminarchos Ypopterarchos Antipterarchos Pterarchos
Force: & Yposminagos Aeroporias
References
1. στρατός ([Link] Liddell, Henry George;
Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
2. Harper, Douglas. "strategy" ([Link] Online Etymology Dictionary.
3. Harper, Douglas. "*stere-" ([Link] Online Etymology Dictionary.
4. ἀγός ([Link] in Liddell and Scott.
5. ἄγειν ([Link] in Liddell and Scott.
6. Harper, Douglas. "*ag-" ([Link] Online Etymology Dictionary.
7. Rhodes, Peter J. (2015). "Strategos I. Classical Greece" ([Link]
gos-e1123850). Brill's New Pauly. Brill Online. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
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Strategos - Wikipedia 01/01/2025, 12:34
gos-e1123850). Brill's New Pauly. Brill Online. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
8. Ameling, Walther (2015). "Strategos II. Hellenistic states" ([Link]
egos-e1123850). Brill's New Pauly. Brill Online. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
9. 1881 Westcott-Hort New Testament, ΠΡΑΞΕΙΣ ΤΩΝ ΑΠΟΣΤΟΛΩΝ 16:20 ([Link]
cts%2016:20;&version=68;) ...καὶ προσαγαγόντες αὐτοὺς τοῖς στρατηγοῖς εἶπαν...
10. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). "Strategos". The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University
Press. p. 1964. ISBN 0-19-504652-8.
11. Bury, John B. (1911), The Imperial Administrative System of the Ninth Century – With a Revised Text of the Kletorologion of
Philotheos, Oxford University Publishing, pp. 39–41
12. "Βαθμοί" ([Link] [Ranks]. [Link] (in Greek). Cypriot National Guard. Retrieved 26 May
2021.
13. "Επωμίδες Φ/Π Στολών" ([Link] [Shoulders for PV Uniforms]. [Link] (in Greek).
Hellenic Army. Retrieved 26 May 2021.
General sources
Hamel, Debra (1998). Athenian Generals: Military Authority in the Classical Period. Leiden.
Hansen, M. H. (1987). The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes. Oxford.
Krsmanović, Bojana (2008). The Byzantine Province in Change: On the Threshold Between the 10th and the 11th Century (h
ttps://[Link]/books?id=kjsjAQAAIAAJ). Belgrade: Institute for Byzantine Studies. ISBN 9789603710608.
Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd edition. (1996). "strategoi".
Roberts, John (2005). Dictionary of the Classical World. Oxford.
External links
Mitchell, John Malcolm (1911). "Strategus" ([Link]
Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). pp. 985–986.
Retrieved from "[Link]
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