UNIT 4

PERSONALITY, VALUES AND

ATTITUDES
Objectives
After going through this unit you should be able to understand:
• importance of understanding human behaviour;
• types, determinants and approaches to personality;
• theories of personality;
• importance of personality and its impact on OB; and
• concepts of attitude, valve and socialisation.

Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Models to Understand Human Behaviour
4.3 Implications for the Organisation
4.4 Personality
4.5 Determinants of Personality
4.6 Type and Trait Approaches to Personality
4.7 Theories of Personality
4.8 Impact of Personality Traits on Organisational Behaviour
4.9 Importance of Personality
4.10 Attitudes
4.11 Attitudes and Organisation
4.12 Values
4.13 Socialisation's Influence on Personality, Values and Attitudes
4.14 Schein Socialisation Model
4.15 Summary
4.16 Self-Assessment Questions
4.17 Further Readings/ References

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Personality is a concept that we use continuously in our day-to-day routine while
dealing with people. Personality can be reflected in a person’s temperament and
is a key factor influencing individual behaviour in organisations. The study of
personality is very essential and helpful in ensuring effective job performance.
This means that the personality of an individual represents personal characteristics 59
Intrapersonal and traits which can lead to consistent patterns of behaviour. So while trying
Processes to understand the personality, it is to be understood that the behaviour is
the outcome of a complex interaction between the person and the situation.
Hence, it will be necessary to have knowledge of those personality traits which
predetermine the parameters for employee’s (or people’s) behaviour and thus
provide a paradigm for predicting behaviour. The theories of personality
are many, and most important of them are trait, type, psychoanalytic, socio-
psychological, and self-theory. Each theory seeks to add a new perspective to
the nature of personality.
It is very essential to understand human behaviour in today's world as the
existence of the organisation depends on the employees/individuals.
Without understanding human behaviour it is very difficult to work in an
organisation. In order to understand human behaviour let us see how the
perception of human being has changed from time to time.
All organisations are composed of individuals, with different personality,
attitudes, values, perception, motives, aspirations and abilities. The main reason
to understand behaviour is that individuals are different. No two individuals are
similar. In the early studies, theories of organisation and management treated
people as though they were the same; scientific management was based on the
similarities among workers, not the differences. In contrast, modern theories
of human behaviour are based upon the differences among people and how
those differences can affect the organisation. Individual differences are many
for example some employees are motivated to work and some are not. This can
be due to several reasons, and can be known by further reading the unit.
Before we proceed to understand human behaviour, it is better to know what
the term 'behaviour' means. Behaviour can be defined as a response/s which
is observed directly/indirectly. Direct observation is possible by studying the
responses of people
to a work environment. Indirect observations are decision making processes
and attitudes, in terms of results or how people describe them verbally.
Human behaviour is very much unpredictable. In behaviour we cannot assume
one set pattern of behaviour. Lavitt classified behaviour as: (i) Caused behaviour,
(ii) Motivated behaviour, (iii) Goal oriented behaviour. From these observations
it can be understood that behaviour is a dependent factor. By understanding
behaviour one can predict, direct, change and control behaviour of individuals
or group. There are generally four basic assumptions regarding nature of people:
individual differences, a whole person, caused behaviour (motivation) and value
of the person (human dignity).
In an organisational set up it is essential for managers to understand behaviour. as
they are constantly with people, interacting with them in terms of communication
(either written or oral) in terms of work (either by specifying the work and
getting things done).
Understanding past behaviour is important for developing effective human
skills, and it also provides a framework for predicting behaviour. It also gives
an idea to managers as to how behaviour is similar in certain circumstances and
60 changing in changing environmental conditions.
Another skill which an effective manager or leader needs is the ability to direct, Personality, Values
change and control behaviour. and Attitudes

Managers have to understand that there are-going to be individual differences

among the employees, as no individual is similar to other. Each individual is
unique by themselves. Then one has to understand that each individual has to be
taken care of as a whole person by taking care of. his needs as well as training
and making him up to date in terms of work. Ultimately human beings have to
be treated with respect only then you can expect effective performance. With
the following descriptions you will be able to understand the concept better.
Dan's analyses the nature of people in terms of four assumptions.
1. Individual Differences
Behaviour is the result of interaction between individual characteristics and the
characteristics of the environment in which the behaviour occurs.
Each person has a unique combination of characteristics. Some of these
characteristics are present from birth; others develop over time. These can
be called as inherited and learned characteristics. Although there are some
inherited
Table 1: Learned Characteristics and its Effect on Behaviour

Characteristics Behaviour Relationship found

Tolerance for conflict Perceived role conflict Less role conflict with greater
tolerance for conflict
Relative importance of extrinsic Expressed job "Extrinsic Managers"
versus intrinsic rewards satisfaction expressed less job satisfaction
Value or work ethic Attendance Stronger work ethic associated
with greater attendance
Diversity of interests Salary based measure High general interest diversity
of performance associated with better
performance
Locus of control Experienced job stress More stress with emphasis on
external locus of control

characteristics, but these are very few, and not so significant. Learned
characteristics are very important. Individual differences can be because of
environment, personal and psychological factors. It is also due to physical and
social factors. Learned characteristics are acquired as people grow, develop and
interact with their environments. This is depicted by Table 1.
'Environmental factors' are characteristics of the broader environment such as
economic conditions, social and. cultural norms, and political factors that can
affect the individuals behaviour. Personal factors include physical and personal
attributes e.g., age, sex, race, education and abilities, psychological factors are
less observable. They are mental characteristics and attributes such as values,
attitudes, personality and aptitudes that affect behaviour through complex
psychological processes. These are studied, in the subsequent units.
All aspects of the physical world that can be seen, heard, felt, smelled or touched
are part of the physical environment of behaviour. The social environment of an 61
Intrapersonal individual includes relationships with family, friends, co-workers, supervisors
Processes and subordinates and membership in groups such as unions. The behaviour of
others (as distinct from the individuals relationship with them) is also part of an
individual's social environment. Any 'norms, rules, laws or reward systems that
originate with other individuals or groups help to form an individual's social
environment.
2. A Whole Person
When an employee works in an organisation, the organisation takes care of that
person by making him effective, as a worker and as a person.
3. Caused Behaviour (Motivation)
People's behaviour is need based. By fulfilling these needs one is motivated
positively and there occurs effective performance. So the management in
the organisation has to take care of these needs in order to have an effective
performance. The management can show them how certain actions will increase
their need fulfilment and if not; how it decreases their need fulfilment.
4. Value of the Person (Human Dignity)
People have to be treated with respect and as individuals and they can not
be treated like machines as how scientific management use to treat them. By
recognising them and treating them with uniqueness the value of the person
gets increased. By this we can understand how the concept of treating human
beings from machines to human capitals have evolved.
If one accepts the fact that human skill development is necessary then managers
and leaders must have necessary understanding in order to influence the
behaviour of other people. It was felt that the managers acquire three levels
of expertise. Firstly they have to understand the past and current behaviour, so
that they are able to predict behaviour and than they learn to direct change, and
control behaviour.

4.2 MODELS TO UNDERSTAND HUMAN

BEHAVIOUR
Early classical approaches made the assumptions that people are naturally lazy
and self-serving, neutral, or positive and self-motivated. In simpler terms they
need to be pushed and controlled and kept under surveillance, never to be trusted
to put in a good day's work by themselves. Economic rewards were the only one
considered, and close autocratic supervision was suggested.
Systems and contingency theorists viewed people as adaptable and felt that
much of behaviour was learned and not attributable to predispositions to be
negative or positive. Likert, Mc Gregor and Bennis who developed and extended
the findings of human- relations theorists had a positive view of human nature.
Employees were seen as striving for personal and social well-being. If left
alone, they would work hard for the intrinsic satisfaction of a job well done-
The emphasis was on democratic decision making and leadership. Jobs were to
be challenging and allowed the individual employee to be creative.

62
Models of Human Behaviour Personality, Values
and Attitudes
Psychoanalytic Model: Freudian approach depends on conflict model of
humans. By using clinical techniques of free association and psychotherapy
Freud felt that behaviour is not always consciously explained. "Unconscious"
is the major factor which guides the individual's behaviour. Freud felt that the
individual's behaviour depends on three factors: (i) id, (ii) Ego and (iii) Super
ego.
Id: By Id it means pleasure. To certain degree of having Id in an individual is
constructive but may also lead to destructive tendencies like being aggressive,
dominating, fighting and generally destroy. This kind of instinctive is more
dominating in childhood. But once individuals develop and mature they learn
to control the id. But it is always unconscious. Throughout life the `id' becomes
important source of thinking and behaving.
Ego: Ego represents `conscious' stage in one's behaviour. Though Id comes in
conflict with ego, the ego depends on the super ego.
Superego: It represents "conscience". An individual is not aware of the
superego's functioning. The conscience is dependent on two factors that is
cultural values and moral of a society. Superego's development depends mostly
on parent's influence. Once the child grows up the child will unconsciously
identifies with parents value and morals.
There is always tussle between id, ego and superego. The degree of each of
them varies from person to person. So the variations in individual's behaviour
can be better understood with the help of this model.
But the modern theories have severely criticised this theory as it is not based
on any empirical facts and as such it can not be accepted in totality. But the
concept of "unconscious" is a significant contribution in understanding specific
behaviour of humans.
Existential Model: This model is not scientifically based. It's base is literature
and philosophy.
The existentialists believe that the depersonalising effects of this environment
forces individuals to make their own destiny. So the individuals shape their own
identity and make their "existence" meaningful and worthwhile to themselves.
This is more true and happening in today's urbanisation. Because people have
become so materialistic and busy, they do not have time for traditional values
and norms and it becomes impractical sometimes to follow them. Existential
model is, especially true when you are employed in today's world.
Though this model is not scientific it can be definitely be used in understanding
human behaviour.
Internal vs. External Determinants of Behaviour
Environment plays a major role in shaping behaviour and genetic endowment
and personality development is influenced by our historical heritage.

63
Intrapersonal Personality vs the Environment
Processes
Both personality and situational variables must be taken into account in order to
explain an individual's behaviour but a focus on the environment is as important
or perhaps slightly more important than focusing on personality traits.
Cognition vs the Environment
To understand one's behaviour all we have to know is the individual's past
responses to similar (stimulus) situations and the rewards or punishments that
followed that response.
There are two models which come out of these approaches:
1. Behaviouristic Model: In this model the behaviour is dependent on two
factors i.e., stimulus and response. Learning occurs with this kind of model.
Pavlov and Watson with their research felt that behaviour can be best
understood by stimulus and response.
Behaviourist model is represented as: S - R (Stimulus-Response)
2. Cognitive Model: S-OR-R. This model emphasises the positive and free-
will factors of human beings and uses concepts such as expectancy, demand
and incentive.
Tolman with his experiments found that the basis of learning as of
`expectancy' which is understood as one particular event leading to a
particular consequence i.e., goal. Human behaviour is based on these
goals.
The cognitive model is represented as:
S - O - R (Stimulus-Organism-Response model)
Both approaches see learning and the environment as having a major impact on
behaviour.
From these different approaches it can be said that:
i) Behaviour is caused by instincts, genetic background and personality traits
that are formed at an early age. Change is very difficult for the individual
and that one's capacity is severely limited.
ii) Behaviour is mostly learned through our interactions with the environment.
Present events rather than past events are important. Even though there are
some limitations on. one's capacities, one is capable of great amounts of
change.

4.3 IMPLICATIONS FOR THE ORGANISATION

Behaviour of individuals is caused, and follows a pattern, because of this,
behaviour is unpredictable. Study of behaviour is however, rewarding and
necessary for management. It is doubtful whether the manager can perform the
tasks satisfactorily without developing a fair degree of understanding of the
people around him.
64 Any attempt to learn why people behave as they do in organisations requires
some understanding of individual differences. Managers spend considerable time Personality, Values
making judgements about the fit between individuals, job tasks and from these and Attitudes
approaches it can be concluded that there is an overwhelming consensus that
the, environment has a much greater effect than it is believed. The implications
for organisations are important. It means that large areas of human behaviour
are modifiable. Organisational design, training and development can have a
profound impact on the behaviour of the members of an organisation.

4.4 PERSONALITY
Gordon Allport defined Personality as the dynamic organisation within
the individual of those Psycho-Physical Systems that determine his unique
adjustments to his environment.
Personality can be described more specifically as "how a person affects others,
how one understands and views oneself and the pattern of inner and outer
measurable traits."
From this definition, it can be understood one's physical appearance and
behaviour affects others. Understanding oneself means one is unique with a set
of attitudes and values and a self-concept. Finally, the pattern of measurable
traits refers to a set of characteristics that the person exhibits.
Some of the other definitions are "Personality is a vehicle to integrate perception,
learning, values and attitudes and thus to understand the total person."
"Personality is an individual's total sense of self, it is an organising force for the
persons particular pattern of exhibited traits and behaviours." "Personality is the
culmination of experiences and genetic influences." Personality is influenced
by the personal life and where he is working.

4.5 DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY

Personality is the result of both heredity and environment and also the
situation.
Heredity
Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical
appearance, temperament, energy level and biological rhythms are the
characteristics which are generally influenced by one's Parents' i.e., One's
Biological, Physiological and Inherent Psychological Make up. The Heredity
approach feels that personality of an individual is the Molecular Structure of the
genes, located in the chromosomes.
Environment
Culture plays an important role in the formation of personality, i.e., early
conditioning, the norms among the family, friends and social groups. With the
socialisation process in the group, personalities are altered over time.
Situation
Though an individual personality is constant, it does change depending on the
situation. Different demands in different situations call forth different aspect of
one's personality. 65
Intrapersonal The relationship of these three factors affects the formation and development
Processes of Personality. Psychological inheritance is entirely an internal contribution.
Group and culture are the early environmental factors that form later behaviour.
Family and social setting during the early stages of education are the important
factors which influences the initial formation of personality. Whatever the child
learns here lasts for life time. Later in life, it is the Peer groups or Primary
affiliations at work, social activities which shape the Personality.

4.6 TYPE AND TRAIT APPROACHES TO

PERSONALITY
The traditional viewed individuals as Shy, Lazy, Melancholy, Ambitious,
Aggressive. These were called a Traits. Groups of these traits were then
aggregated to Personality types.
Trait Approach
Cattel (1973) identified 16 source traits/Primary Traits. These traits were found
to be generally steady and constant sources of behaviour. But there was found
to be no scientific relevance.
Figure 1: Sixteen Source Traits
1) Reserved - Outgoing
2) Less intelligent - More intelligent
3) Affected by feelings - Emotionally stable
4) Submissive - Dominant
5) Serious - Happy go Lucky
6) Expedient - Conscientious
7) Timid - Venturesome
8) Tough minded - Sensitive
9) Trusting - Suspicious
10) Practical - Imaginative
11) Forthright - Shrewd
12) Self-Assured - Apprehensive
13) Conservative - Experimenting
14) Group-dependent - Self-sufficient
15) Uncontrolled - Controlled
16) Relaxed - Tense
In the type approach, several behaviours are seen as cluster characterising
individuals with high degree of stability.

66
Locus of control: People are assumed to be of two types: `Internals' and Personality, Values
`Externals'. Internals are people who believe that much of what happens to them and Attitudes
is controlled by their destiny. Externals believe that much of what happens to
them is controlled by outside forces.
Machiavellianism: High Machs tend to take control, especially in loosely
structured situations; Low Machs respond well to structured situations. High
Machs tend to be more logical, rational and Pragmatic. They are more skilled in
influencing and coalition building.
Type ‘A’ or Type ‘B’
People who are Hard-driving, impatient, aggressive, and super competitive are
termed as Type `A' Personality. Those who are easy-going, sociable, laid-back
and non-competitive are termed as
Type ‘B’ Personality.
Type A people tend to be very productive and work very hard. They are
workaholics. The negative side of them is that they are impatient, not good
team players, more irritable, have poor judgement.
Type B people do better on complex tasks involving judgement, accuracy rather
than speed and team work.

4.7 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

Carl Jung identified three basic assumptions in theory, 1) Personalities are
developmental in that they are influenced by past and hopes for the future. 2) All
people have the potential for growth and change. 3) Personality is the totality of
a person's interacting sub-systems.
Emotional Orientations
Jung feels that the two basic Orientations of People are extroversion and
introversion. Introverts are primarily oriented to the subjective world. They
look inward at themselves, avoid 'social contacts and initiating interaction
with others, withdrawn, quiet and enjoy solitude. Extroverts are friendly, enjoy
interaction with people, are generally aggressive and express their feelings and
ideas openly.
Managers should gain an understanding of themselves and learn how
understanding others can make them better managers.
Validity results showed that introvert/extrovert is really applicable to only the
rare extremes. Most individuals tend to be ambiverts, that is, they are in between
introversion and extroversion.
Figure 2: Extroverts versus Introverts: Characteristics of Each

Extroverts Introverts
Likes variety and action. Like quiet for concentration
Tend to work faster, dislike complicated Tend to be careful with details, dislike
procedure. sweeping statements.

67
Intrapersonal Are often good at greeting people. Have trouble in remembering names and
Processes faces.
Are often impatient with slow jobs. Tend not to mind working on one project for
a long time uninterruptedly.
Are interested in results of their job, getting Are interested in the idea behind their job.
it done and in how other people do it.
Often do not, mind interruption of answering Dislike telephone intrusions and
the telephone. interruptions.
Often act quickly,sometimes without Like to think a lot before they act,
thinking. sometimes without acting.
Like to have people around. Work contentedly alone.
Usually communicate freely. Have some problems in communicating.

Problem-solving Styles
Jung identified two basic steps in problem solving: collecting information and
making decision. Collecting data occurs in a continuum from sensing to intuition.
In terms of decision-making, it ranges from `thinking' to `feeling' types.
Sensing-type: The person approaches the problem in a step by step organised
way. The person works steadily and patiently with details.
Intuitive type: One who does not show a lot of emotion, who can put things in
a logical order and who can be firm and fair.
The feeling type is aware of other people, dislikes telling people unpleasant
things and prefers harmony among people.
The interaction of these two aspects of problem solving results in four problem-
solving types.
1) The sensing-feeling person likes to collect data in an orderly way and
make decisions that take into account the needs of people. This person is
very concerned with high-quality decisions that people will accept and
implement.
2) The intuitive-feeling person is equally concerned with the people side of
decisions but the focus is on new ideas which are often broad in scope and
lacking in details.
3) Sensing-thinkers emphasise details and quality of a decision. They are not
as concerned with the people aspect of an organisation as with a technically
sound decision.
4) Intuitive-thinking likes to tackle new and innovative problems, but make
decisions primarily on technical terms. They tend to be good planners, but
not so good at implementing.
There is always a combination of these types in a person.
General attitudes: The last personality sub-system Jung identified was general
attitude work, namely judging and perceptive. Judging types like to follow a
plan, like to make decisions, and want only essentials for their work. On the
other hand, perceptive types adapt well to change, want to know all about a job
68 and may get overcommitted.
 Figure 3: Sensing Types versus Intuitive types: Characteristics of Each Personality, Values
and Attitudes
Sensing Types Intuitive Types
Dislike new problems unless there are Like solving new problems.
standard ways to solve them.
Like an established way of doing things. Dislike doing same thing repeatedly.
Enjoy using skills already learned more than Enjoy learning a new skill more thanusing it.
learning new ones.
Work more steadily, with realistic ideaof Work in bursts of energy powered by
how long it will take. enthusiasm, with slack periods in between.
Usually reach a conclusion step by step. Reach conclusion quickly.
Are patient with routine details. Are impatient with routine details.
Are impatient when the details get Are patient with complicatedsituations.
complicated.
Are not often inspired, and rarely trustthe Follow their inspirations, good or bad.
inspiration when they are.
Seldom makes errors of fact. Frequently makes errors of fact.
Tend to be good at precise work. Dislike taking time for decision.

Figure 4: Thinking Types versus Feeling Types: Characteristics of Each

Thinking Types Feeling Types
Do not show emotion readily and are Tend to be very aware or otherpeople and
often uncomfortable dealing with people’s their feelings.
feelings.
May hurt people’s feelings withoutknowing Enjoy pleasing people, even inunimportant
it. things.
Like analysis and putting things intological Like harmony. Efficient but are badly
order; can get along without harmony. disturbed by office feuds.
Tend to decide impersonally,sometimes Often let decisions be influenced by their
paying insufficientattention to people’s own or other people’s personal likes and
wishes. wishes.
Need to be treated fairly. Need occasional praise.
Are able to reprimand people or firethem Dislike telling people unpleasantthings.
when necessary.
Are more analytically oriented; respond Are more people-oriented; respondeasily to
easily to people’s thoughts. people’s values.
Tend to be firm minded. Tend to be sympathetic.

Figure 5: Judging Types versus Perceptive Types: Characteristics of Each

Judging Types Perceptive Types

Work best when they can plan theirwork Adapt well to changes.
and follow the plan.
Like to get things settled and finished. Do not mind leaving things open foraltera-
tions.
May decide things too quickly. May have trouble making decisions.
May dislike to interrupt the projectthey are May start too many projects and havedif-
on for a more urgent one. ficulty finishing them.
May not notice knew things that needto be May postpone unpleasant things.
done.
69
Intrapersonal Want only essentials needed to begintheir Want to know all about a new job.
Processes work.
Tend to be satisfied once they reach ajudge- Tend to be curious and welcome new infor-
ment on a thing, situation, or person. mation on a thing, situation, orperson.

Development of Personality: Erikson's eight life stages

Erikson identified eight stages of life that characterise the unending development
of a person. He characterised each stage by a particular conflict that needs to
be resolved successfully before a person can move to the next stage. However,
These eight stages are not totally separate, and the crises are never fully
resolved. Movement between stages is developmental. Movement can even
involve regression to earlier stages when traumatic events occur.
Stage One, Infancy: During the first year of life a person resolves the basic crisis
of trust vs. mistrust. An infant who is cared for in a loving and affectionate way
learns to trust other people. Lack of love and affection results in mistrust. This
stage makes a serious impact on a child that influences events for remaining
life.
Stage Two, early childhood: In the second and third years of life, a child
begins to assert independence. If the child is allowed to control these aspects of
life that the child is capable of controlling, sense of autonomy will develop. If
the child encounters constant disapproval or inconsistent rule setting, a sense of
self-doubt and shame is likely to develop.
Stage Three, play age: The four and five year olds seek to discover just
how much they can do. If a child is encouraged to experiment and to achieve
reasonable goals, he or she will develop a sense of initiative. If a child is blocked
and made to feel incapable, he or she will develop a sense of `guilt and lack of
self- confidence'.
Stage Four, school age: From ages 6 to 12, a child learns many new skills and
develops social abilities. If a child experiences real progress at a rate compatible
with his or abilities, the child will develop a sense of industry. The reverse
situation results in a sense of inferiority.
Stage Five, adolescence: The crisis of the teenage years is gain a sense of identity
rather than to become confused about who you are. While undergoing rapid
biological changes, the teenager is also trying to establish himself or herself as
socially separate from parents. The autonomy, initiative, and industry developed
in earlier stages are very important in helping the teenager successfully resolve
this crisis and prepare for adulthood.
Stage Six, young adulthood: The young adult (20's and 30's) faces the crisis
of intimacy versus isolation. The sense of identity developed during the
teenage years allows the young adult to begin developing deep and lasting
relationships.
Stage Seven, adulthood: During their 40's and 50's adults face the crisis of
generativity versus self-absorption. Self-absorbed persons never develop
an ability to look beyond themselves. They may become absorbed in career
advancements and maintenance; and they may never learn to have concern for
70 future generations, the welfare of organisations to which they belong or the
welfare of society as a whole. Generative people see the world as much bigger Personality, Values
than themselves. Productivity in work or child rearing or societal advancement and Attitudes
become important to them. Through innovation and creativity, they begin to
exert influence that benefits their organisation.
Stage Eight, later life: The adult of integrity has gained a sense of wisdom and
prospective that can truly help guide future generations.
Sheldon: He labeled three body builds and certain Personality Characteristics
they reflected. The three body types are:
1. Endomorph - Fleshy and inclined towards fatness.
2. Mesomorph - Athletic and inclined to be muscular
3. Ectomorph - Thin and inclined to be fine-boned and fragile. The personality
characteristics reflected are:
Endomorph: Friendly, oriented towards people, seek others when troubled,
slow to react, loves to eat.
Mesomorph: Seeks physical adventure, needs and enjoys exercise, restless,
aggressive, likes risk and chance, competitive.
Ectomorph: Likes privacy, socially inhibited, quick to react and hypersensitive
to pain.
Passages Theory
Sheehy (1976) with her extensive research concluded that adults progress
through five crises:
1) Pulling up Roots: This period occurs between the ages of eighteen and
twenty two, when individuals exit from home and incur physical, financial,
and emotional separation from parents. They cover their fears and uncertainty
with acts of defiance and mimicked confidence.
2) The Trying Twenties: This period is a time of opportunity, but also
includes the fear that choices are irrevocable. Two forces push upon us
- one is to build a firm, safe structure for the future by making strong
commitments and the other is to explore and experiment and keep flexible
as to commitments.
3) The Catch - Thirties: Approaching the age thirty is a time in which life
commitments are made, broken or renewed. It may mean setting towards
a new phase or calming down of idealistic dreams to realistic goals.
Commitments are changed or they are deepened. There is change, turmoil,
and often an urge to be out of the routine.
4) The Deadline Decade: The ten years between the age of thirty-five and
forty- five represent a crossroad. This period is characterised by a re-
examination of one's purposes and how the resources will be spent from
now on.
5) Renewal or Resignation: The mid forties bring a period of stability. The
individual who can find a purpose and direction upon which to continue
71
building his or her life, the mid forties may well be the best years.
Intrapersonal These stages are related to working places. It is expected that all employees face
Processes crises during their careers - Just as young people pass through identity crises,
during their teenage years, adults too go through stages - insecurity, opportunities
presented, opportunities forgone and lost, and either the acceptance of new
challenges or resignation. These crises create the opportunity for an employee
to alter his or her goals, commitments, and loyalties to the organisation. When
employees reach their forties, they re-examine their goals and make important
adjustments in their lives. Their personalities may undergo significant changes
resulting in behavioural patterns quite different from his or her environment.
Maturation Theory: Chris Argyris has postulated a maturation theory of
personality development that proposes that all healthy people seek situations
that offer autonomy, wise interests, to be treated equally, and the opportunity to
exhibit their ability to deal with complexity. Healthy individuals tend to move
from immaturity to maturity:
1) From being passive to engaging in increasing activity.
2) From dependence on others to independence.
3) From having few ways to behave to possess many alternatives.
4) From having shallow interests to developing deeper interests.
5) From short time perspective to having a longer time perspective.
6) From being in a subordinate position to viewing oneself as equal or
superior.
7) From lack of awareness of oneself to awareness of oneself,
According to Argyris, healthy people will show the behaviours of maturity
while unhealthy people tend to demonstrate childlike immature behaviours.
Further, Argyris argues that most organisations tend to their employees like
children, making them dependent.
The manager who understands personality development is better able to predict
these crises and recognise them as natural transitions that adults encounter.
Neither trait nor type approach, or theories of personality presented help in
predicting behaviour of an individual. The reason is, they ignore situational
contexts.

4.8 IMPACT OF PERSONALITY TRAITS ON

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
Personality trait typically refers to the basic components of personality. The
names are generally the terms used by people to describe one another. There
may be hundreds or thousands of such terms and practically impossible to keep
a track of these. Now, research has identified several general factors which
can be used to describe an individual’s personality. These are depicted in the
form of “Big Five” personality factors describing an individual’s adjustment,
sociability, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and intellectual openness.
Each personality includes a large number and range of specific personality traits
72 dimensions. Thus, each factor is said to contain both a collection of related traits
as well as a continuum. For instance, an individual having a personality at one Personality, Values
extreme will be sociable, gregarious, and energetic; and at the other extreme will and Attitudes
be shy and withdrawn. It will be interesting to note the individual personality in
the study of organisational behaviour because it provides the linkage between
personality and behaviour. Even though each personality factor represents a
collection of related traits, the link between personality and specific behaviours
will become clear when we concentrate on particular traits rather than on all the
five factors. We will briefly examine the specific personality traits which are
particularly important for understanding the various aspects of organisational
behaviour.
There are many different personality traits, but some of the important ones for
organisational behaviour are risk-taking, self-monitoring, type A and type B
personality, self-esteem, locus of control, machiavellianism, goal orientation,
introversion versus extroversion, dogmatism, and authoritarianism.
Risk-Taking
People differ in their willingness to take chances. Their propensity to assume
or avoid risk has been shown to have an impact on how long it takes managers
to make a decision and how much information they require before making their
choice.
While it is generally correct to conclude that managers in organisations are risk
aversive, there are still individual differences. As a result, it makes sense to
recognise those differences and even to consider aligning risk-taking propensity
with specific job demands. For instance, a high risk-taking propensity may lead
to more effective performance for a stock trader in a brokerage firm. This type
of risk demands rapid decision-making. On the other hand, this personality
characteristic might prove a major obstacle to accountants performing auditing
activities. This type of job might be better filled by someone with a low risk-
taking propensity.
Self-Monitoring
Another personality trait that has received increased attention is self-monitoring.
It refers to an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behaviour to external
factors. Individuals high in self-monitoring can show considerable adaptability
in adjusting their behaviour to external factors. They are highly sensitive to
external cues and can behave differently in different situations. Low self-
monitors cannot deviate from their behaviour. They tend to display their true
dispositions and attitude in every situation; hence there is high behavioural
consistency between who they are and what they do. The high self-monitors
tend to pay closer attention to the behaviour of others and are more capable of
conforming than low self-monitors.
Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is the outcome of an individual’s continuous evaluation of himself
or herself which will be assessments reflecting his/her response to others’
opinions, situational requirement, and successes and failures. Such assessments
are usually stable and accurate enough to be considered as a personality trait. In
terms of the Big Five personality factors, self-esteem is most likely to be a part
of the adjustment factor. 73
Intrapersonal Some of the ways in which self-esteem can affect organisational behaviour
Processes are:
• Self-esteem reflects an individual’s choice of vocation.
• Individuals with high self-esteem are likely to be attracted towards higher
status jobs. They also select unconventional jobs as compared to individuals
with low esteem.
• Self-esteem affects individuals as to how they set goals and attach value in
attaining them.
• Employees with high self-esteem set high goals for themselves and place
more value on actually attaining goals; and this would work the other way
around in case of employees with low self-esteem.
• Employees with low self-esteem are more sensitive to adverse job conditions
such as stress, conflict, ambiguity, poor supervision, poor working conditions
and so on when compared to employees with high self-esteem.
Simply stated, self-esteem is clearly indicative of the willingness of the
employee to assert himself or herself towards completion of the task assigned
and thus having positive links to achievement.
Locus of Control
Locus of control indicates the belief of the individual on the extent to which he
or she can control events affecting them.

High internal locus of control believe that it is their

own behaviour and actions (though may not be)
which determine many of the events in their life
Individuals with
High external locus of control believe that it is (by)
chance or fate or other individuals who determine
what happens to them.

Machiavellianism
This term is derived from Niccolo Machiavelli’s writings, who wrote on how to
gain and use power i.e., on an individual’s ability to manipulate people. Thus,
such Machs can easily be game for participating in organisational politics.
Those who are high Machs, believe ‘ends justify means’. They try manipulating
more, winning more, persuade others more and are themselves less persuaded.
Yet, there are situational factors which affect high Machs and they are able
to flourish in indirect situations. The situations involving minimum rules and
regulations and emotional involvement with details are irrelevant to winning,
and act as a cause of distraction for low Machs. For instance, where jobs involve
good bargaining skills, or where rewards are awarded for good performance
and winning, Machiavellians can perform better.
Goal Orientation
Another visible difference in individual behaviour in work environment is
related to goal orientation or the preference for one type of goal against another.
74
While trying to understand some aspects of individual job performance, we will Personality, Values
have to consider two types of goal orientation: and Attitudes

(a) Learning Goal Orientation — A predisposition to develop competence

by acquiring new skills and mastering new situations.
(b) Performance Goal Orientation — A predisposition to demonstrate and
validate competence by trying to obtain favourable judgments from others
(such as one’s supervisor) and refrain from negative judgments.
But when applying this goal orientation to work setting, a dramatic response
pattern in behaviour emerges. An individual with strong goal orientation may
refrain from accepting work challenges and their performance suffers when
they are unable to overcome obstacles and when faced with failure, become
unhappy and are likely to withdraw from such situations.
Individuals with a strong learning goal orientation try to overcome failure and
setback by putting in more efforts and looking out for new solutions to the
problems. Although an individual’s goal orientation may vary from situation to
situation, evidence suggest that a significant amount of goal orientation can be
indicative of an individual’s personality.
Introversion Versus Extroversion
The terms introvert and extrovert describe a person’s congeniality. These terms
can be extended to refer to a personality dimension also.
Introversion refers to the tendency to direct everything inward; develop a greater
affinity for abstract ideas and sensitive to personal feelings. Extroversion refers
to the tendency to orient towards other people, events and objects.
An introvert by nature is quiet, introspective and emotionally unimpressive.
An extrovert is one who is sociable, lively, impulsive and emotionally very
expressive.
People displaying characteristics of both introversion and extroversion are found
in all types of educational, gender, and occupational groups. The extremes of
both extroversion or introversion may not be good and can even come in the
way of the person’s effectiveness.
It is understood that the introversion – extroversion personality dimension can
affect the task performance in various environments. That is introverts perform
the job better when alone in a quiet environment, while extroverts perform
better in an environment having many people with a high level of activity.
Dogmatism
High dogmatism refers to the tendency of the individual to be very rigid,
perceives the world as a threatening place, prefers to treat legitimate authority
as absolute and either accepts or rejects other people on the basis of their
agreement or disagreement with accepted authority or doctrine.
Simply stated, a high-dogmatic (HD) person appears to be close-minded and
prefers to depend on authoritative people in organisations for guidance and
direction, and hence can more easily be influenced by such persons. As against
75
Intrapersonal this, people with low-dogmatic (LD) tendency are more open-minded and
Processes cannot be easily influenced by authoritative figures in the organisation like HD
persons.
With regards to the degree of dogmatism and its relationship with interpersonal
and group behaviour it is noted that HDs typically are in need of more group
structure as compared to LDs. So the performance of HDs will also be dependent
on how the group performs. But a high degree of dogmatism can at times lead
to poor managerial performance because they may be involved only in a limited
search for information especially in decision making situations.
Authoritarianism
Authoritarianism though closely related to dogmatism, is narrower in scope.
It refers to a person who displays qualities such as adherence to conventional
values, obeys recognised authority, has a negative view of society, respects
power and toughness, and opposes expression of personal feelings.
In an organisational set up, such persons may prefer superiors who have a highly
directive and structured leadership style. Both dogmatism and authoritarianism
can be related to the ‘intellectual openness factor’ of the ‘Big Five’ factors.

4.9 IMPORTANCE OF PERSONALITY

Understanding of personality is very important because by determining
what characteristics will make for effective job performance, it can aid in
personnel selections; by increasing understanding of how personality and job
characteristics interact it can result in better hiring, transfer and promotion
decisions, and by providing insights into personality development it can help
to anticipate, recognise and prevent the operationalising of costly defenses by
organisational members. There are certain procedures by which personalities
can be predicted:
1) `Rating Scales' from peers or friends help in predicting the behaviour.
2) `Experimental procedures' which help in the assessment of some
characteristics of person.
3) With the help of `Questionnaire' one can assess behaviour of the other,
provided the answers are genuine.
4) Projective Tests like Thematic Appreciation Test, Rorschach's Ink-Blot test
help in predicting the personality of an individual.
These measures help in effectiveness of the organisation.

4.10 ATTITUDES
Attitudes are a way of responding either favourably or unfavourably to objects,
persons, concepts etc. They are evaluative statements. They reflect how one
feels about something. Attitudes are related to behaviour. It is an unidimensional
variable, i.e., positive or negative. They are hypothetical constructs. It is
something inside a person. It may be observed but the attitude itself cannot.

76
Attitudes in a person could be observed in three ways: 1) Direct experience with Personality, Values
the person or situation. 2) Association with other similar persons or situations. and Attitudes
3) Learning from others their association with the person or situation. `Direct
experience' is the concrete experience stage of learning. Association is similar
to abstract conceptualisation and generalisation. Learning from others is like
reflection and observation. Attitudes evolve out of perception and learning
process. One is not born with attitudes but acquires them through life experiences.
But certain basic attitude of trust or mistrust occurs during the infancy. If a
child's basic needs are met in a loving manner, the child will develop a sense
of trust otherwise a sense of mistrust develops. The child also develops a sense
of autonomy or shame and doubt. All these affects one's behaviour. And this
linkage to behaviour is what managers are concerned with; and they also tend
to understand the ways in which behaviour affects attitudes.

4.11 ATTITUDES AND ORGANISATION

In organisations, attitudes are important because they affect the job behaviour.
These job related attitudes top positive or negative evaluations that employees
hold about aspects of their work environment. There are three primary attitudes;
job satisfaction, job involvement, and organisational commitment.
Job satisfaction refers to an individual's general attitude towards his or her job,
which is either positive or negative, i.e., satisfied or dissatisfied.
Job involvement measures the degree to which a person identifies with his job,
actively participates in it and considers his performance important to his self-
worth.
Organisational commitment is an orientation in terms of loyalty, identity and
involvement in the organisation. These attitudes are measured so that behaviours
like productivity, absenteeism and turnover can be predicted.
Managers need not be interested only in understanding the attitudes of the
people, but also in changing them. Since attitudes are learned they can be
changed. Persuasive communications are used to change attitudes. But attitudes
are slow to change.
Because they are based on deep-seated beliefs and values.

4.12 VALUES
Values are encompassing concepts. American Management Association
indicated that values are at the core of personality, and that they are ,powerful,
though silent force affecting behaviour.
Values are so embedded that it can be inferred from people's behaviour and
their expressed attitudes. But values are a strong force in people. What may
`appear' to be strange behaviour in an employee can make sense if managers
understand the values underlying that behaviour.
Rokeach (1973) "values represent basic convictions that a specific mode of
conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an
opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence."
77
Intrapersonal Rokeach divided values into two broad categories: `Terminal values" relate to
Processes ends to be achieved e.g. comfortable life, family security, self-respect and sense
of accomplishment. `Instrumental values' relate to means for achieving desired
ends,
e.g. ambition, courage, honesty and imagination. Terminal values reflect what
a person is ultimately striving to achieve, whereas instrumental values reflect
how the person get there.
Values are so embedded that it can be inferred from people's behaviour and their
perception, personality and motivation. They generally influence behaviour.
They are relatively stable and enduring. This is because, the way in which they
are originally learned.
Allport (1951) identified six types of values.
1) Theoretical - Places high importance on the discovery of truth through
critical and rational approach.
2) Economic - Emphasises to be useful and practical.
3) Aesthetic - Places the highest value on form and harmony.
4) Social - The highest value is given to the love of people.
5) Political - Places emphasis on acquisition of power and influence.
6) Religious - Concerned with the unity of experience and understanding of
the cosmos as a whole.
People in different occupations place different importance on the six value
types.
The knowledge that people have different types of values has led a few of the
more progressively managed organisations to initiate efforts to improve the
values - job fit in order to enhance employee performance and satisfaction.
Texas Instruments for instance, has developed a programme to diagnose
different value types and to match properly these types with appropriate work
environments within their company.
Some individuals, for example, are classified as "tribalistic" - people who want
strong, directive leadership from their bosses; some are "egocentric" desiring
individual responsibilities and wanting to work as lovers in an entrepreneurial
style; some are "sociocentric" seeking primarily the social relationship that job
provides, and some are "existential", seeking full expression of growth and self-
fulfilment needs through their work, much as an artist does. Charles Hughes,
director of personnel and organisation development at Texas Instruments,
believes the variety of work that needs to be done, in his organisation is great
enough to accommodate these different types work personalities in such a
manner that an individual and organisational goals are fused.
Work Values
Values provide a framework for making choices between desirable and
undesirable responses. Values also refer to priorities that an individual assigns
78
to multiplicity of goals. These thus provide direction to and determine intensity Personality, Values
of individual responses. The stronger the value system, the more intense will be and Attitudes
the action in pursuit of that value. For an organisation to achieve unity of action
amongst diverse employees, it is imperative for them to articulate core values
and seek adherence to those values by every individual. The core values
of an organisation are derived from the vision and expectations of strategic
stakeholders.

Defining Values

Values may be defined as a specific mode of conduct or end-state of

existence that is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or
converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence.

As organisations struggle to survive in a highly uncertain and turbulent

environment, they have no option but to carve out a space for themselves in the
global economic order. Organisations can no longer afford to remain passive
recipients of environmental forces; instead their sustained growth will depend
on becoming active agents in transforming the environment to make it conducive
to give expression to their ideas and intentions. It is these compulsions that have
led most organisations to develop vision and articulate a set of values providing
focus on their responses to the demands of internal and external stakeholders.
Values are derived from the basic assumptions held by a group of people about
themselves, others and the world. They provide a framework enabling individuals
to prioritise their actions, make a choice of options, determine preferred ways
of responding and distinguishing between desirable and undesirable responses.
Values thus influence all our decisions and actions and have a self-prophetic
impact on our being. Given its significance, it is obvious that unity of action
amongst employees towards the common purposes of the organisation cannot
be achieved unless they adhere to a common set of values.
Values operate at three levels: individual, socio-cultural and organisational.
At individual level, values tend to differ in terms of their importance and
intensity. Every individual therefore develops a hierarchy of values. Individuals
belonging to the same socio-cultural milieu may differ in terms of their value
system. Socio-cultural value systems are derived from the basic belief about the
nature of society and its relationship with environment. It has its historical roots
in cultural traditions and heritage of the society and in its triumphs and trials.
Likewise an organisation designed by people develops its own value system
arising primarily out of compulsions to survive as a viable entity.
Most organisations articulate core values such as quality, customer satisfaction,
environmental protection, human resource development, human dignity and
respect, technological development, social responsibility, etc.
Adherence to Core Values: Most organisations articulate certain core values
that must be adhered to by the employees. Identification with these values by
79
Intrapersonal the employees is significant, as it becomes a substitute for sacrifices made by
Processes them by virtue of their membership in the organisation. Employees learn to
accept these values and start believing that the organisation will not do anything
that would hurt them. The personal costs of working long hours, meeting strict
schedules and the like are overcome by adhering to higher human values
such as serving the community or the society with high quality products and
services. In the power sector, some of the private utilities have demonstrated
better adherence to core values than public sector undertakings. That is why the
political leadership is forced to privatise distribution of power. How far is it true
in the case of your utility?
Value Actualisation: Core values developed by an organisation must be
internalized by all members so as to bridge the gap between the value system
of the individuals and the whole. In the absence of conscious effort to develop
shared value system, the employees will continue to adhere to their archaic
value system derived from the old assumptions, or by the pre-dominant value
system prevalent in their socio-cultural milieu. In either case, the organisation
will not be able to optimally channelise the energies and efforts of its members
towards purposive action.
Although organisations have been quick to realize the significance of value
driven responses, and have thus articulated their core values, adherence or
internalization of those values on the part of the employees still remains an
illusion. Because of abstract nature of values, employees often find it difficult
to give concrete shape and translate them in their day to day activity, divided as
they are along the lines of function, hierarchical levels, nature of product and
services’. It is advisable therefore within the overall framework of the corporate
value system that every department, every function and identifiable product or
service group must develop operational values relevant to the demands of their
task and their respective contexts.
What should be the core values in a power utility? Managing the operation and
maintenance of equipment to ensure good quality power supply, preventing
commercial losses, instilling confidence in customers about correct billing,
prompt redressal of grievances and above all giving them sympathetic hearing
should be the minimum core values.
Globalisation and Core Values: One of the major challenges faced by the
organisations functioning in the global economy is to maintain its core values,
despite differences in respective local cultures in areas of its operation. It is quite
likely that core values of an organisation are not congruent with the existing
societal value system. This would necessitate special drive for upholding its
core values. For example, most multinationals working in India have service
orientation as an important core value. However, for an Indian company, due
to the legacy of the state controlled economy, service orientation as a value is
attached much less importance.
Box 1 gives the Vision, Mission and Core Values of NTPC, a reasonably
successful Indian enterprise in power sector.

80
 Box 1: Vision, Mission and Core Values of NTPC Personality, Values
and Attitudes

VISION
“To be one of the world’s largest and best power utilities, powering India’s
growth”
MISSION
• Make available reliable and quality power in increasingly large
quantities at appropriate tariffs, and ensure timely realization of
revenues.
• Speedily plan and implement power projects, with contemporary
technologies.
• Implement strategic diversification in the areas of R&M, Hydro, LNG
and non- conventional and eco-friendly fuels and explore new areas
like transmission, information technology, etc.
• Promote consultancy.
• Make prudent acquisitions.
• Continuously develop competent human resources to match world
standards.
• Be a responsible corporate citizen with thrust on environmental
protection, rehabilitation and as utilization.
CORE VALUES (COMIT)
• Customer Focus
• Organisational Pride
• Mutual Respect and Trust
• Initiative and Speed
• Total Quality

Values and Attitudes

Values are expressed in terms of attitudes, which, in turn, provide direction to
one’s responses. For example, a Professor who believes strongly in the work
ethics will tend to exhibit certain attitudes towards students and methods of
studies as a means of reflecting this value.
In the pre-liberalisation era, value system in organisations grew primarily out
of the societal value system. The organisations were thus microcosms of the
larger society. In the current and emerging scenario, organisations need to make
deliberate choice with regard to developing value systems which would enable
them to gain and maintain competitive edge.

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Intrapersonal
Processes
4.13 SOCIALISATION'S INFLUENCE ON
PERSONALITY, VALUES AND ATTITUDES
Organisations play a major factor in people's lives and it has a significant
impact on people's personality, values and attitudes. Socialisation is the process
by which an individual adapts himself to the working environment and gains
loyalty and commitment to an organisation. Through this process, a person
learns the goals of the organisation, the means to achieve those goals, an
employee's responsibilities and accepted ways of behaving in the organisation.
In addition, the person learns the organisation's attitudes and values. As the
person becomes socialised in the organisation, there is also a tendency to adapt
to the attitudes and values of the organisation. Thus, the organisation influences
the personality, values and attitudes of an individual.
Stages of Socialisation
1) Pre-arrival stage: Individuals develop preconceived notions about an
organisation based on previous education, work experiences and contacts
with organisation.
2) Encounter with the Organisation: A person's initial orientation, training
and experiences with other employees who exhibit the accepted attitudes in
the organisation all influence and change the person.
Change of the Person and Acquisition of the new attitudes and values:
When a person works in a company, he or she gradually learns what is expected
and begins to develop a new personality that is consistent with the organisation
depending, the person works for sometime in the same organization.
Socialisation process is not limited to the entry point in an organisation. Rather,
it is a continuous process throughout person's career path.
Socialisation occurs every time employee makes a move in an organisation. As
people move vertically up the organisation's hierarchy, they encounter different
norms, values and attitudes. At the entry stage, employees must assimilate
these new factors if they are to be successful, and the potential is there for an
alteration of their personality.
Economic conditions, competitions and technological advances can cause
an organisation to change its basic orientation: The resulting adaptation will
bring new forces to bear on each organisation member - forces which may alter
personalities

4.14 SCHEIN SOCIALISATION MODEL

Schein identified three ways in which individuals respond to the socialisation
forces of the organisation and thus exert influence on their own personalities.
1) Rebellion: The new employee could attempt to fight the organisation. The
result might be dismissal, or change in the organisation, or change in the
person (regardless of whether the individual wins or losses).
2) Creative Individualism: Where an employee accepts the organisation's
values and attitudes which are important and rejects the others. The employee
82
 uses a combination of personal and organisational values in relation to the Personality, Values
organisation. and Attitudes

3) Conform: A person could simply conform to the organisational forcesd

exert very little influence on the organisation.
Thus socialisation is a process that exerts influence toward changing personality.
But previous socialisation, learning and attitude formation create forces that
operate to maintain personality as a consistent type. Perceptual process filters
socialisation forces in an attempt to maintain consistency between people's
surroundings and their self-concept and it depends on strength 'of these forces.
Personality, Attitude and Values continue to develop and evolve over a time.
To understand the process of socialisation is necessary for a manager because it
relates directly to work organisation.

4.15 SUMMARY
From this Unit, it was learnt that understanding human behaviour is essential
for an effective manager, as it facilitates to achieve organisational goals better.
The reasons for individual differences and approaches of understanding human
behaviour are explained.
It was understood from this unit, that attitudes are opinions about things. Values
represent deep-seated standards by which people evaluate their world. The past
plays an important role in the development of attitudes and values. Personality
is the result of person's experiences and genetic influences. Approaches,
theories and determinants of personality were explained. Finally, the process of
socialisation in an organisation that alters one's personality, values and attitudes
was discussed.

4.16 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. How do you define personality? What are the specific traits that constitute
the concept of personality?
2. Differentiate between introvert and extrovert personalities. Is one form of
personality necessarily better than the other? Explain pros and cons of both
types.
3. What are the determinants of personality? Which of them do you feel are
more important in shaping personality?
4. Explain the Freudian and Erikson’s stages of personality development.
5. Critically examine the psychoanalytic approach to personality.
6. Discuss the essence of social learning theory of personality.
7. According to you, which theory of personality is more comprehensive?
Give reasons.
8. “Heredity determines personality.” (a) build an argument to support this
statement; and (b) build an argument against this statement.

83
Intrapersonal
Processes
4.17 FURTHER READINGS/ REFERENCES
Greenberg, J., and Baron, R., Behavior in Organizations, Pearson, Prentice Hall
Dorling Kindersley (I) Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2009.
Luthans, F., Organizational Behavior, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1995.
Miner, J.B., Organizational Behavior - Performance and Productivity, Random
House Inc., New York, 1988.
Robbins, S.P., Organizational Behavior, Prentice Hall of India (P) Ltd., New
Delhi, 2003.
Meddi, S.R., Personality Theories: A Comparative Analysis, Homewood:
Dorse, 1989, P. 10.
Miner, B. John, Organizational Behavior, Random House, New York, 1988,
PP. 76-84.
Allport, W. Gordon, Personality, New York, Henry Holt, 1937.
Cattell, B. Reymond, The Scientific Analysis of Personality, Aldine Publishing,
Chicago, 1965.
Gardner, D.G., and Pierce, J.L., Self Esteem and Self Efficacy within the
Organizational Context,
Group and Organisational Management, 1999, P. 32-35.

84