Goals and Applications

Unit -1
Goals and Applications

Networks Affect Our Lives

Communication is almost as important to us as our
reliance on air, water, food, and shelter. In today’s world,
through the use of networks, we are connected like never
before.

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Goals and Applications

No Boundaries

• World without boundaries

• Global communities
• Human network

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Goals and Applications

Network Components
Host Roles​
Every computer on a network is called a
host or end device.​
Servers are computers that
provide information to end devices:​ Server Description​
Type​
•email servers​ Email​ Email server runs email server software. ​
•web servers​ Clients use client software to access email.​
•file server​ Web​ Web server runs web server software. ​
Clients use browser software to access
Clients are computers that send requests web pages.​
to the servers to retrieve information:​ File​ File server stores corporate and user files.​
•web page from a web server​ The client devices access these files.​

•email from an email server​ 23-02-2024

​
Computer Networks 4
Goals and Applications

Peer-to-Peer​

It is possible to have a device be a client and a server in a Peer-to-Peer

Network. This type of network design is only recommended for very small
networks.

Advantages​ Disadvantages​
Easy to set up​ No centralized administration​
Less complex​ Not as secure​
Lower cost​ Not scalable​

Used for simple tasks: transferring files and Slower performance​

sharing printers​
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Goals and Applications

End Devices​

An end device is where a message originates from or where it is received.

Data originates with an end device, flows through the network, and arrives at
an end device.

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Goals and Applications
Intermediary Network Devices
An intermediary device interconnects end devices. Examples include
switches, wireless access points, routers, and firewalls.
Management of data as it flows through a network is also the role of an
intermediary device, including:
• Regenerate and retransmit data signals.
• Maintain information about what pathways exist in the network.
• Notify other devices of errors and communication failures.

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Goals and Applications

Network Media

Communication across a network is carried through a medium

which allows a message to travel from source to destination.

Media Types​ Description​

Metal wires within cables​ Uses electrical impulses​

Glass or plastic fibers within Uses pulses of light.​

cables (fiber-optic cable)​

Wireless transmission​ Uses modulation of specific

frequencies
of electromagnetic waves.​

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Network Representation & Topologies
Unit -1
Network Representations
Network diagrams, often called topology diagrams, use
symbols to represent devices within the network.​
Important terms to know include:​
• Network Interface Card (NIC)​
• Physical Port​
• Interface​
​
Note: Often, the terms port and interface are used
interchangeably​

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 Topology Diagrams​
Physical topology diagrams illustrate the physical Logical topology diagrams illustrate devices, ports,
location of intermediary devices and cable and the addressing scheme of the network.​
installation.​

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Interconnection Topology Types
The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices
(usually called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.

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Mesh Topology
• Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.
• The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects.
• A fully connected mesh can have n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
• Applications:
1. Telephone Regional Office.
2. WAN (Wide Area Network).

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Advantages Disadvantages
• The amount of cabling and the number
• They use dedicated links so each link can
of I/O ports required are very large.
only carry its own data load. So traffic
problem can be avoided.
• The sheer bulk of wiring is larger then
• It is robust the available space.
• It gives privacy and security.
• Hardware required to connect each
• Fault identification and fault tolerance are device is highly expensive.
easy.

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 Star Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point to point link to the central controller called “Hub” (Act as a
exchange).
• There is no direct traffic between devices.
• The transmission are occurred only through the central “hub”.
• Applications:
1. Star topology used in Local Area Networks (LANs).
2. High speed LAN often used STAR.

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Advantages Disadvantages
• Less expensive
• Dependency ( whole network dependent
on one single point i.e., hub).
• Installation & configuration is easy.
• Even it requires less cabling then mesh
• Less cabling then mesh. but when compared with other topologies
• Robust
it still large. (Ring or bus)

• Fault identification is easy.

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Bus Topology
• A bus topology is multipoint.
• One long cable act as a backbone to link all the devices are connected to the backbone by drop lines and
taps.
• Drop Line is the connection between the devices and the cable.
• Tap is the splitter that cut the main link.
• This allows only one device to transmit at a time.
• Applications:
1. Most Computer Motherboard.

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Advantages Disadvantages

• Ease of installation.
• Difficult reconfiguration and fault
isolation.
• Less cabling
• Difficult to add new devices.
• If any Fault in backbone can stops all
transmissions.

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Ring Topology
• Each device has a dedicated connection with two devices on either side.
• The signal is passed in one direction from device to device until it reaches the destination and each
device have repeater.
• When one device received signals instead of intended another device, its repeater then regenerates the
data and passes them along.
• To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections.
• Applications:
1. Office Buildings or school computers.
2. Today high speed LANs made this topology less popular.

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Advantages Disadvantages
• Easy to install. • Unidirectional Traffic.

• Easy to reconfigure. • Break in a single ring can break the

entire work.
• Fault identification is easy.

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Types of Connections
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway that transfers
data from one device to another.
• Point-to-Point- A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
• Multipoint- A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices
share a single link. The capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices can
use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared
connection

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Types of Communication
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half duplex or full duplex.

• Simplex: In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional. Only one of the two devices on a link
can transmit; the other can only receive.

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Types of Communication (cont.)
Half Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. :
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.

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Types of Communication (cont.)
Full-Duplex - In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

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Common Types of Network
Unit - 1
Networks of Many Sizes
• Small Home Networks – connect a
few computers to each other and the Internet​
• Small Office/Home Office – enables computer
within a home or remote office to connect to a
corporate network​
• Medium to Large Networks – many locations
with hundreds or thousands of interconnected
computers​
• World Wide Networks – connects hundreds of
millions of computers world-wide – such as
the internet​

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LANs and WANs​
Network infrastructures vary greatly in terms of:​
• Size of the area covered​
• Number of users connected​
• Number and types of services available​
• Area of responsibility​

Two most common types of networks: ​

• Local Area Network (LAN) ​
• Wide Area Network (WAN). ​

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LANs and WANs (cont.)​
• A LAN is a network infrastructure that A WAN is a network infrastructure that
spans a small geographical area. ​ spans a wide geographical area.​

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The Internet​
The internet is a worldwide collection of interconnected
LANs and WANs. ​
• LANs are connected to each other using WANs.​
• WANs may use copper wires, fiber optic cables, and
wireless transmissions.​
The internet is not owned by any individual or group.
The following groups were developed to help maintain
structure on the internet:​
• IETF​(Internet Engineering Task Force)
• ICANN​ (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names
and Numbers)
• IAB​ (Internet Architecture Board)

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Intranets and Extranets​

• An intranet is a private collection of LANs and WANs

internal to an organization that is meant to be accessible
only to the organization's members or others
with authorization.​

• An organization might use an extranet to provide secure

access to their network for individuals who work for a
different organization that need access to their data on
their network.​

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Internet Connections
Unit 1
Internet Connections
Internet Access Technologies
There are many ways to connect users and
organizations to the internet:
• Popular services for home users and
small offices include broadband cable,
broadband digital subscriber line (DSL),
wireless WANs, and mobile services.
• Organizations need faster connections
to support IP phones, video
conferencing and data center storage.
• Business-class interconnections are
usually provided by service providers
(SP) and may include: business DSL,
leased lines, and Metro Ethernet.
Computer Networks 23-02-2024 2
Internet Connections
Home and Small Office Internet Connections
Connection Description

Cable high bandwidth, always on, internet

offered by cable television service
providers.
DSL high bandwidth, always on, internet
connection that runs over a
telephone line.
Cellular uses a cell phone network to connect
to the internet.

Satellite major benefit to rural areas without

Internet Service Providers.

Dial-up an inexpensive, low bandwidth

Telephone option using a modem.

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Internet Connections
Businesses Internet Connections
Corporate business connections may require:
• higher bandwidth Type of Description
• dedicated connections Connection
• managed services
Dedicated These are reserved circuits within the
Leased Line service provider’s network that connect
distant offices with private voice and/or
data networking.
Ethernet WAN This extends LAN access technology into
the WAN.
DSL Business DSL is available in various
formats including Symmetric Digital
Subscriber Lines (SDSL).

Satellite This can provide a connection when a

wired solution is not available.

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Computer Networks
Internet Connections
The Converging Network

Before converged networks, an

organization would have been
separately cabled for telephone,
video, and data. Each of these
networks would use different
technologies to carry the signal.
Each of these technologies would
use a different set of rules and
standards.

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 Internet Connections
The Converging Network (Cont.)
Converged data networks carry multiple
services on one link including:
• data
• voice
• video
Converged networks can deliver data,
voice, and video over the same network
infrastructure. The network
infrastructure uses the same set of rules
and standards.

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Reliable Networks
Unit no 1
Reliable Network
Network Architecture
Network Architecture refers to the technologies that
support the infrastructure that moves data across the
network.
There are four basic characteristics that the underlying
architectures need to address to meet user
expectations:
• Fault Tolerance
• Scalability
• Quality of Service (QoS)
• Security

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 Reliable Network
Fault Tolerance
A fault tolerant network limits the impact
of a failure by limiting the number of
affected devices. Multiple paths are
required for fault tolerance.
Reliable networks provide redundancy by
implementing a packet switched network:
• Packet switching splits traffic into
packets that are routed over a
network.
• Each packet could theoretically take
a different path to the destination.
This is not possible with circuit-switched
networks which establish dedicated
circuits.
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Reliable Network
Scalability
A scalable network can expand
quickly and easily to support new
users and applications without
impacting the performance of
services to existing users.
Network designers follow
accepted standards and protocols
in order to make the networks
scalable.

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 Reliable Network
Quality of Service
Voice and live video transmissions require
higher expectations for those services being
delivered.
Have you ever watched a live video with
constant breaks and pauses? This is caused
when there is a higher demand for bandwidth
than available – and QoS isn’t configured.
• Quality of Service (QoS) is the primary
mechanism used to ensure reliable delivery
of content for all users.
• With a QoS policy in place, the router can
more easily manage the flow of data and
voice traffic.

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Reliable Network
Network Security
There are two main types of network security that must be
addressed:
• Network infrastructure security
• Physical security of network devices
• Preventing unauthorized access to the devices
• Information Security
• Protection of the information or data
transmitted over the network
Three goals of network security:
• Confidentiality – only intended recipients can read the
data
• Integrity – assurance that the data has not be altered
with during transmission
• Availability – assurance of timely and reliable access
to data for authorized users

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Network Trends
Unit-1
 Network Trends

Recent Trends
•The role of the network must
adjust and continually transform
in order to be able to keep up
with new technologies and end
user devices as they constantly
come to the market.
•Several new networking trends
that effect organizations and
consumers:
• Bring Your Own Device (BYOD)
• Online collaboration
• Video communications
• Cloud computing

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 Network Trends

Bring Your Own Device

Bring Your Own Device (BYOD)
allows users to use their own
devices giving them more
opportunities and greater flexibility.
BYOD allows end users to have
the freedom to use personal tools
to access information and
communicate using their:
• Laptops
• Netbooks
• Tablets
• Smartphones
• E-readers
BYOD means any device, with any
ownership, used anywhere. 3
Computer Networks 23-02-2024
 Network Trends

Online Collaboration
• Collaborate and work with others
over the network on joint projects.
• Collaboration tools including Cisco
WebEx (shown in the figure) gives
users a way to instantly connect and
interact.
• Collaboration is a very high priority
for businesses and in education.
• Cisco Webex Teams is a
multifunctional collaboration tool.
• send instant messages
• post images
• post videos and links

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 Network Trends

Video Communication
• Video calls are made to anyone, regardless of where they are
located.
• Video conferencing is a powerful tool for communicating with
others.
• Video is becoming a critical requirement for effective collaboration.
• Cisco Tele Presence powers is one way of working where
everyone, everywhere.

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 5

 Network Trends

Video – Cisco WebEx for Huddles

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 6

 Network Trends

Cloud Computing

Cloud computing allows us to store personal files or backup our data on

servers over the internet.
•Applications can also be accessed using the Cloud.
•Allows businesses to deliver to any device anywhere in the world.

Cloud computing is made possible by data centers.

•Smaller companies that can’t afford their own data centers, lease server
and storage services from larger data center organizations in the Cloud.

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 7

 Network Trends

Cloud Computing
(Cont.)
Four types :
•Public Clouds
•Available to the general public through a pay-per-use model or for free.
•Private Clouds
•Intended for a specific organization or entity such as the government.
•Hybrid Clouof Cloudsds
•Made up of two or more Cloud types – for example, part custom and part public.
•Each part remains a distinctive object but both are connected using the same architecture.
•Custom Clouds
•Built to meet the needs of a specific industry, such as healthcare or media.
•Can be private or public.
Computer Networks 23-02-2024 8
 Network Trends

Technology Trends in the Home

•Smart home technology is a growing

trend that allows technology to be
integrated into every-day appliances
which allows them to interconnect with
other devices.
•Ovens might know what time to cook
a meal for you by communicating with
your calendar on what time you are
scheduled to be home.
•Smart home technology is currently
being developed for all rooms within a
house.

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 9

 Network Trends

Powerline Networking
•Powerline networking can allow
devices to connect to a LAN where
data network cables or wireless
communications are not a viable
option.
•Using a standard powerline
adapter, devices can connect to the
LAN wherever there is an electrical
outlet by sending data on certain
frequencies.
•Powerline networking is especially
useful when wireless access points
cannot reach all the devices in the
home.

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 10

 Network Trends

Wireless Broadband
In addition to DSL and cable, wireless is
another option used to connect homes and
small businesses to the internet.
•More commonly found in rural
environments, a Wireless Internet
Service Provider (WISP) is an ISP that
connects subscribers to designated
access points or hotspots.
•Wireless broadband is another solution
for the home and small businesses.
•Uses the same cellular technology
used by a smart phone.
•An antenna is installed outside the
house providing wireless or wired
connectivity for devices in the home.

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Reference Models
Unit -1
Reference Models​
The Benefits of Using a Layered Model​

• Complex concepts such as how

a network operates can be difficult
to explain and understand. For
this reason, a layered model is used.​
• Two layered models describe
network operations:​
• Open System Interconnection
(OSI) Reference Model​
• TCP/IP Reference Model​

23-02-2024 2
Computer Networks
 Reference Models​
The Benefits of Using a Layered Model (Cont.)​
These are the benefits of using a layered model:​
• Assist in protocol design because protocols that operate at a specific layer
have defined information that they act upon and a defined interface to the
layers above and below​.
• Foster competition because products from different vendors can work together​.
• Prevent technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting other
layers above and below​.
• Provide a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities. ​
Computer Networks 23-02-2024 3
Reference Models​
The OSI Reference Model​

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 4

Reference Models​
The TCP/IP Reference Model​

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 5

Reference Models​

OSI and TCP/IP Model Comparison​

• The OSI model divides the

network access layer and the
application layer of the TCP/IP
model into multiple layers.​
• The TCP/IP protocol suite does
not specify which protocols to
use when transmitting over a
physical medium.​
• OSI Layers 1 and 2 discuss
the necessary procedures to
access the media and the
physical means to send data
over a network.​

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 6

Data Access
Unit -1
Data Access

Addresses
Both the data link and network layers use addressing to deliver
data from source to destination.
Network layer source and destination addresses - Responsible
for delivering the IP packet from original source to the final
destination.
Data link layer source and destination addresses – Responsible
for delivering the data link frame from one network interface
card (NIC) to another NIC on the same network.
Data Access

Layer 3 Logical Address

The IP packet contains two IP addresses:
• Source IP address - The IP address of the
sending device, original source of the packet.
• Destination IP address - The IP address of the
receiving device, final destination of the packet.
These addresses may be on the same link or
remote.
Data Access
Layer 3 Logical Address (Cont.)
An IP address contains two parts:
• Network portion (IPv4) or Prefix (IPv6)
• The left-most part of the address indicates the network group
which the IP address is a member.
• Each LAN or WAN will have the same network portion.
• Host portion (IPv4) or Interface ID (IPv6)
• The remaining part of the address identifies a specific device
within the group.
• This portion is unique for each device on the network.
Data Access
Devices on the Same Network

When devices are on the same network the

source and destination will have the same
number in network portion of the address.
• PC1 – [Link]
• FTP Server – [Link]
Data Access
Role of the Data Link Layer Addresses: Same IP Network
When devices are on the same Ethernet network the data link frame will
use the actual MAC address of the destination NIC.
MAC addresses are physically embedded into the Ethernet NIC and are
local addressing.
• The Source MAC address will be that of the originator on the link.
• The Destination MAC address will always be on the same link as the
source, even if the ultimate destination is remote.
Data Access
Role of the Network Layer Addresses
When the source and destination have a different network
portion, this means they are on different networks.
• PC1 – 192.168.1
• Web Server – 172.16.1
Data Access
Role of the Data Link Layer Addresses: Different IP Networks

When the final destination is remote, Layer 3 will provide Layer 2 with the
local default gateway IP address, also known as the router address.
• The default gateway (DGW) is the router interface IP address that is part
of this LAN and will be the “door” or “gateway” to all other remote
locations.
• All devices on the LAN must be told about this address or their traffic will
be confined to the LAN only.
• Once Layer 2 on PC1 forwards to the default gateway (Router), the router
then can start the routing process of getting the information to actual
destination.
Data Access
Role of the Data Link Layer Addresses: Different IP Networks
• The data link addressing is local addressing so it will have a
source and destination for each link.
• The MAC addressing for the first segment is :
• Source – AA-AA-AA-AA-AA-AA (PC1) Sends the frame.
• Destination – 11-11-11-11-11-11 (R1- Default Gateway MAC)
Receives the frame.
Note: While the L2 local addressing will change from link to link
or hop to hop, the L3 addressing remains the same.
 Data Access
Data Link Addresses

• Since data link addressing is local addressing, it will have a source and
destination for each segment or hop of the journey to the destination.
• The MAC addressing for the first segment is:
• Source – (PC1 NIC) sends frame
• Destination – (First Router- DGW interface) receives frame
 Data Access
Data Link Addresses (Cont.)

The MAC addressing for the second hop is:

• Source – (First Router- exit interface) sends frame
• Destination – (Second Router) receives frame
Data Access
Data Link Addresses (Cont.)

The MAC addressing for the last segment is:

• Source – (Second Router- exit interface) sends frame
• Destination – (Web Server NIC) receives frame
 Data Access
Data Link Addresses (Cont.)

• Notice that the packet is not modified, but the frame is changed, therefore the
L3 IP addressing does not change from segment to segment like the L2 MAC
addressing.
• The L3 addressing remains the same since it is global and the ultimate
destination is still the Web Server.
Data Encapsulation
Unit-1
 Data Encapsulation

Segmenting Messages

Segmenting is the process of breaking up

messages into smaller units. Segmenting
messages has two primary benefits:
• Increases speed - Large amounts of data
can be sent over the network without tying
up a communications link.
• Increases efficiency - Only segments
which fail to reach the destination need to be
retransmitted, not the entire data stream.

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 2

 Data Encapsulation

Sequencing

Sequencing messages is the

process of numbering the
segments so that the message may
be reassembled at the destination.
TCP is responsible for sequencing
the individual segments.

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 Data Encapsulation

Protocol Data Units

Encapsulation is the process where protocols add
their information to the data.
•At each stage of the process, a PDU has a
different name to reflect its new functions.
•There is no universal naming convention for
PDUs, in this course, the PDUs are named
according to the protocols of the TCP/IP suite.
•PDUs passing down the stack are as follows:
1. Data (Data Stream)
2. Segment
3. Packet
4. Frame
5. Bits (Bit Stream)
Computer Networks 23-02-2024 4
 Data Encapsulation

Encapsulation Example

•Encapsulation is a top down

process.
•The level above does its process
and then passes it down to the
next level of the model. This
process is repeated by each layer
until it is sent out as a bit stream.

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 5

 Data Encapsulation

De-encapsulation Example
•Data is de-encapsulated as it moves up the
stack.
•When a layer completes its process, that
layer strips off its header and passes it up to
the next level to be processed. This is
repeated at each layer until it is a data
stream that the application can process.
1. Received as Bits (Bit Stream)
2. Frame
3. Packet
4. Segment
5. Data (Data Stream)
Computer Networks 23-02-2024 6
Transmission Media
Unit - 1
 Purpose of the Physical Layer ​
The Physical Connection​

• Before any network communications can occur, a physical connection to a local network
must be established.
• This connection could be wired or wireless, depending on the setup of the network.
• This generally applies whether you are considering a corporate office or a home.
• A Network Interface Card (NIC) connects a device to the network.
• Some devices may have just one NIC, while others may have multiple NICs
(Wired and/or Wireless, for example).
• Not all physical connections offer the same level of performance.
 Purpose of the Physical Layer
The Physical Layer
• Transport bits across
the network media
• Accepts a complete frame from the
Data Link Layer and encodes it as a
series of signals that are transmitted
to the local media.
• This is the last step in
the encapsulation process.
• The next device in the path to the
destination receives the bits and re-
encapsulates the frame, then decides
what to do with it.
Physical Layer Characteristics
Physical Layer Standards
Physical Layer Characteristics
Physical Components

• Physical Layer Standards address three functional areas:

Ø Physical Components
Ø Encoding
Ø Signaling

• The Physical Components are the hardware devices, media, and

other connectors that transmit the signals that represent the bits.
 Hardware components like NICs, interfaces and connectors, cable materials, and cable
designs are all specified in standards associated with the physical layer.
 Physical Layer Characteristics
Encoding

• Encoding converts the stream of bits

into a format recognizable by the next
device in the network path.
• This ‘coding’ provides
predictable patterns that can be
recognized by the next device.
• Examples of encoding
methods include Manchester (shown
in the figure), 4B/5B, and 8B/10B.
 Physical Layer Characteristics
Signaling
• The signaling method is how the
bit values, “1” and “0” are
represented on the physical
medium.
• The method of signaling will vary
based on the type of medium being
used.
 Physical Layer Characteristics
Bandwidth

• Bandwidth is the capacity at which a medium can carry data.

• Digital bandwidth measures the amount of data that can flow from one place
to another in a given amount of time; how many bits can be transmitted in a second.
Physical Layer Characteristics
Bandwidth Terminology

Latency
• Amount of time, including delays, for data to travel from one given point to another
Throughput
• The measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a given period of time
Goodput
• The measure of usable data transferred over a given period of time.
• Goodput = Throughput - traffic overhead
Copper Cabling
Characteristics of Copper Cabling

• Copper cabling is the most common type of cabling used in networks today. It
is inexpensive, easy to install, and has low resistance to electrical current flow.
• Limitations:
ü Attenuation – the longer the electrical signals have to travel, the weaker they get.
ü The electrical signal is susceptible to interference from two sources, which can
distort and corrupt the data signals (Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and Radio
Frequency Interference (RFI) and Crosstalk).
• Mitigation:
 Strict adherence to cable length limits will mitigate attenuation.
 Some kinds of copper cable mitigate EMI and RFI by using metallic shielding and
grounding.
 Some kinds of copper cable mitigate crosstalk by twisting opposing circuit pair wires
together.
Copper Cabling
Types of Copper Cabling
Copper Cabling
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

• UTP is the most common networking media.​

• Terminated with RJ-45 connectors​
• Interconnects hosts with
intermediary network devices.​
Key Characteristics of UTP​
[Link] outer jacket protects the copper wires
from physical damage.​
[Link] pairs protect the signal
from interference.​
[Link]-coded plastic insulation electrically
isolates the wires from each other and
identifies each pair.​
Copper Cabling
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
 Better noise protection than UTP​
 More expensive than UTP​
 Harder to install than UTP​
 Terminated with RJ-45 connectors​
 Interconnects hosts with intermediary network
devices​

Key Characteristics of STP:

1. The outer jacket protects the copper wires from
physical damage
2. Braided or foil shield provides EMI/RFI protection
3. Foil shield for each pair of wires provides EMI/RFI
protection
4. Color-coded plastic insulation electrically isolates
the wires from each other and identifies each pair
 Copper Cabling
Coaxial Cable
Consists of the following:
1. Outer cable jacket to prevent minor physical damage
2. A woven copper braid, or metallic foil, acts as the second wire in the circuit and as a
shield for the inner conductor.
3. A layer of flexible plastic insulation.
4. A copper conductor is used to transmit the electronic signals.
There are different types of connectors used with coax cable.
Commonly used in the following situations:
• Wireless installations - attach antennas to wireless devices
• Cable internet installations - customer premises wiring
Copper Cabling
Coaxial Cable
UTP Cabling
Properties of UTP Cabling

• UTP has four pairs of color-coded copper

wires twisted together and encased in a
flexible plastic sheath. No shielding is used.
UTP relies on the following properties to limit
crosstalk:
 Cancellation - Each wire in a pair of wires
uses opposite polarity. One wire is negative, the
other wire is positive. They are twisted together and
the magnetic fields effectively cancel each other
and outside EMI/RFI.
 Variation in twists per foot in each wire - Each
wire is twisted a different amount, which helps
prevent crosstalk amongst the wires in the cable.
 UTP Cabling
UTP Cabling Standards and Connectors

•Standards for UTP are established by the TIA/EIA. TIA/EIA-568

standardizes elements like:
 Cable Types
 Cable Lengths
 Connectors
 Cable Termination
 Testing Methods

Electrical standards for copper cabling are established by the IEEE,

which rates cable according to its performance. Examples include:
 Category 3
 Category 5 and 5e
 Category 6
UTP Cabling
UTP Cabling Standards and Connectors (Cont.)
UTP Cabling
Straight-through and Crossover UTP Cables
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Properties of Fiber-Optic Cabling
• Not as common as UTP because of the expense involved
• Ideal for some networking scenarios
• Transmits data over longer distances at higher bandwidth than any other networking
media
• Less susceptible to attenuation, and completely immune to EMI/RFI
• Made of flexible, extremely thin strands of very pure glass
• Uses a laser or LED to encode bits as pulses of light
• The fiber-optic cable acts as a wave guide to transmit light between the two ends with
minimal signal loss
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Types of Fiber Media

Dispersion refers to the spreading out of a light pulse over time. Increased dispersion
means increased loss of signal strength. MMF has greater dispersion than SMF,
with the maximum cable distance for MMF is 550 meters.​
 Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber-Optic Cabling Usage
• Fiber-optic cabling is now being used in four types of industry:
1. Enterprise Networks - Used for backbone cabling applications and
interconnecting infrastructure devices
2. Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) - Used to provide always-on broadband services
to homes and small businesses
3. Long-Haul Networks - Used by service providers to connect countries and cities
[Link] Cable Networks - Used to provide reliable high-speed, high-
capacity solutions capable of surviving in harsh undersea environments at up to
transoceanic distances.
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber-Optic Connectors
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber Patch Cords

A yellow jacket is for single-mode fiber cables and orange (or aqua) for multimode fiber cables.​
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber versus Copper
Optical fiber is primarily used as backbone cabling for high-traffic, point-to-point
connections between data distribution facilities and for the interconnection of buildings
in multi-building campuses.
Wireless Media
Properties of Wireless Media
It carries electromagnetic signals representing binary digits using radio or microwave
frequencies. This provides the greatest mobility option. Wireless connection numbers
continue to increase.

Some of the limitations of wireless:

• Coverage area - Effective coverage can be significantly impacted by the physical characteristics of
the deployment location.
• Interference - Wireless is susceptible to interference and can be disrupted by many common
devices.
• Security - Wireless communication coverage requires no access to a physical strand of media, so
anyone can gain access to the transmission.
• Shared medium - WLANs operate in half-duplex, which means only one device can send or receive
at a time. Many users accessing the WLAN simultaneously results in reduced bandwidth for each
user.
Wireless Media
Types of Wireless Media
The IEEE and telecommunications industry standards for wireless data communications
cover both the data link and physical layers. In each of these standards, physical layer
specifications dictate:
• Data to radio signal encoding methods
• Frequency and power of transmission
• Signal reception and decoding requirements
• Antenna design and construction
Wireless Standards:
• Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) - Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology
• Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15) - Wireless Personal Area network (WPAN) standard
• WiMAX (IEEE 802.16) - Uses a point-to-multipoint topology to provide broadband
wireless access
• Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4) - Low data-rate, low power-consumption communications,
primarily for Internet of Things (IoT) applications
Wireless Media
Wireless LAN

In general, a Wireless LAN (WLAN) requires the following devices:

• Wireless Access Point (AP) - Concentrate wireless signals from users and connect
to the existing copper-based network infrastructure
• Wireless NIC Adapters - Provide wireless communications capability to network
hosts

There are a number of WLAN standards. When purchasing WLAN equipment, ensure
compatibility, and interoperability.

Network Administrators must develop and apply stringent security policies

and processes to protect WLANs from unauthorized access and damage.
Line Coding
Unit 1
 Line Coding

• Converting a string of 1’s and 0’s (digital data) into a

sequence of signals that denote the 1’s and 0’s.
• For example, a high voltage level (+V) could represent a
“1” and a low voltage level (0 or -V) could represent a “0”.

Computer Networks
 Mapping Data symbols onto
Signal levels
• A data symbol (or element) can consist of a number of
data bits:
• 1 , 0 or
• 11, 10, 01, ……
• A data symbol can be coded into a single signal element or
multiple signal elements
• 1 -> +V, 0 -> -V
• 1 -> +V and -V, 0 -> -V and +V
• The ratio ‘r’ is the number of data elements carried by a
signal element.
Computer Networks
 Relationship between data rate
and signal rate

• The data rate defines the number of bits sent per

sec - bps. It is often referred to the bit rate.
• The signal rate is the number of signal elements
sent in a second and is measured in bauds. It is
also referred to as the modulation rate.
• Goal is to increase the data rate whilst reducing
the baud rate.

Computer Networks
Figure 4.2 Signal element versus data element

Computer Networks
 Data rate and Baud rate

• The baud or signal rate can be expressed as:

S = c x N x 1/r bauds
where N is data rate
c is the case factor (worst, best & avg.)
r is the ratio between data element & signal element

Computer Networks
 Example 4.1

A signal is carrying data in which one data element

is encoded as one signal element ( r = 1). If the bit
rate is 100 kbps, what is the average value of the
baud rate if c is between 0 and 1?

Solution
We assume that the average value of c is 1/2 . The
baud rate is then

Computer Networks
Note

Although the actual bandwidth of a

digital signal is infinite, the effective
bandwidth is finite.

Computer Networks
Example 4.2

The maximum data rate of a channel (see Chapter

3) is Nmax = 2 × B × log2 L (defined by the Nyquist
formula). Does this agree with the previous formula
for Nmax?
Solution
A signal with L levels actually can carry log2L bits
per level. If each level corresponds to one signal
element and we assume the average case (c = 1/2),
then we have

Computer Networks
 Considerations for choosing a good
signal element referred to as line
encoding
• Baseline wandering - a receiver will evaluate the
average power of the received signal (called the
baseline) and use that to determine the value of
the incoming data elements. If the incoming signal
does not vary over a long period of time, the
baseline will drift and thus cause errors in
detection of incoming data elements.
•A good line encoding scheme will prevent long
runs of fixed amplitude.
Computer Networks
 Line encoding C/Cs

• DC components - when the voltage level remains constant

for long periods of time, there is an increase in the low
frequencies of the signal. Most channels are bandpass and
may not support the low frequencies.
• This will require the removal of the dc component of a
transmitted signal.

Computer Networks
 Line encoding C/Cs

• Self synchronization - the clocks at the sender and the

receiver must have the same bit interval.
• If the receiver clock is faster or slower it will misinterpret
the incoming bit stream.

Computer Networks
Figure 4.3 Effect of lack of synchronization

Computer Networks
 Example 4.3

In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent

faster than the sender clock. How many extra bits per
second does the receiver receive if the data rate is
1 kbps? How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?
Solution
At 1 kbps, the receiver receives 1001 bps instead of
1000 bps.

At 1 Mbps, the receiver receives 1,001,000 bps instead of

1,000,000 bps.

Computer Networks
 Line encoding C/Cs

• Error detection - errors occur during transmission due to

line impairments.
• Some codes are constructed such that when an error
occurs it can be detected. For example: a particular signal
transition is not part of the code. When it occurs, the
receiver will know that a symbol error has occurred.

Computer Networks
 Line encoding C/Cs

• Noise and interference - there are line encoding

techniques that make the transmitted signal “immune” to
noise and interference.
• This means that the signal cannot be corrupted, it is
stronger than error detection.

Computer Networks
 Line encoding C/Cs

• Complexity - the more robust and resilient the code, the

more complex it is to implement and the price is often
paid in baud rate or required bandwidth.

Computer Networks
Figure 4.4 Line coding schemes

Computer Networks
 Unipolar

• All signal levels are on one side of the time axis -

either above or below
• NRZ - Non Return to Zero scheme is an example of
this code. The signal level does not return to zero
during a symbol transmission.
• Scheme is prone to baseline wandering and DC
components. It has no synchronization or any error
detection. It is simple but costly in power
consumption.

Computer Networks
Figure 4.5 Unipolar NRZ scheme

Computer Networks
 Polar - NRZ

• The voltages are on both sides of the time axis.

• Polar NRZ scheme can be implemented with two
voltages. E.g. +V for 1 and -V for 0.
• There are two versions:
• NZR - Level (NRZ-L) - positive voltage for one symbol
and negative for the other
• NRZ - Inversion (NRZ-I) - the change or lack of change
in polarity determines the value of a symbol. E.g. a “1”
symbol inverts the polarity a “0” does not.

Computer Networks
Figure 4.6 Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes

Computer Networks
Note

In NRZ-L the level of the voltage

determines the value of the bit.
In NRZ-I the inversion
or the lack of inversion
determines the value of the bit.

Computer Networks
Note

NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have an average

signal rate of N/2 Bd.

Computer Networks
Note

NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC

component problem and baseline
wandering, it is worse for NRZ-L. Both
have no self synchronization &no error
detection. Both are relatively simple to
implement.

Computer Networks
 Example 4.4

A system is using NRZ-I to transfer 1-Mbps data. What

are the average signal rate and minimum bandwidth?

Solution
The average signal rate is S= c x N x R = 1/2 x N x 1
= 500 kbaud. The minimum bandwidth for this
average baud rate is Bmin = S = 500 kHz.

Note c = 1/2 for the avg. case as worst case is 1 and

best case is 0

Computer Networks
 Polar - RZ
• The Return to Zero (RZ) scheme uses three voltage
values. +, 0, -.
• Each symbol has a transition in the middle. Either
from high to zero or from low to zero.
• This scheme has more signal transitions (two per
symbol) and therefore requires a wider bandwidth.
• No DC components or baseline wandering.
• Self synchronization - transition indicates symbol
value.
• More complex as it uses three voltage level. It has no
error detection capability.
Computer Networks
Figure 4.7 Polar RZ scheme

Computer Networks
 Polar - Biphase: Manchester and
Differential Manchester
• Manchester coding consists of combining the NRZ-L
and RZ schemes.
• Every symbol has a level transition in the middle: from
high to low or low to high. Uses only two voltage levels.
• Differential Manchester coding consists of combining
the NRZ-I and RZ schemes.
• Every symbol has a level transition in the middle. But the
level at the beginning of the symbol is determined by the
symbol value. One symbol causes a level change the
other does not.

Computer Networks
Figure 4.8 Polar biphase: Manchester and differential
Manchester schemes

Computer Networks
Note

In Manchester and differential

Manchester encoding, the transition
at the middle of the bit is used for
synchronization.

Computer Networks
Note

The minimum bandwidth of

Manchester and differential
Manchester is 2 times that of NRZ.
The is no DC component and no
baseline wandering. None of these
codes has error detection.

Computer Networks
Table 4.1 Summary of line coding schemes

Computer Networks
 Block Coding
• For a code to be capable of error detection, we need to
add redundancy, i.e., extra bits to the data bits.
• Synchronization also requires redundancy - transitions are
important in the signal flow and must occur frequently.
• Block coding is done in three steps: division, substitution
and combination.
• It is distinguished from multilevel coding by use of the
slash - xB/yB.
• The resulting bit stream prevents certain bit combinations
that when used with line encoding would result in DC
components or poor sync. quality.

Computer Networks
Note

Block coding is normally referred to

as mB/nB coding;
it replaces each m-bit group with an
n-bit group.

Computer Networks
Figure 4.14 Block coding concept

Computer Networks
Figure 4.15 Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line
coding scheme

Computer Networks
Table 4.2 4B/5B mapping codes

Computer Networks
Figure 4.16 Substitution in 4B/5B block coding

Computer Networks
 Redundancy

• A 4 bit data word can have 24 combinations.

• A 5 bit word can have 25=32 combinations.
• We therefore have 32 - 26 = 16 extra words.
• Some of the extra words are used for control/signalling
purposes.

Computer Networks
Example 4.5
We need to send data at a 1-Mbps rate. What is the
minimum required bandwidth, using a combination
of 4B/5B and NRZ-I or Manchester coding?
Solution
First 4B/5B block coding increases the bit rate to 1.25
Mbps. The minimum bandwidth using NRZ-I is N/2 or
625 kHz. The Manchester scheme needs a minimum
bandwidth of 1.25 MHz. The first choice needs a
lower bandwidth, but has a DC component problem;
the second choice needs a higher bandwidth, but does
not have a DC component problem.
Computer Networks
 More bits - better error detection

• The 8B10B block code adds more redundant bits and can
thereby choose code words that would prevent a long run
of a voltage level that would cause DC components.

Computer Networks
Figure 4.17 8B/10B block encoding

Computer Networks
Transmission Impairment
Unit - 1
Transmission Impairment

Transmission Impairment
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection
causes signal impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the
medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not
what is received. Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 2

 Transmission Impairment

Attenuation
• Means loss of energy -> weaker signal
• When a signal travels through a medium it loses energy overcoming the
resistance of the medium
• Amplifiers are used to compensate for this loss of energy by amplifying the signal.

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 3

Transmission Impairment

Measurement of Attenuation
• To show the loss or gain of energy the unit “decibel” is used.

dB = 10log10P2/P1
P1 - input signal
P2 - output signal

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 4

Transmission Impairment
Ques 1. Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is
reduced to one-half. This means that P2 is (1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation
(loss of power) can be calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 5

Transmission Impairment

Distortion
• Means that the signal changes its form or shape
• Distortion occurs in composite signals
• Each frequency component has its own propagation speed traveling through a
medium.
• The different components therefore arrive with different delays at the receiver.
• That means that the signals have different phases at the receiver than they did
at the source.

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 6

Transmission Impairment

Distortion

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 7

Transmission Impairment

Noise
• There are different types of noise:

1. Thermal - random noise of electrons in the wire creates an extra signal

2. Induced - from motors and appliances, devices act are transmitter
antenna and medium as receiving antenna.
3. Crosstalk - same as above but between two wires.
4. Impulse - Spikes that result from power lines, lightning, etc.

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 8

Transmission Impairment

Noise

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 9

Transmission Impairment

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)

• To measure the quality of a system the SNR is often used. It indicates the
strength of the signal wrt the noise power in the system.
• It is the ratio between two powers.
• It is usually given in dB and referred to as SNRdB.

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 10

Transmission Impairment
Ques 2: The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is 1 μW; what
are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?

The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 11

Transmission Impairment
Ques 3: The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 12

Transmission Impairment

Two cases of SNR: a High SNR and a Low SNR

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 13

DATA RATE LIMITS
A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send
data, in bits per second, over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 14

Capacity of a System
• The bit rate of a system increases with an increase in the number of signal levels
we use to denote a symbol.
• A symbol can consist of a single bit or “n” bits.
• The number of signal levels = 2n.
• As the number of levels goes up, the spacing between level decreases ->
increasing the probability of an error occurring in the presence of transmission
impairments.

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 15

Nyquist Theorem
• Nyquist gives the upper bound for the bit rate of a transmission system by
calculating the bit rate directly from the number of bits in a symbol (or signal
levels) and the bandwidth of the system (assuming 2 symbols/per cycle and
first harmonic).
• Nyquist theorem states that for a noiseless channel:
C = 2 B log22n
C= capacity in bps
B = bandwidth in Hz

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 16

Ques 4: Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a
signal with two signal levels. The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 17

Ques 5: Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal with four signal
levels (for each level, we send 2 bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 18

Shannon’s Theorem

• Shannon’s theorem gives the capacity of a system in the presence of noise.

C = B log2(1 + SNR)

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 19

 Ques 6: Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-to-
noise ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is
faint. For this channel the capacity C is calculated as

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless of the bandwidth. In
other words, we cannot receive any data through this channel.

Computer Networks 23-02-2024 20

 Ques 7: We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone
line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise
ratio is usually 3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860 kbps. If we want to
send data faster than this, we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or
improve the signal-to-noise ratio.

23-02-2024 21
Switching Techniques
Unit No 1
 Switching Techniques

In large networks there might be multiple paths linking sender

and receiver. Information may be switched as it travels
through various communication channels. There are three
typical switching techniques available for digital traffic.

 Circuit Switching
 Message Switching
 Packet Switching
 Switching Techniques
Circuit Switching

• Circuit switching is a technique that directly connects the sender

and the receiver in an unbroken path.
• Telephone switching equipment, for example, establishes a path
that connects the caller's telephone to the receiver's telephone by
making a physical connection.
• In this type of switching technique, once a connection is
established, a dedicated path exists between both ends until the
connection is terminated.
• Routing decisions must be made when the circuit is first
established, but decisions cannot be made after that time.
 Switching Techniques
Circuit Switching
• Circuit switching networks operate almost the same way as
the telephone system works.
•A complete end-to-end path must exist before
communication can take place.
• The computer initiating the data transfer must ask for a
connection to the destination.
• Before the establishment of the connection, the destination
must send the acknowledge to the source node to indicate
that it is ready and willing to send/receive data.
Switching Techniques
Circuit switching
Advantages:
 The communication channel (once established) is
dedicated.

Disadvantages:
• Possible long wait to establish a connection, (10
seconds, more on long- distance or international calls.)
during which no data can be transmitted.
• More expensive than any other switching
techniques, because a dedicated path is required for each
connection.
• Inefficient use of the communication channel, because
the channel is not used when the connected systems are
not using it.
Switching Techniques
Message Switching

• In message switching there is no need to establish a dedicated

path between two stations.
• When a station sends a message, the destination address is
appended to the message.
• The message is then transmitted through the network, in its
entirety, from node to node.
• Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its entirety on
disk, and then transmits the message to the next node.
• This type of network is called a store-and-forward network.
Switching Techniques
Message Switching

A message-switching node is typically a general-purpose

computer. The device needs sufficient secondary-storage capacity
to store the incoming messages, which could be long. A time
delay is introduced using this type of scheme due to store- and-
forward time, plus the time required to find the next node in the
transmission path.
Switching Techniques
Message Switching
Advantages:
 Channel efficiency can be greater compared to circuit-
switched systems, because more devices are sharing the
channel.
 Traffic congestion can be reduced, because messages may be
temporarily stored in route.
 Message priorities can be established due to store-and-forward
technique.
 Message broadcasting can be achieved with the use of
broadcast address appended in the message.

Disadvantages
 Message switching is not compatible with interactive
applications.
 Store-and-forward devices are expensive, because they
must have large disks to hold potentially long messages.
Switching Techniques
Packet Switching
 Packet switching can be seen as a solution that tries to combine the
advantages of message and circuit switching and to minimize the
disadvantages of both.
 There are two methods of packet switching: Datagram
and virtual circuit.
Switching Techniques
Packet Switching
• In both packet switching methods, a message is broken
into small parts, called packets.
• Each packet is tagged with appropriate source and
destination addresses.
• Since packets have a strictly defined maximum length, they
• can be stored in main memory instead of disk,
therefore access delay and cost are minimized.
• Also, the transmission speeds, between nodes, are
optimized.
• With current technology, packets are generally accepted
onto the network on a first-come, first-served basis. If the
network becomes overloaded, packets are delayed or
discarded (“dropped'').
 Switching Techniques
Packet Switching
• In packet switching, the analog signal from your phone is
converted into a digital data stream. That series of digital bits is
then divided into relatively tiny clusters of bits, called packets.
Each packet has at its beginning the digital address -- a long
number -- to which it is being sent. The system blasts out all those
tiny packets, as fast as it can, and they travel across the nation's
digital backbone systems to their destination: the telephone, or
rather the telephone system, of the person you're calling.
• They do not necessarily travel together; they do not travel
sequentially. They don't even all travel via the same route. But
eventually they arrive at the right point -- that digital address
added to the front of each string of digital data -- and at their
destination are reassembled into the correct order, then
converted to analog form, so your friend can understand what
you're saying.
Switching Techniques
Packet Switching: Datagram
 Datagram packet switching is similar to message switching in that
each packet is a self-contained unit with complete addressing
information attached.

 This allows packets to take a variety of possible paths

through the network.

 So, the packets, each with the same destination address,

do not follow the same route, and they may arrive out of sequence
at the exit point node (or the destination).

 Reordering is done at the destination point based on the

sequence number of the packets. It is possible for a packet to be
destroyed if one of the nodes on its way is crashed momentarily. Thus, all
its queued packets may be lost.
Switching Techniques
Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit
 In the virtual circuit approach, a preplanned route is established
before any data packets are sent.

 A logical connection is established when

 a sender send a "call request packet" to the receiver and
 the receiver send back an acknowledge packet "call accepted
packet" to the sender if the receiver agrees on conversational
Parameters.

 The conversational parameters can be maximum packet sizes,

path to be taken, and other variables necessary to establish and
maintain the conversation.

 Virtual circuits imply acknowledgements, flow control, and error

control, so virtual circuits are reliable.
 That is, they have the capability to inform upper-protocol layers
if a transmission problem occurs.
Switching Techniques
Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit
 In virtual circuit, the route between stations does not
mean that this is a dedicated path, as in circuit switching.
 A packet is still buffered at each node and queued for
output over a line.
 The difference between virtual circuit and datagram
approaches:

 With virtual circuit, the node does not need to make a

routing
decision for each packet.
 It is made only once for all packets using that virtual
circuit.
Switching Techniques
Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit
VC guarantees that

the packets arrive in the order they sent

there are no duplicates or omissions.
there are no errors (with high probability)
regardless of how they are implemented internally.
Switching Techniques
Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit

Advantages:
 Packet switching is cost effective, because switching
devices do not need massive amount of secondary
storage.
 Packet switching offers improved delay characteristics,
because there are no long messages in the
queue (maximum packet size is fixed).
 Packet can be rerouted if there is any problem, such as,
busy or disabled links.
 The advantage of packet switching is that many
network users can share the same channel at the
same time. Packet switching can maximize link
efficiency by making optimal use of link bandwidth.
Switching Techniques
Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit

Disadvantages:
 Protocols for packet switching are typically more
complex.
 It can add some initial costs in implementation.
 If packet is lost, sender needs to retransmit the data.
 Another disadvantage is that packet-switched systems
still
can’t deliver the same quality as dedicated circuits in
applications requiring very little delay - like voice
conversations or moving images.