Standard Model - Wikipedia 01/01/2025, 00:40

Standard Model
(Redirected from Standard model of particle physics)

The Standard Model of particle physics is the theory describing three of the four known fundamental forces
(electromagnetic, weak and strong interactions – excluding gravity) in the universe and classifying all known elementary
particles. It was developed in stages throughout the latter half of the 20th century, through the work of many scientists
worldwide,[1] with the current formulation being finalized in the mid-1970s upon experimental confirmation of the
existence of quarks. Since then, proof of the top quark (1995), the tau neutrino (2000), and the Higgs boson (2012) have
added further credence to the Standard Model. In addition, the Standard Model has predicted various properties of weak
neutral currents and the W and Z bosons with great accuracy.

Although the Standard Model is believed to be theoretically self-consistent[note 1] and has demonstrated some success in
providing experimental predictions, it leaves some physical phenomena unexplained and so falls short of being a complete
theory of fundamental interactions.[3] For example, it does not fully explain why there is more matter than anti-matter,
incorporate the full theory of gravitation[4] as described by general relativity, or account for the universe's accelerating
expansion as possibly described by dark energy. The model does not contain any viable dark matter particle that possesses
all of the required properties deduced from observational cosmology. It also does not incorporate neutrino oscillations and
their non-zero masses.

The development of the Standard Model was driven by theoretical and experimental particle physicists alike. The Standard
Model is a paradigm of a quantum field theory for theorists, exhibiting a wide range of phenomena, including spontaneous
symmetry breaking, anomalies, and non-perturbative behavior. It is used as a basis for building more exotic models that
incorporate hypothetical particles, extra dimensions, and elaborate symmetries (such as supersymmetry) to explain
experimental results at variance with the Standard Model, such as the existence of dark matter and neutrino oscillations.

Historical background
In 1928, Paul Dirac introduced the Dirac equation, which implied the existence of antimatter.

In 1954, Yang Chen-Ning and Robert Mills extended the concept of gauge theory for abelian groups, e.g. quantum
electrodynamics, to nonabelian groups to provide an explanation for strong interactions.[5] In 1957, Chien-Shiung Wu
demonstrated parity was not conserved in the weak interaction.[6]

In 1961, Sheldon Glashow combined the electromagnetic and weak interactions.[7] In 1964, Murray Gell-Mann and George
Zweig introduced quarks and that same year Oscar W. Greenberg implicitly introduced color charge of quarks.[8] In 1967
Steven Weinberg[9] and Abdus Salam[10] incorporated the Higgs mechanism[11][12][13] into Glashow's electroweak
interaction, giving it its modern form.

In 1970, Sheldon Glashow, John Iliopoulos, and Luciano Maiani introduced the GIM mechanism, predicting the charm
quark.[14] In 1973 Gross and Wilczek and Politzer independently discovered that non-Abelian gauge theories, like the color
theory of the strong force, have asymptotic freedom.[14] In 1976, Martin Perl discovered the tau lepton at the SLAC.[15][16] In
1977, a team led by Leon Lederman at Fermilab discovered the bottom quark.[17]

The Higgs mechanism is believed to give rise to the masses of all the elementary particles in the Standard Model. This
includes the masses of the W and Z bosons, and the masses of the fermions, i.e. the quarks and leptons.

After the neutral weak currents caused by Z boson exchange were discovered at CERN in 1973,[18][19][20][21] the electroweak
theory became widely accepted and Glashow, Salam, and Weinberg shared the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering
it. The W± and Z0 bosons were discovered experimentally in 1983; and the ratio of their masses was found to be as the

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Standard Model predicted.[22]

The theory of the strong interaction (i.e. quantum chromodynamics, QCD), to which many contributed, acquired its modern
form in 1973–74 when asymptotic freedom was proposed[23][24] (a development that made QCD the main focus of
theoretical research)[25] and experiments confirmed that the hadrons were composed of fractionally charged quarks.[26][27]

The term "Standard Model" was introduced by Abraham Pais and Sam Treiman in 1975,[28] with reference to the
electroweak theory with four quarks.[29] Steven Weinberg, has since claimed priority, explaining that he chose the term
Standard Model out of a sense of modesty[30][31][32] and used it in 1973 during a talk in Aix-en-Provence in France.[33]

Particle content
The Standard Model includes members of several classes of elementary particles, which in turn can be distinguished by
other characteristics, such as color charge.

All particles can be summarized as follows:

Elementary particles

Elementary fermions Elementary bosons

Half-integer spin Integer spin
Obey the Fermi–Dirac statistics Obey the Bose–Einstein statistics

Quarks and antiquarks Leptons and antileptons Gauge bosons Scalar bosons
Spin = 12 Spin = 12 Spin = 1 Spin = 0
Force carriers
Have color charge No color charge
Participate in strong Electroweak interactions
interactions
and electroweak interactions

Three generations Three generations Three kinds One kind

1. Up (u), − 1. Photon
1. Electron (e ), [†] 0
Higgs boson (H )
Down (d) (γ; electromagnetic interaction)
Electron neutrino (νe)
2. Charm (c), 2. W and Z bosons
−
Strange (s) 2. Muon (μ ), + − 0
(W , W , Z ; weak interaction)
3. Top (t), Muon neutrino (νµ) 3. Eight types of gluons
Bottom (b) −
3. Tau (τ ), (g; strong interaction)
Tau neutrino (ντ)

Notes:
+
[†] An anti-electron (e ) is conventionally called a "positron".

Fermions
The Standard Model includes 12 elementary particles of spin 1⁄2, known as fermions.[34] Fermions respect the Pauli
exclusion principle, meaning that two identical fermions cannot simultaneously occupy the same quantum state in the same
atom.[35] Each fermion has a corresponding antiparticle, which are particles that have corresponding properties with the
exception of opposite charges.[36] Fermions are classified based on how they interact, which is determined by the charges
they carry, into two groups: quarks and leptons. Within each group, pairs of particles that exhibit similar physical behaviors
are then grouped into generations (see the table). Each member of a generation has a greater mass than the corresponding
particle of generations prior. Thus, there are three generations of quarks and leptons.[37] As first-generation particles do not
decay, they comprise all of ordinary (baryonic) matter. Specifically, all atoms consist of electrons orbiting around the atomic

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nucleus, ultimately constituted of up and down quarks. On the other hand, second- and third-generation charged particles
decay with very short half-lives and can only be observed in high-energy environments. Neutrinos of all generations also do
not decay, and pervade the universe, but rarely interact with baryonic matter.

There are six quarks: up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom.[34][37] Quarks carry color charge, and hence interact via
the strong interaction. The color confinement phenomenon results in quarks being strongly bound together such that they
form color-neutral composite particles called hadrons; quarks cannot individually exist and must always bind with other
quarks. Hadrons can contain either a quark-antiquark pair (mesons) or three quarks (baryons).[38] The lightest baryons are
the nucleons: the proton and neutron. Quarks also carry electric charge and weak isospin, and thus interact with other
fermions through electromagnetism and weak interaction. The six leptons consist of the electron, electron neutrino, muon,
muon neutrino, tau, and tau neutrino. The leptons do not carry color charge, and do not respond to strong interaction. The
charged leptons carry an electric charge of −1 e, while the three neutrinos carry zero electric charge. Thus, the neutrinos'
motions are influenced by only the weak interaction and gravity, making them difficult to observe.

Gauge bosons
The Standard Model includes 4 kinds of gauge bosons of spin 1,[34] with
bosons being quantum particles containing an integer spin. The gauge
bosons are defined as force carriers, as they are responsible for
mediating the fundamental interactions. The Standard Model explains
the four fundamental forces as arising from the interactions, with
fermions exchanging virtual force carrier particles, thus mediating the
forces. At a macroscopic scale, this manifests as a force.[40] As a result,
they do not follow the Pauli exclusion principle that constrains fermions;
bosons do not have a theoretical limit on their spatial density. The types
of gauge bosons are described below.

Electromagnetism: Photons mediate the electromagnetic force,

responsible for interactions between electrically charged particles.
The photon is massless and is described by the theory of quantum
electrodynamics (QED).
Strong Interactions: Gluons mediate the strong interactions, which
binds quarks to each other by influencing the color charge, with the
interactions being described in the theory of quantum
chromodynamics (QCD). They have no mass, and there are eight
distinct gluons, with each being denoted through a color-anticolor
charge combination (e.g. red–antigreen).[note 2] As gluons have an Interactions in the Standard Model. All Feynman
effective color charge, they can also interact amongst themselves. diagrams in the model are built from combinations of
+ − these vertices. q is any quark, g is a gluon, X is any
Weak Interactions: The W , W , and Z gauge bosons mediate the
charged particle, γ is a photon, f is any fermion, m is any
weak interactions between all fermions, being responsible for particle with mass (with the possible exception of the
radioactivity. They contain mass, with the Z having more mass than neutrinos), mB is any boson with mass. In diagrams with
± ± multiple particle labels separated by '/', one particle label
the W . The weak interactions involving the W act only on left-
± is chosen. In diagrams with particle labels separated by
handed particles and right-handed antiparticles. The W carries an '|', the labels must be chosen in the same order. For
electric charge of +1 and −1 and couples to the electromagnetic example, in the four boson electroweak case the valid
interaction. The electrically neutral Z boson interacts with both left- diagrams are WWWW, WWZZ, WWγγ, WWZγ. The
handed particles and right-handed antiparticles. These three gauge conjugate of each listed vertex (reversing the direction of
bosons along with the photons are grouped together, as collectively arrows) is also allowed.[39]
mediating the electroweak interaction.
Gravity: It is currently unexplained in the Standard Model, as the
hypothetical mediating particle graviton has been proposed, but not observed.[42] This is due to the incompatibility of
quantum mechanics and Einstein's theory of general relativity, regarded as being the best explanation for gravity. In
general relativity, gravity is explained as being the geometric curving of spacetime.[43]
The Feynman diagram calculations, which are a graphical representation of the perturbation theory approximation, invoke
"force mediating particles", and when applied to analyze high-energy scattering experiments are in reasonable agreement
with the data. However, perturbation theory (and with it the concept of a "force-mediating particle") fails in other

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situations. These include low-energy quantum chromodynamics, bound states, and solitons. The interactions between all
the particles described by the Standard Model are summarized by the diagrams on the right of this section.

Higgs boson
The Higgs particle is a massive scalar elementary particle theorized by Peter Higgs (and others) in 1964, when he showed
that Goldstone's 1962 theorem (generic continuous symmetry, which is spontaneously broken) provides a third polarisation
of a massive vector field. Hence, Goldstone's original scalar doublet, the massive spin-zero particle, was proposed as the
Higgs boson, and is a key building block in the Standard Model.[44] It has no intrinsic spin, and for that reason is classified
as a boson with spin-0.[34]

The Higgs boson plays a unique role in the Standard Model, by explaining why the other elementary particles, except the
photon and gluon, are massive. In particular, the Higgs boson explains why the photon has no mass, while the W and Z
bosons are very heavy. Elementary-particle masses and the differences between electromagnetism (mediated by the photon)
and the weak force (mediated by the W and Z bosons) are critical to many aspects of the structure of microscopic (and hence
macroscopic) matter. In electroweak theory, the Higgs boson generates the masses of the leptons (electron, muon, and tau)
and quarks. As the Higgs boson is massive, it must interact with itself.

Because the Higgs boson is a very massive particle and also decays almost immediately when created, only a very high-
energy particle accelerator can observe and record it. Experiments to confirm and determine the nature of the Higgs boson
using the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN began in early 2010 and were performed at Fermilab's Tevatron until its
closure in late 2011. Mathematical consistency of the Standard Model requires that any mechanism capable of generating
the masses of elementary particles must become visible at energies above 1.4 TeV;[45] therefore, the LHC (designed to
collide two 7 TeV proton beams) was built to answer the question of whether the Higgs boson actually exists.[46]

On 4 July 2012, two of the experiments at the LHC (ATLAS and CMS) both reported independently that they had found a
new particle with a mass of about 125 GeV/c2 (about 133 proton masses, on the order of 10−25 kg), which is "consistent with
the Higgs boson".[47][48] On 13 March 2013, it was confirmed to be the searched-for Higgs boson.[49][50]

Theoretical aspects

Construction of the Standard Model Lagrangian

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Parameters of the Standard Model

Renormalization
# Symbol Description Value
scheme (point)

1 me Electron mass 0.511 MeV

2 mμ Muon mass 105.7 MeV

3 mτ Tau mass 1.78 GeV

4 mu Up quark mass μMS = 2 GeV 1.9 MeV

5 md Down quark mass μMS = 2 GeV 4.4 MeV

6 ms Strange quark mass μMS = 2 GeV 87 MeV

7 mc Charm quark mass μMS = mc 1.32 GeV

8 mb Bottom quark mass μMS = mb 4.24 GeV

9 mt Top quark mass On shell scheme 173.5 GeV

10 θ12 CKM 12-mixing angle 13.1°

11 θ23 CKM 23-mixing angle 2.4°

12 θ13 CKM 13-mixing angle 0.2°

13 δ CKM CP violation Phase 0.995

14 g1 or g ' U(1) gauge coupling μMS = mZ 0.357

15 g2 or g SU(2) gauge coupling μMS = mZ 0.652

16 g3 or gs SU(3) gauge coupling μMS = mZ 1.221

17 θQCD QCD vacuum angle ~0

18 v Higgs vacuum expectation value 246 GeV

19 mH Higgs mass 125.09 ± 0.24 GeV

Technically, quantum field theory provides the mathematical framework for the Standard Model, in which a Lagrangian
controls the dynamics and kinematics of the theory. Each kind of particle is described in terms of a dynamical field that
pervades space-time.[51] The construction of the Standard Model proceeds following the modern method of constructing
most field theories: by first postulating a set of symmetries of the system, and then by writing down the most general
renormalizable Lagrangian from its particle (field) content that observes these symmetries.

The global Poincaré symmetry is postulated for all relativistic quantum field theories. It consists of the familiar translational
symmetry, rotational symmetry and the inertial reference frame invariance central to the theory of special relativity. The
local SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1) gauge symmetry is an internal symmetry that essentially defines the Standard Model. Roughly,
the three factors of the gauge symmetry give rise to the three fundamental interactions. The fields fall into different
representations of the various symmetry groups of the Standard Model (see table). Upon writing the most general
Lagrangian, one finds that the dynamics depends on 19 parameters, whose numerical values are established by experiment.
The parameters are summarized in the table (made visible by clicking "show") above.

Quantum chromodynamics sector

The quantum chromodynamics (QCD) sector defines the interactions between quarks and gluons, which is a Yang–Mills
gauge theory with SU(3) symmetry, generated by . Since leptons do not interact with gluons, they are not
affected by this sector. The Dirac Lagrangian of the quarks coupled to the gluon fields is given by

where is a three component column vector of Dirac spinors, each element of which refers to a quark field with a specific
color charge (i.e. red, blue, and green) and summation over flavor (i.e. up, down, strange, etc.) is implied.

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The gauge covariant derivative of QCD is defined by , where

γ µ are the Dirac matrices,

Gaµ is the 8-component ( ) SU(3) gauge field,
a
λ are the 3 × 3 Gell-Mann matrices, generators of the SU(3) color group,
Gaµν represents the gluon field strength tensor, and
gs is the strong coupling constant.
The QCD Lagrangian is invariant under local SU(3) gauge transformations; i.e., transformations of the form ,
where is 3 × 3 unitary matrix with determinant 1, making it a member of the group SU(3), and is an
arbitrary function of spacetime.

Electroweak sector
The electroweak sector is a Yang–Mills gauge theory with the symmetry group U(1) × SU(2)L,

where the subscript sums over the three generations of fermions; , and are the left-handed doublet, right-
handed singlet up type, and right handed singlet down type quark fields; and and are the left-handed doublet and
right-handed singlet lepton fields.

The electroweak gauge covariant derivative is defined as , where

Bµ is the U(1) gauge field,

YW is the weak hypercharge – the generator of the U(1) group,
→
W µ is the 3-component SU(2) gauge field,
→
τ L are the Pauli matrices – infinitesimal generators of the SU(2) group – with subscript L to indicate that they only act
on left-chiral fermions,
g' and g are the U(1) and SU(2) coupling constants respectively,
( ) and are the field strength tensors for the weak isospin and weak hypercharge fields.

Notice that the addition of fermion mass terms into the electroweak Lagrangian is forbidden, since terms of the form
do not respect U(1) × SU(2)L gauge invariance. Neither is it possible to add explicit mass terms for the U(1) and SU(2) gauge
fields. The Higgs mechanism is responsible for the generation of the gauge boson masses, and the fermion masses result
from Yukawa-type interactions with the Higgs field.

Higgs sector
In the Standard Model, the Higgs field is an SU(2)L doublet of complex scalar fields with four degrees of freedom:

where the superscripts + and 0 indicate the electric charge of the components. The weak hypercharge of both
components is 1. Before symmetry breaking, the Higgs Lagrangian is

where is the electroweak gauge covariant derivative defined above and is the potential of the Higgs field. The
square of the covariant derivative leads to three and four point interactions between the electroweak gauge fields and
and the scalar field . The scalar potential is given by

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where , so that acquires a non-zero Vacuum expectation value, which generates masses for the Electroweak gauge
fields (the Higgs mechanism), and , so that the potential is bounded from below. The quartic term describes self-
interactions of the scalar field .

The minimum of the potential is degenerate with an infinite number of equivalent ground state solutions, which occurs
when . It is possible to perform a gauge transformation on such that the ground state is transformed to a basis
where and . This breaks the symmetry of the ground state. The expectation value of
now becomes

where has units of mass and sets the scale of electroweak physics. This is the only dimensional parameter of the Standard
Model and has a measured value of ~246 GeV/c2.

After symmetry breaking, the masses of the W and Z are given by and , which can be

viewed as predictions of the theory. The photon remains massless. The mass of the Higgs boson is .
Since and are free parameters, the Higgs's mass could not be predicted beforehand and had to be determined
experimentally.

Yukawa sector
The Yukawa interaction terms are:

where , , and are 3 × 3 matrices of Yukawa couplings, with the mn term giving the coupling of the generations m
and n, and h.c. means Hermitian conjugate of preceding terms. The fields and are left-handed quark and lepton
doublets. Likewise, and are right-handed up-type quark, down-type quark, and lepton singlets. Finally is the
Higgs doublet and is its charge conjugate state.

The Yukawa terms are invariant under the SU(2)L × U(1)Y gauge symmetry of the Standard Model and generate masses for
all fermions after spontaneous symmetry breaking.

Fundamental interactions
The Standard Model describes three of the four fundamental interactions in nature; only gravity remains unexplained. In
the Standard Model, such an interaction is described as an exchange of bosons between the objects affected, such as a
photon for the electromagnetic force and a gluon for the strong interaction. Those particles are called force carriers or
messenger particles.[52]

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The four fundamental interactions of nature[53]

Electroweak Strong
Property/Interaction Gravitation
Weak Electromagnetic Fundamental Residual

Not yet observed π, ρ and ω

Mediating particles
(Graviton hypothesised)
W+, W− and Z0 γ (photon) Gluons
mesons

Left-handed Electrically Quarks,

Affected particles All particles Hadrons
fermions charged gluons

Acts on Stress–energy tensor Flavor Electric charge Color charge

Planets, stars, galaxies, galaxy

Bound states formed — Atoms, molecules Hadrons Atomic nuclei
groups

Strength at the scale of

quarks Not applicable
(relative to 10−41 (predicted) 10−4 1 60
to quarks
electromagnetism)

Strength at the scale of

Not
protons/neutrons
(relative to 10−36 (predicted) 10−7 1 applicable 20
to hadrons
electromagnetism)

Gravity
Despite being perhaps the most familiar fundamental interaction, gravity is not
described by the Standard Model, due to contradictions that arise when combining
general relativity, the modern theory of gravity, and quantum mechanics. However,
gravity is so weak at microscopic scales, that it is essentially unmeasurable. The graviton
is postulated to be the mediating particle, but has not yet been proved to exist.

Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism is the only long-range force in the Standard Model. It is mediated by
photons and couples to electric charge.[54] Electromagnetism is responsible for a wide
range of phenomena including atomic electron shell structure, chemical bonds, electric
Fundamental Interactions of the
circuits and electronics. Electromagnetic interactions in the Standard Model are
Standard Model including the
described by quantum electrodynamics. hypothetical graviton

Weak nuclear force

The weak interaction is responsible for various forms of particle decay, such as beta decay. It is weak and short-range, due
to the fact that the weak mediating particles, W and Z bosons, have mass. W bosons have electric charge and mediate
interactions that change the particle type (referred to as flavor) and charge. Interactions mediated by W bosons are charged
current interactions. Z bosons are neutral and mediate neutral current interactions, which do not change particle flavor.
Thus Z bosons are similar to the photon, aside from them being massive and interacting with the neutrino. The weak
interaction is also the only interaction to violate parity and CP. Parity violation is maximal for charged current interactions,
since the W boson interacts exclusively with left-handed fermions and right-handed antifermions.

In the Standard Model, the weak force is understood in terms of the electroweak theory, which states that the weak and
electromagnetic interactions become united into a single electroweak interaction at high energies.

Strong nuclear force

The strong nuclear force is responsible for hadronic and nuclear binding. It is mediated by gluons, which couple to color
charge. Since gluons themselves have color charge, the strong force exhibits confinement and asymptotic freedom.
Confinement means that only color-neutral particles can exist in isolation, therefore quarks can only exist in hadrons and
never in isolation, at low energies. Asymptotic freedom means that the strong force becomes weaker, as the energy scale
increases. The strong force overpowers the electrostatic repulsion of protons and quarks in nuclei and hadrons respectively,
at their respective scales.

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While quarks are bound in hadrons by the fundamental strong interaction, which is mediated by gluons, nucleons are
bound by an emergent phenomenon termed the residual strong force or nuclear force. This interaction is mediated by
mesons, such as the pion. The color charges inside the nucleon cancel out, meaning most of the gluon and quark fields
cancel out outside of the nucleon. However, some residue is "leaked", which appears as the exchange of virtual mesons, that
causes the attractive force between nucleons. The (fundamental) strong interaction is described by quantum
chromodynamics, which is a component of the Standard Model.

Tests and predictions

The Standard Model predicted the existence of the W and Z bosons, gluon, top quark and charm quark, and predicted many
of their properties before these particles were observed. The predictions were experimentally confirmed with good
precision.[55]

The Standard Model also predicted the existence of the Higgs boson, which was found in 2012 at the Large Hadron Collider,
the final fundamental particle predicted by the Standard Model to be experimentally confirmed.[56]

Challenges
Self-consistency of the Standard Model (currently formulated as a non-abelian
gauge theory quantized through path-integrals) has not been mathematically Unsolved problem in
proved. While regularized versions useful for approximate computations (for physics:
example lattice gauge theory) exist, it is not known whether they converge (in the What gives rise to the
sense of S-matrix elements) in the limit that the regulator is removed. A key Standard Model of
question related to the consistency is the Yang–Mills existence and mass gap particle physics?
problem. Why do particle masses
and coupling constants
Experiments indicate that neutrinos have mass, which the classic Standard Model have the values that we
measure?
did not allow.[57] To accommodate this finding, the classic Standard Model can be
Why are there three
modified to include neutrino mass, although it is not obvious exactly how this
generations of particles?
should be done.
Why is there more matter
than antimatter in the
If one insists on using only Standard Model particles, this can be achieved by
universe?
adding a non-renormalizable interaction of leptons with the Higgs boson.[58] On a
Where does dark matter
fundamental level, such an interaction emerges in the seesaw mechanism where fit into the model? Does it
heavy right-handed neutrinos are added to the theory. This is natural in the left- even consist of one or
right symmetric extension of the Standard Model[59][60] and in certain grand more new particles?
unified theories.[61] As long as new physics appears below or around 1014 GeV, the (more unsolved problems in physics)
neutrino masses can be of the right order of magnitude.

Theoretical and experimental research has attempted to extend the Standard Model into a unified field theory or a theory of
everything, a complete theory explaining all physical phenomena including constants. Inadequacies of the Standard Model
that motivate such research include:

The model does not explain gravitation, although physical confirmation of a theoretical particle known as a graviton
would account for it to a degree. Though it addresses strong and electroweak interactions, the Standard Model does not
consistently explain the canonical theory of gravitation, general relativity, in terms of quantum field theory. The reason
for this is, among other things, that quantum field theories of gravity generally break down before reaching the Planck
scale. As a consequence, we have no reliable theory for the very early universe.
Some physicists consider it to be ad hoc and inelegant, requiring 19 numerical constants whose values are unrelated
and arbitrary.[62] Although the Standard Model, as it now stands, can explain why neutrinos have masses, the specifics
of neutrino mass are still unclear. It is believed that explaining neutrino mass will require an additional 7 or 8 constants,
which are also arbitrary parameters.[63]
The Higgs mechanism gives rise to the hierarchy problem if some new physics (coupled to the Higgs) is present at high
energy scales. In these cases, in order for the weak scale to be much smaller than the Planck scale, severe fine tuning
of the parameters is required; there are, however, other scenarios that include quantum gravity in which such fine tuning

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can be avoided.[64] There are also issues of quantum triviality, which suggests that it may not be possible to create a
consistent quantum field theory involving elementary scalar particles.[65]
The model is inconsistent with the emerging Lambda-CDM model of cosmology. Contentions include the absence of an
explanation in the Standard Model of particle physics for the observed amount of cold dark matter (CDM) and its
contributions to dark energy, which are many orders of magnitude too large. It is also difficult to accommodate the
observed predominance of matter over antimatter (matter/antimatter asymmetry). The isotropy and homogeneity of the
visible universe over large distances seems to require a mechanism like cosmic inflation, which would also constitute an
extension of the Standard Model.
Currently, no proposed theory of everything has been widely accepted or verified.

See also
Yang–Mills theory
Fundamental interaction:
Quantum electrodynamics
Strong interaction: Color charge, Quantum chromodynamics, Quark model
Weak interaction: Electroweak interaction, Fermi's interaction, Weak hypercharge, Weak isospin
Gauge theory: Introduction to gauge theory
Generation
Higgs mechanism: Higgs boson, Alternatives to the Standard Higgs Model
Lagrangian
Open questions: CP violation, Neutrino masses, QCD matter, Quantum triviality
Quantum field theory
Standard Model: Mathematical formulation of, Physics beyond the Standard Model
Electron electric dipole moment

Notes
1. There are mathematical issues regarding quantum field theories still under debate (see e.g. Landau pole), but the
predictions extracted from the Standard Model by current methods applicable to current experiments are all self-
consistent.[2]
2. Although nine color–anticolor combinations mathematically exist, gluons form color octet particles. As one color-
symmetric combination is linear and forms a color singlet particles, there are eight possible gluons.[41]

References
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://[Link]/details/theoryofalmostev0000oert) (Kindle ed.). Penguin Group. p. 2 ([Link]
mostev0000oert/page/2). ISBN 978-0-13-236678-6. Retrieved 28 March 2022.
2. R. Mann (2010). "25". An Introduction to Particle Physics and the Standard Model. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-8298-
2.
3. Overbye, Dennis (11 September 2023). "Don't Expect a 'Theory of Everything' to Explain It All" ([Link]
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Further reading
Oerter, Robert (2006). The Theory of Almost Everything: The Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph of Modern Physics.
Plume. ISBN 978-0-452-28786-0.
Schumm, Bruce A. (2004). Deep Down Things: The Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics ([Link]
deepdownthingsbr00schu). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-7971-5.

[Link] Page 13 of 15
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"The Standard Model of Particle Physics Interactive Graphic" ([Link]

Introductory textbooks
I. Aitchison; A. Hey (2003). Gauge Theories in Particle Physics: A Practical Introduction. Institute of Physics. ISBN 978-
0-585-44550-2.
W. Greiner; B. Müller (2000). Gauge Theory of Weak Interactions. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-67672-0.
J.E. Dodd; B.M. Gripaios (2020). The Ideas of Particle Physics: An Introduction for Scientists. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 978-1-108-72740-2.
D.J. Griffiths (1987). Introduction to Elementary Particles. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-60386-3.
G.L. Kane (1987). Modern Elementary Particle Physics. Perseus Books. ISBN 978-0-201-11749-3.

Advanced textbooks
T.P. Cheng; L.F. Li (2006). Gauge theory of elementary particle physics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-
851961-4. Highlights the gauge theory aspects of the Standard Model.
J.F. Donoghue; E. Golowich; B.R. Holstein (1994). Dynamics of the Standard Model. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-47652-2. Highlights dynamical and phenomenological aspects of the Standard Model.
L. O'Raifeartaigh (1988). Group structure of gauge theories. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-34785-3.
Nagashima, Yorikiyo (2013). Elementary Particle Physics: Foundations of the Standard Model, Volume 2 ([Link]
[Link]/books?id=QYlX6AL4CtwC). Wiley. ISBN 978-3-527-64890-0. 920 pages.
Schwartz, Matthew D. (2014). Quantum Field Theory and the Standard Model ([Link]
EAgAAQBAJ). Cambridge University. ISBN 978-1-107-03473-0. 952 pages.
Langacker, Paul (2009). The Standard Model and Beyond ([Link] CRC
Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-7907-4. 670 pages. Highlights group-theoretical aspects of the Standard Model.

Journal articles
E.S. Abers; B.W. Lee (1973). "Gauge theories". Physics Reports. 9 (1): 1–141. Bibcode:1973PhR.....9....1A ([Link]
[Link]/abs/1973PhR.....9....1A). doi:10.1016/0370-1573(73)90027-6 ([Link]
%2873%2990027-6).
M. Baak; et al. (2012). "The Electroweak Fit of the Standard Model after the Discovery of a New Boson at the LHC". The
European Physical Journal C. 72 (11): 2205. arXiv:1209.2716 ([Link]
Bibcode:2012EPJC...72.2205B ([Link] doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-
012-2205-9 ([Link] S2CID 15052448 ([Link]
/CorpusID:15052448).
Y. Hayato; et al. (1999). "Search for Proton Decay through p → νK+ in a Large Water Cherenkov Detector". Physical
Review Letters. 83 (8): 1529–1533. arXiv:hep-ex/9904020 ([Link]
Bibcode:1999PhRvL..83.1529H ([Link]
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.1529 ([Link] S2CID 118326409 ([Link]
[Link]/CorpusID:118326409).
S.F. Novaes (2000). "Standard Model: An Introduction". arXiv:hep-ph/0001283 ([Link]
D.P. Roy (1999). "Basic Constituents of Matter and their Interactions – A Progress Report". arXiv:hep-ph/9912523 (https
://[Link]/abs/hep-ph/9912523).
F. Wilczek (2004). "The Universe Is A Strange Place". Nuclear Physics B: Proceedings Supplements. 134: 3.
arXiv:astro-ph/0401347 ([Link] Bibcode:2004NuPhS.134....3W ([Link]
[Link]/abs/2004NuPhS.134....3W). doi:10.1016/[Link].2004.08.001 ([Link]
2004.08.001). S2CID 28234516 ([Link]

External links
"The Standard Model explained in Detail by CERN's John Ellis ([Link]
article-physics)" omega tau podcast.
The Standard Model ([Link] on the CERN website explains how the
basic building blocks of matter interact, governed by four fundamental forces.
Particle Physics: Standard Model ([Link] Leonard Susskind lectures (2010).

[Link] Page 14 of 15
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Retrieved from "[Link]

[Link] Page 15 of 15