EARTH SCIENCE 2.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING - ions from a rock are either

MODULE 1 – WEATHERING released into water or recombined with other substances to
form new materials

AGENTS OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING

 OXIDATION - water has regular contact with the
atmosphere and contains plenty of oxygen
 SOLUTION - a chemical reaction causes mineral-
forming ions to dissociate, and the separated ions are
carried away in the water
 CARBONATION – a solution that involves carbon
dioxide and water molecules reacting with, and thereby
EXOGENIC PROCESS decomposing, rock material
is the breakdown of rocks and eroded rock fragments from higher  HYDROLYSIS - water molecules alone, react with
energy sites to lower energy chemical components of rock-forming minerals to create
WEATHERING - breaking down of rocks and other materials on new compounds
Earth’s surface  ACIDS AND CHEMICALS FROM ORGANISMS - living
- Slow but continuous organisms perform chemical reactions to obtain
TYPES OF WEATHERING: minerals from soil and rocks
1. MECHANICAL/PHYSICAL WEATHERING – breaking EROSION - transport by wind, water, and ice of soil, sediment,
smaller fragments from a larger rock without changing their and rock
chemical composition fragments produced by the weathering
 UNLOADING – overlying material is removed, and SEDIMENTATION - eroded material being transported by water,
pressure is decreased settles out of the water column onto the surface, as the water
 EXFOLIATION – large flat or curled sheets of the rack flow slows.
are detached from the outcrop due to pressure ESTUARIES - shaped by the mixing of water and sediments from
 THERMAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION both a waterway and the ocean
WEATHERING – any material that is heated, expands. AGENTS OF EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION
As it cools, it contracts.  WIND - most active agent of erosion in deserts, open
 FREEZE-THAW WEATHERING – rocks are POROUS fields, and beaches
(has holes) or PERMEABLE (allow water to pass  WAVES - constantly erode and shape the shoreline
through) - it carries large amounts of sand, rock particles,
 SALT CRYSTAL GROWTH - water containing liquefied and shells
salts accumulates in these spaces - BEACHES: fine sand or large pebbles
- SANDBARDS: submerged or exposed sediment
 - SPITS: elongated sand that stretches from the o Continental crust: Granite-like composition.
land to the bay o Oceanic crust: Basalt-like composition.
 RUNNING WATER - most efficient and effective agent MAGMA FORMATION:
for erosion MAGMA - liquid rock beneath the Earth's surface, forming from
 ICE - glacier moves along a valley, it carries rock debris, the partial melting of mantle or crust rocks.
such as large boulders and smaller particles THREE MECHANISMS OF MAGMA FORMATION:
MASS WASTING - collective term for the downslope transport of 1. DECOMPRESSION MELTING - caused by a decrease in
pressure
surface
2. FLUX MELTING - addition of volatiles (e.g., water)
materials in direct response to gravity
decreases the melting point of rocks
- HEAVER OBJECTS: greater downward pull 3. HEAT TRANSFER MELTING - magma transfers heat,
 CREEP – soil: slow speed melting surrounding rocks
 FALL – rock: fast speed LOCATIONS OF MAGMA FORMATION:
 SLIDE – rock or debris: fast speed 1. DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES – plates move apart, leading
EARTH SCIENCE to decompression melting
MODULE 2 – ENDOGENIC PROCESSES 2. HOTSPOTS - upwelling of hot material from deep within
the mantle
SOURCES OF EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT: 3. SUBDUCTION ZONES - one plate is pushed under
 PRIMORDIAL HEAT - leftover heat from the formation of another, causing flux melting
the Earth due to particle collisions and material MAGMA CHARACTERISTICS:
redistribution  VISCOSITY - resistance to flow
 RADIOACTIVE DECAY - release of energy from elements  LOW VISCOSITY - faster flow, typical in mafic
like uranium-235, uranium-238, potassium-40, and magma.
thorium-232 found in the crust and mantle  HIGH VISCOSITY - slower flow, common in felsic
 HEAT TRANSFER - convection within the mantle magma.
redistributes heat from the core to the surface FACTORS AFFECTING VISCOSITY:
GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT – earth’s temperature increases by  TEMPERATURE - higher temperature, lower viscosity.
25°C per kilometer of depth.  SILICA CONTENT - higher silica content, higher viscosity.
- drives geothermal energy used for heating and  VOLATILES - more volatiles reduce viscosity.
electricity production MAGMA BEHAVIOR:
- temperature reaches over 5000°C near the  DENSITY CONTRAST - magma is less dense than
Earth's core surrounding rocks, allowing it to rise.
LAYERS OF THE EARTH:  Magma rises through cracks in the rock and can either
1. CORE - composed of iron and nickel solidify at shallow levels or reach the surface to form
o Outer core: Liquid. volcanoes.
o Inner core: Solid, around 5000°C.  BOWEN’S REACTION SERIES - describes the order in
2. MANTLE - composed of peridotite, contains iron and which minerals crystallize from cooling magma.
magnesium. MAGMATIC DIFFERENTIATION:
o Brittle, solid, 3500°C near the bottom.
3. CRUST - thinnest layer, 1000°C near the bottom
  CRYSTAL FRACTIONATION - denser minerals like olivine 3. SUBDUCTION METAMORPHISM - occurs at subduction
and Ca-rich plagioclase form first, making the remaining zones where the oceanic lithosphere is forced into the
magma more felsic. mantle
 PARTIAL MELTING - occurs at different temperatures for 4. CONTACT METAMORPHISM - results from heat caused by
different minerals, with quartz and muscovite melting the intrusion of magma into adjacent rock, producing non-
first. foliated rocks like marble and quartzite
 MAGMA MIXING - two different magmas mix during their 5. DYNAMIC METAMORPHISM - caused by shear stress
ascent. along fault zones
 CRUSTAL CONTAMINATION – magma interacts with TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS:
surrounding rocks, altering its composition. 1. FOLIATED ROCKS - have a banded or striped appearance,
ENDOGENIC PROCESSES - internal heat powers geological typically associated with regional metamorphism (e.g.,
processes, driving plate tectonics and volcanic activity. gneiss, schist).
- convection in the mantle moves material, 2. NON-FOLIATED ROCKS - lack foliation, associated with
influencing the rock cycle and the formation of contact metamorphism (e.g., marble, quartzite).
new crust. STRESS - force applied to a rock per unit area
BOWEN’S REACTION SERIES: TYPES OF STRESS:
 Continuous branch: Plagioclase feldspar changes 1. COMPRESSIONAL STRESS - squeezes rocks together;
composition as temperature drops. occurs at convergent boundaries.
 Discontinuous branch: Minerals like olivine transform - leads to folding and faulting.
into pyroxene and later into amphibole as temperature 2. TENSIONAL STRESS - pulls rocks apart, common at
decreases. divergent boundaries.
- leads to stretching and faulting.
3. SHEAR STRESS - rocks slide past one another in opposite
directions; occur at transform boundaries.
- leads to shearing and faulting.
EARTH SCIENCE STRAIN - deformation caused by stress.

MODULE 3 – METAMORPHISM AND ROCK DEFORMATION TYPES OF STRAIN:

1. ELASTIC DEFORMATION – the rock returns to its original
METAMORPHISM - comes from the Greek words "meta" shape after stress is removed.
(change) and "morph" (form) 2. DUCTILE DEFORMATION - the rock permanently changes
- transformation of a protolith (parent rock) into a shape after stress is applied.
metamorphic rock due to changes in 3. BRITTLE DEFORMATION - the rock breaks or fractures
temperature, pressure, and chemically active under stress.
fluids. TECTONIC PLATE BOUNDARIES:
TYPES OF METAMORPHISM: 1. CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES:
1. BURIAL METAMORPHISM - occurs when sediments are o Movement: Plates move toward each other.
deeply buried, causing minerals to recrystallize
o Stress: Compressional stress.
2. REGIONAL METAMORPHISM - creates foliated rocks due
o Example: Formation of the Himalayas due to the
to differential stress and mountain building.
collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates.
 2. DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES: 2. TEMPERATURE: Higher temperatures make rocks behave
o Movement: Plates move away from each other. in a more ductile manner.
o Stress: Tensional stress. 3. ROCK STRENGTH: The strength of rocks depends on their
o Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where the Eurasian mineral composition and the presence of water.
and North American plates are diverging. 4. STRAIN RATE: High strain rates lead to brittle failure,
3. TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES: while slow rates result in ductile behavior.
o Movement: Plates slide past each other. FOLDING AND FAULTING
o Stress: Shear stress.  FOLDING - bending of rocks due to compressional
o Example: San Andreas Fault in California, where forces, common at convergent boundaries
the Pacific Plate slides past the North American - creates anticlines (upfolds) and synclines
Plate. (downfolds).
 FAULTING - breaking of rocks due to stress
TYPES OF FAULTS:
1. NORMAL FAULT - occurs when the hanging wall moves
downward relative to the footwall; typical in tensional
stress (divergent boundaries).
2. REVERSE FAULT (THRUST FAULT) - hanging wall moves
upward due to compressional stress (convergent
boundaries).
3. STRIKE-SLIP FAULT - caused by shearing stress, where
rocks slide past each other horizontally.
- Example: Philippine Fault Zone (PFZ).

ROCK DEFORMATION - process where rocks change their

shape, size, or volume due to stress.
STAGES OF ROCK DEFORMATION:
1. ELASTIC DEFORMATION - the rock stretches but returns
to its original shape.
2. DUCTILE DEFORMATION - the rock permanently changes
shape due to bending or folding.
3. BRITTLE DEFORMATION - the rock breaks or fractures
permanently.
FACTORS AFFECTING ROCK DEFORMATION:
1. CONFINING PRESSURE: High pressure makes rocks more
ductile and less likely to fracture.