BIOCHEMISTRY MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

How does substances move into and out of the

MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PROCESSES
cell?
PASSIVE TRANSPORT PROCESS
Cells have a plasma membrane that acts like
Do not require energy expenditure
a fence and this plasma membrane is what
regulates what move into and out of a cell Ø SIMPLE DIFFUSION
The membrane is mainly comprised of *occurs with solutes that are small
phospholipid molecules and has protein and non-polar
molecules scattered throughout its structure *by being non-polar they can occur
between phospholipid molecules that
PHOSPHOLIPID MOLECULES form the plasma membrane because
the interior region of the membrane is
Has a polar head (hydrophilic water living
non-polar
head) and non-polar tails (2 non-polar * MATERIALS THAT MOVE BY
hydrophobic water fearing tails)
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
The membrane is formed as the head face out - GASES : Oxygen and Carbon
and the tails face each other forming a bilayer Dioxide
- Small Fatty Acids
CYTOSOL EXAMPLE : If there is a higher
concentration of oxygen outside of
- Inner part of the cell
the cell, they can move down the

INTERSTITIAL FLUID concentration gradient across the

membrane without assistance and into
- A fluid which is the outside of the cell the cell as long as the concentration
gradient exists.
Substances move into and outside of the cell
*if there is a higher concentration of
through several different processes called
carbon dioxide inside of the cell, they
can move across the membrane
 without assistance, out of the cell into - Each protein channel is typically
the interstitial fluid. specific to one type of ion
- simple diffusion is when non-polar
molecules pass directly through the * 2 TYPES OF CHANNEL
membrane
Ø LEAK CHANNEL
Ø FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- continuously open
- Applies to solutes that are small
Ø GATED CHANNEL
(charged or polar)
- which only opens due to a stimulus
*because these solutes are polar, the
and it only stays open for a fraction of
non-polar phospholipid bilayer,
a second
blocks them from passing through the
membrane and into or out of the cell Ex. Positive sodium ion (Na+) can pass
by simple diffusion. through a positive sodium leak channel
- They can pass into and out of the cell continuously. Gated sodium channel only
through the help of the plasma opens due to a stimulus to allow the ion to
membrane protein through a process pass through into the cell.
called facilitated diffusion
CARRIER MEDIATED DIFFUSION
2 TYPES OF FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- Involves the movement of small polar

CHANNEL MEDIATED DIFFUSION molecules (e.g. simple sugars or

carbohydrates (glucose molecule) and
- Ions or small molecules amino acids) across the membrane
- When an ion which is a charged - Accomplished by a carrier protein
particle, its total number of electrons which actually changes shape in the
is not equal to its total number of process.
protons, giving it a positive or Ex. Glucose molecules binds t a
negative charge, moves across the carrier protein, which changes shape
membrane through water-filled and moves the glucose molecule to
protein channel the other side of the membrane.
Ø OSMOSIS
- passive movement of water through a ex. Sugar dissolved in water (the sugar
selectively permeable membrane molecule will move from high concentration
to low concentration)
- this occurs if there is a difference in the
concentration of water by either side of the - occurs down the CONCENTRATION
membrane
GRADIENT – difference in concentration of a
- this can happen in two ways :
substance between 2 areas
1. water can slip between the phospholipid
molecules that make up the plasma CELLULAR DIFFUSION
membrane
- When diffusion of a solute (dissolved
2. through an integral protein water channels substance) occurs across the plasma
called the aquaporin membrane from an area of high
concentration to an area of low
*The plasma membrane is not permeable concentration
to most solutes such as polar and large *this is dependent on the
substances concentration of the substance in the
interstitial fluid outside of the cell and
Ex. One side of the membrane, either the
the cytosol inside of the cell.
cytosol of interstitial fluid, can have more
*this can occur through simple
solutes than the other side.
diffusion or facilitated diffusion
*For this example, water will move down its
concentration gradient from the 99% cytosol ACTIVE PROCESSES
side, to the 97% interstitial side to achieve
- Do require the cell to expend energy
equilibrium.
- Require cellular energy for membrane
* diffusion transport

- movement of a substance from high

2 TYPES OF ACTIVE PROCESSES
concentration to low concentration

- the tendency of a substance to spread out ACTIVE TRANSPORT PROCESS

evenly over a given space
 - Movement of solute against the SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
concentration gradient going from an
area of low concentration to a place of - A substance is moved against its
higher concentration concentration gradient by using
energy provided by the movement of
2 TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT a second substance down its
concentration gradient.
PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT - A substance moving from a high
concentration to low concentration
- Cellular protein pumps called ion
will provide energy to move a second
pump move the ion across the
substance from a place of low
membrane against their concentration
concentration to high concentration.
gradient.

Ex. 2 TYPES OF SECONDARY ACTIVE

1. 3 sodium ion and atp (serves as an TRANSPORT

energy source/cellular energy or fuel)
binds to the pump. Symport – where 2 substances are moved
2. The ATP will break down into ADP + in the same direction
P in order to release energy.
Ex. The positive sodium ions moving from
3. P binds to the pump, release of energy
high concentration outside of the cell to lower
causes the pump to change its shape
concentration inside of the cell. A symporter
and release the sodium positive ions
will use the energy created by this to move a
into the interstitial fluid.
glucose molecule from a low concentration
4. 2 positive potassium ions binds to the
area to a high concentration area.
pump and the P produced by the ATP
is release into the cytosol of the cell
Antiport – where 2 substances are moved
5. The transport protein or pump reverts
in the opposite directions
back into its original shape, releasing
positive potassium ions into the Ex. Using the energy from moving positive
cytosol and the pump is ready to do its ions from high concentration outside of the
job again. cell to lower concentration inside of the cell.
Each positive will move up its gradient and ENDOCYTOSIS
outside of the cell.
- Cell intakes contents from outside of
VESICULAR TRANSPORT PROCESS the cell.
- The plasma membrane kind of traps a
- Transport by vesicle
substance by folding inward
- Transport of large substances such as
- The lipid bilayer then fuses to form
proteins or large carbohydrate
vesicle surrounding the substance.
polysaccharide across the plasma
membrane by a vesicle
3 MAIN FORMS OF ENDOCYTOSIS
*vesicle – a membrane-bound sac filled
with materials PHAGOCYTOSIS

2 TYPES OF VESICULAR TRANSPORT - A large particle is engulf by the newly

formed vesicle. This vesicle fuses
EXOCYTOSIS with the lysosome, which is a
membranous vesicle that contains
- Materials are secreted from the cell to digestive enzymes that break down
the interstitial fluid outside of the cell. the particle to its component
- Typically, membranous vesicles molecules.
formed in the golgi apparatus, - Also called as “cell eating”
transport materials at the cell’s
membrane PINOCYTOSIS
- At the membrane, the phospholipid
- Also referred to as “cell drinking”
molecules that make up the vesicle,
- It is when the plasma membrane folds
fuse with the phospholipid molecules
inward and engulfs droplets of
that make up the plasma membrane
interstitial fluid that contain dissolves
(vesicle and membrane fuse)
solutes that can be used by the cell.
- The contents of the vesicle are
released outside of the cell. RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS
- The vesicle membrane, now become
part of the plasma membrane.
 - Involves using receptors on the injury, and initiates repair and regeneration of
outside of the plasma membrane. damaged tissue.
These receptors bind with molecules
in the interstitial fluid and the Necrosis
membrane folds, enclosing the
receptors and the bound molecules, to • also referred to as accidental cell death,

form a vesicle for transport within the causes inflammation.

cell.
Apoptosis
- *both vesicular transport processes,
endocytosis and exocytosis require
• programmed cell death
the use of energy.
- • a normal step-by-step process that destroys
cells no longer needed by the body.

• By mechanisms still under investigation,

apoptosis does not initiate the inflammatory
response.

Acute inflammation resolves over time by

Tissue Injury and Aging the healing of tissue. If inflammation persists,

it becomes chronic and leads to diseased
conditions.
Inflammation
Arthritis and tuberculosis are examples of
• the standard, initial response of the body to
chronic inflammation.
injury.

• Whether biological, chemical, physical, or *The suffix “-itis” denotes inflammation of a

radiation burns, all injuries lead to the same specific organ or type. For example,

sequence of physiological events. peritonitis is the inflammation of the

peritoneum, and meningitis refers to the
• Inflammation limits the extent of injury, inflammation of the meninges, the tough
partially or fully eliminates the cause of
membranes that surround the central nervous mast cells present in tissue degranulate,
system. releasing the potent vasodilator histamine.

four cardinal signs of Increased blood flow and inflammatory

inflammation mediators recruit white blood cells to the site

of inflammation. The endothelium lining
• redness (at least for people with light the local blood vessel becomes “leaky” under
colored skin) the influence of histamine and other
inflammatory mediators allowing
• swelling
neutrophils, macrophages, and fluid to move
• pain from the blood into the interstitial tissue
spaces.
• local heat - were first recorded in antiquity.

edema
Cornelius Celsus
• The excess liquid in tissue causes swelling,
• credited with documenting these signs
properly.
during the days of the Roman Empire, as
early as the first century AD. The swollen tissues stimulate mechanical
receptors, which can cause the perception of
• A fifth sign, loss of function, may also
pain.
accompany inflammation.

Upon tissue injury, damaged cells release Prostaglandins

inflammatory chemical signals that evoke
• released from injured cells also activate pain
local vasodilation, the widening of the
pathways.
blood vessels.
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
Increased blood flow can change the color of
the integument and result in a localized drugs (NSAIDs)
temperature increase. In response to injury,
• reduce perceived pain because they inhibit collagen and extracellular material lost by the
the synthesis of prostaglandins. injury.

• High levels of NSAIDs reduce Angiogenesis

inflammation.

Antihistamines

• decrease allergies by blocking histamine

receptors and as a result, the histamine
response.

After containment of an injury, the tissue

repair phase starts with removal of toxins and
waste products.
• the growth of new blood vessels, results in
Clotting (coagulation) vascularization of the new tissue known as
granulation tissue.
• reduces blood loss from damaged blood
vessels and forms a network of fibrin proteins • The clot retracts pulling the edges of the
that trap blood cells and bind the edges of the wound together, and it slowly dissolves as the
wound together. tissue is repaired.

• A scab forms when the clot dries, reducing • When a large amount of granulation tissue
forms and capillaries disappear, a pale scar is
the risk of infection.
often visible in the healed area.
• Sometimes a mixture of dead leukocytes
and fluid called pus accumulates in the primary union
wound.
• describes the healing of a wound where the
• As healing progresses, fibroblasts from the edges are close together.
surrounding connective tissues replace the
• When there is a gaping wound, it takes • are easily recognizable.
longer to refill the area with cells and
• The skin and other tissues become thinner
collagen.
and drier, reducing their elasticity,

secondary union contributing to wrinkles and high blood

pressure.

• process which occurs as the edges of the

• Hair turns gray because follicles produce
wound are pulled together by what is
less melanin, the brown pigment of hair and
called wound contraction. When a the iris of the eye.
wound is more than one quarter of an inch
deep, sutures (stitches) are recommended to • The face looks flabby because elastic and

promote a primary union and avoid the collagen fibers decrease in connective tissue

formation of a disfiguring scar. and muscle tone is lost.

Regeneration is the addition of new cells of • Glasses and hearing aids may become parts

the same type as the ones that were injured of life as the senses slowly deteriorate, all due

(Figure 4.6.1 – Tissue Healing). to reduced elasticity.

• Overall height decreases as the bones lose

Tissue and Aging calcium and other minerals.

According to poet Ralph Waldo Emerson, • With age, fluid decreases in the fibrous
“The surest poison is time.” In fact, biology cartilage disks intercalated between the
confirms that many functions of the body vertebrae in the spine.
decline with age.
• Joints lose cartilage and stiffen.
All the cells, tissues, and organs are affected
• Many tissues, including those in muscles,
by senescence, with noticeable variability
lose mass through a process
between individuals owing to different
called atrophy.
genetic makeup and lifestyles.

• Lumps and rigidity become more

outward signs of aging
widespread.
Consequences Aging

• the passageways, blood vessels, and • also apparent at the cellular level because all
airways become more rigid. cells experience changes with aging.

Telomeres, regions of the chromosomes

• The brain and spinal cord lose mass.
necessary for cell division, shorten each time
• Nerves do not transmit impulses with the cells divide.
same speed and frequency as in the past.
• As they do, cells are less able to divide and
• Some loss of thought, clarity, and memory regenerate.
can accompany aging.
• Because of alterations in cell membranes,
• More severe problems are not necessarily transport of oxygen and nutrients into the cell
associated with the aging process and may be and removal of carbon dioxide and waste
symptoms of an underlying illness. products from the cell are not as efficient in
the elderly.
Interior signs of aging
• Cells may begin to function abnormally,
• As exterior signs of aging increase, so do which may lead to diseases associated with
the interior signs, which are not as noticeable. aging, including arthritis, memory issues, and
some cancers.
• The incidence of heart diseases, respiratory
syndromes, and type 2 diabetes increases • The progressive impact of aging on the body
with age, though these are not necessarily varies considerably among individuals.
age-dependent effects.
• However, studies indicate that exercise and
Wound healing healthy lifestyle choices can slow down the
deterioration of the body that comes with old
• is slower in the elderly, accompanied by a age.
higher frequency of infection as the capacity
of the immune system to fend off pathogens Homeostatic Imbalances : Tissues
declines.
and Cancer
Cancer ability to proliferate in an orderly fashion, the
cell starts to divide abnormally.
• a generic term for many diseases in which
• As changes in cells accumulate, they lose
cells escape regulatory signals.
their ability to form regular tissues.
• Uncontrolled growth, invasion into adjacent
• A tumor, a mass of cells displaying
tissues, and colonization of other organs, if
abnormal architecture, forms in the tissue.
not treated early enough, are its hallmarks.

• Many tumors are benign, meaning they do

• Health suffers when tumors “rob” blood
not metastasize nor cause disease.
supply from the “normal” organs.

• A tumor becomes malignant, or

Mutation cancerous, when it breaches the confines of
its tissue, promotes angiogenesis, attracts the
• defined as a permanent change in the DNA
growth of capillaries, and metastasizes to
of a cell.
other organs.

• Epigenetic modifications, changes that do

• The specific names of cancers reflect the
not affect the code of the DNA but alter how
tissue of origin.
the DNA is decoded, are also known to
generate abnormal cells. • Cancers derived from epithelial cells are
referred to as carcinomas.
• Alterations in the genetic material may be
caused by environmental agents, infectious • Cancer in myeloid tissue or blood cells form
agents, or errors in the replication of DNA myelomas.
that accumulate with age.
• Leukemias are cancers of white blood cells,
• Many mutations do not cause any noticeable whereas sarcomas derive from connective
change in the functions of a cell. tissue.

• However, if the modification affects key • Cells in tumors differ both in structure and
proteins that have an impact on the cell’s function.
• Some cells, called cancer stem cells, appear
to be a subtype of cell responsible for
uncontrolled growth. Recent research shows
that contrary to what was previously
assumed, tumors are not disorganized masses
of cells, but have their own structures.

Development of Cancer

• Note the change in cell size, nucleus size,

and organization in the tissue.

• Cancer treatments vary depending on the

disease’s type and stage.

• Traditional approaches, including surgery,

radiation, chemotherapy, and hormonal therapy,
aim to remove or kill rapidly dividing cancer
cells, but these strategies have their limitations.
Homeostasis
• Depending on a tumor’s location, for example,
cancer surgeons may be unable to remove it.
ONE OF THE FUNDAMENTAL
• Radiation and chemotherapy are difficult, and REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
it is often impossible to target only the cancer MAINTENANCE OF LIFE IS
cells. HOMEOSTASIS.

• The treatments inevitably destroy healthy tissue homeostasis

as well. To address this, researchers are working
on pharmaceuticals that can target specific
proteins implicated in cancer-associated
molecular pathways.
• The term "homeostasis" was coined in 1930
by the physician Walter Cannon, which
means from the Greek words for "same" and
"steady”.

• It refers to any process that living things use

to actively maintain fairly stable conditions
necessary for survival.

• Homeostasis is the mechanism by how our

body maintains the internal environment
within limits and return critical systems of the
body to a set point within a narrow range of
operation that allow us to survive.

• Homeostasis is maintained at many levels,

not just the level of the whole body as it is for
temperature.

• Though certain physiological systems

operate within frequently larger ranges,
certain body parameters are tightly
controlled homeostatically. For example,
body temperature and blood pressure are
controlled within a very narrow range. In