SCIENCE

INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

- Comes from the Arabic word “Alkimia” meaning “The Art of Transformation”.
- Is the study of composition, structure, properties, and change of matter. Perhaps, it is the most
extensively connected to other fields of study..

 3 States of Matter
 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Gas
 It classifies into two, Pure Substance (elements and compounds) and Mixtures
(homogeneous or heterogeneous).

 Atom
- Smallest unit into which matter can be divided without the release of electrically charged
particles. As such, the atom is the basic building blocks of chemistry.
 Electrons are the negatively charged particles of an atom (�− )
 Protons are the positively charged particles (�+ )
 Neutrons are the neutrally charged (no charge) particles (�0 )

 The History of Atomic Theory

 Democritus
- A Greek Philosopher who began to search for a description of matter, eventually named the
smallest piece of matter: “Atomos” meaning “not to be cut”. He found atoms to be indivisible.
 John Dalton
- Introduced the Atomic Theory (all elements are composed of atoms) into Chemistry.
- Made the “Solid Sphere Model”.

 J.J Thomson ( Joseph John Thomson)

- Introduced electrons and made the “Plum Pudding Model”.

 Ernest Rutherford
- Discovered protons and the nucleus of an atom. He also made the “Nuclear Model”.
 James Chadwick
- Discovered the neutrons of an atom.
 Niels Bohr
- Made the “Planetary Model” which is most commonly used for demonstrating the distributions
of electrons.

 Erwin Schrodinger
- Made the “Quantum Model”. He also introduce the “Wave Mechanical Model”.

 Parts of the Periodic Table

 Groups
- Numbered from 1 to 18, from left to right vertically.
- The group indicates the number of valence electron in an element.
- Group 1 and 2 are S-BLOCKS
- Group 3 through 12 are D-BLOCKS
- Group 13 through 18 are P-BLOCKS
- Inner transition blocks or the Lanthanide and Actinoids are F-BLOCKS, which are also not given
group numbers
 Periods
- Horizontal row of the periodic table which consists of 7 periods, with each one beginning in the
far left.
- The period indicate the number of electrons shells in an element.
 Atomic Number
- Most important characteristic of an atom as it defines the number of protons and electrons
(denoted by the symbol Z). This means that protons and electrons are equal in number in an
atom making them neutral.
- EXAMPLE:
Which atom has a Z of 6? Carbon
Which atom has a Z of 92? Uranium
 Atomic Mass
- The quantity of matter contained in an aatom of an element.
 Number of Neutron
- To get the number of neutrons in an atom, subtract the atomic mass to its atomic number:
Number of Neutron = Atomic Mass - Atomic Number

 Types of Elements
 Metals
- Metals are typically shiny, dense, and have high melting points. They are also malleable
(capable of a hammer beating), ductile (easily stretched without breaking), and good conductors
of heat and electricity.
 Nonmetals
- Nonmetals are generally dull or nonreflective and brittle (hard to break but shatter easily).
 Metalloids
- Metalloids can have a metallic or nonmetallic appearance and characteristic.

 Learn to solve for the neutrons, determining the atomic number and mass, and familiarize
with the characteristics of atoms. Distinguish metals from nonmetals.

WAYS OF DISTRIBUTING ELECTRONS

 Bohr-Rutherford Diagram
- Shows a visual representation of the atom and accounts for the organization of its protons,
neutrons, and electrons
- EXAMPLE: Oxygen

 Remember!
- Protons and Neutrons are shown in the nucleus.
- Electrons are shown to orbit the nucleus in energy shell.
- Valence Electrons are those that are in the valence shell (outermost energy shell).
- In the figure above, it is shown Oxygen has 6 valence electrons.
 Each Shell Can Hold
ELECTRON SHELL / PRINCIPAL ENERGY LEVEL MAXIMUM NUMBER OF ELECTRONS
1 2
2 8
3 16
4 32
5 32
6 16
7 8

 Electron Configuration
- Are the summary of where the electrons are around a nucleus and also describes how electrons
are distributed in its atomic orbitals
- 1s2 = 1 represents the energy level, the s represents the type of orbital, and 2 represents the
number of electrons in that orbital.

- EXAMPLE: Calcium has a Z of 20, find its electron configuration.

*Longhand Notation
Ca = 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
*Shorthand Notation - uses the previous noble gas notation
Ca = (Ar)4s2

 Remember!
- The maximum electron an orbital can hold is its energy level 1, 2, 3, and 4.
- Each SHELL has a corresponding SUBSHELL designated by the s, p, d, f.
SUBSHELL NUMBER OF ORBITALS MAXIMUM NO. OF
ELECTRONS
S (spherical) 1 2
P (principal) 3 6
D (diffuse) 5 10
F (fundamental) 7 14
 Electron Population
- A method of arranging electrons by using orbital diagrams.
- Each orbital is represented by a box and can accommodate up to 2 electrons (up and down).
1s2 :
↑↓
2p6 :
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
3d :
10

↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
4f 14 :
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
- EXAMPLE: Neon has a Z of 10. First, determine its Electron Configuration, then draw the orbital
diagram.
*EC:
NE = 1s22s22p6
*OB:
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓

1s2 2s2 2p6

 Rules
- In distributing electrons, these rules apply:
 1. Aufbau Principle
- Statesthat electrons are distributed in increasing energy of orbitals. Hence why this diagram is
followed in writing the electron configuration:

 2. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

- Each orbital can only contain a maximum of 2 electrons with opposite spins. This is for the
orbital diagram, whose arrows (up and down) can only occupy 1 orbital.
 3. Hund’s Rule
- Electrons first occupy orbitals singly with the same spin before pairing it with an electron of the
opposite spin
- EXAMPLE: Fluorine
*First: Occupy the same spin (up)
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑

1s2 2s2 2p5

*Second:
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑

1s2 2s2 2p5

 Practice the electron configuration and orbital diagram of the first 10 elements.
CHEMICAL BONDING

- The process of linking or joining together of atoms to gain stability and form a compound or
molecule.
 Octet Rule
- This stability they form is for the octet rule. This rule refers to the tendency of atoms to have
EIGHT valence electrons (outermost electrons) to gain stability. We do not consider the elements
in the d or f electrons
 Electronegativity
- The ability of atoms to ATTRACT electrons towards itself in a chemical bonding. The farther the
element is to the right side of the periodic table, the higher the negativity.

 Polarity
- Results in the distribution of electrical charge over the atoms joined by a chemical bond.
Basically, the electronegativity difference of 2 atoms in a compound.
 Noble Gases
- Elements that rarely form compounds. These elements already have eight valence electrons,
therefore already achieving stability.

 Ionic Bonding
- Transferring of electrons between metals and nonmetals.

 Electronegativity Difference
- If its polarity is > 1.9 and above, then its bond is Ionic
 Covalent Bonding / Molecular Bonding
- Sharing of electrons between two nonmetals.

 Electronegativity Difference
- If its polarity is < 0.5 and below, its bond is Non-Polar. But, if its polarity is between 0.5 - 1.9, then its
bond is Polar.

 Metallic Bonding
- force that holds atoms together in a metallic substance in which free moving valence electrons
is bonded to the positively charged ions in a metal.

 Different Properties of Compounds

1. At normal pressure at temperature, covalent compounds exist in solids, liquids, and gas, while
ionic compounds exist only as crystalline solids.
2. Ionic compounds have a higher melting and boiling point than covalent compounds.
3. Ionic compounds are hard and brittle, covalent compounds are soft and flexible, while metallic
compounds are malleable and ductile.
4. Ionic compounds have higher polarity than covalent compounds.
5. Ionic compounds are soluble in water, covalent compounds tend to be less soluble in water.
6. Ionic and metallic compounds conduct heat and electricity compared to covalent compounds
which doesn’t.
NAMING SIMPLE COMPOUNDS

 Diatomic Molecule
- A molecule made from two atoms of the same element, examples are H2, N2, O2, etc.

 General Naming Rule for Covalent Compounds

- Prefix (except mono) + nonmetal name + prefix + nonmetal name + ide
PREFIX MEANING PREFIX MEANING
Mono 1 Hexa 6
Di 2 Hepta 7
Tri 3 Octa 8
Tetra 4 Nona 9
Penta 5 Deca 10
- EXAMPLES:
CO = Carbon Monoxide
CO2 = Carbon Dioxide
N2O4 = Dinitrogen Tetraoxide

 General Naming Rule for Ionic Compounds

- Metal name + nonmetal name + ide
- EXAMPLES:
BaCl2 = Barium Chloride
(NH4) SO4 = Ammonium Sulfate
Mnn(NO3)4 = Manganese IV Nitrate

THE STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CARBON

- Carbon is one of the most abundant (many) in the world.

- Its symbol is “C”, belongs to the nonmetal group
- Its atomic weight is 12.011, with an atomic number of 6.
- It can bond with other carbon atoms in an almost unlimited degree.

 Compouns Carbon can Form

- Each carbon atom has 4 unpaired electrons in its valence shell, it can form covalent bonds with
up to 4 other elements.
 Three Fundamental Structures

 Bonding of Carbon with Itself

 Allotropy
- Elements that can exist in two or more different forms called Allotropes or Isomers.
- Allotropse are different structural modification of an element, which carbon exhibits allotropy.
- EXAMPLES:
Diamond
Graphite
Ionsdaleite
Buckballs C60, C540, and C70
 Lewis Dot Structure of Carbon
 Lewis Dot Structre (LEDS)
- A representation of the valence electrons of an atom that uses dots around the symbol of the
element.
- Carbon has 4 valence electrons, so it has 4 dots around it. To reach stability, it must share.

 Bonds of Carbon
Single Bonds Double Bonds Triple Bonds

 Hydrocarbon
- One of the most common organic compounds, which contains carbon and hydrogen.
 Naming Hydrocarbon Molecules
TYPE OF BOND CARBON COMPOUND HYDROCCARBON
Single Saturated Alkane
Double Unsaturated Alkene
Triple Unsaturated Alkyne
- Take note of the number of carbons in naming atoms:
NO. OF CARBON PREFIX NO. OF CARBON PREFIX
1 Meth- 6 Hex-
2 Eth- 7 Hept-
3 Prop- 8 Oct-
4 But- 9 Non-
5 Pent- 10 Dec-
- EXAMPLES:
NO. OF CARBON PREFIX SUFFIX CARBON NAME
4 But- -ane Butane
2 Eth- -ene Ethene
3 Prop- -yne Propyne

 Straight Chain Formulas

- Alkanes: CnH2n+2
- EXAMPLE: n = 3
CnH2n+2 = C3H2(3)+2 = C3H6+2 = C3H8
- Alkenes: CnH2n
- EXAMPLE: n = 2
CnH2n = C2H2(2) = C2H4
- Alkenes: CnH2n - 2
- EXAMPLE: n = 4
CnH2n - 2 = C4H2(4) - 2 = C4H8 - 2 = C4H6
CARBON ATOM: A UNIQUE ONE

 Organic Chemistry
- Studies the structure, properties, and reactions of organic compounds, which contain carbon in
covalent bonding.

 Organic Compound
 Group of elements that contain both carbon and hydrogen in it, also consistently contains
carob with other different elements like oxygen and nitrogen.
- EXAMPLES:
C7H7NO = Benzamide
C2H4O2 = Acetic Acid
HC6H7O6 = Ascorbic Acid
C2H2 = Acetylene Gas (from calcium carbide, accelerates the ripening process of fruits)
 Types of Organic Compounds
1. Carbohydrates
- Made of one or more simple sugar molecule.
- Elements: C, H, O with the ratio of Hydrogen and Oxygen being 2:1
- Uses: Energy source, cell structure, and stored energy in plants
- Examples: Sucrose, glucose, cellulose, starch, sugar, fiber, bread, corn, rice
2. Lipids
- Does not dissolve in water.
- Elements: C, H, O with the ratio of Hydrogen and Oxygen being 2>1
- Uses: Storing energy, components of cell membranes, signaling, waterproof covering (cuticle)
- Examples: Fats, oils, and waxes
3. Proteins
- Molecules with complex structures that allows them to take on significant functions in organic
chemical reactions, essential for organization, function, and regulation.
- Elements: C, H, O, N
- Uses: Cellular structures, controls substances in and out of cell, fight diseases
- Examples: Hemoglobin, collagen, insulin, keratin, meat, eggs
4. Nucleic Acid
- The term nucleic acid is the overall name for DNA and RNA.
- Elements: C, H, O, N, P; Phosphorous comes in because the building blocks of nucleic acids are
nucleotides which consist of a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and a phosphate group
- Uses: Direct and store information for reproduction and cellular growth, lead the development
of protein synthesis, and control the inherited genes.

 Inorganic Compound
- A compound that does not contain both carbon and hydrogen.
- EXAMPLES:
H2O = Water
HCl = Hydrochloric Acid
CO2 = Carbon Dioxide
H3PO2 = Hydrophosphorous Acid

 Remember some examples of organic and inorganic compounds, sources and examples of
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

- Hydrocarbon and their derivatives are called organic compounds, that is, compounds containing
carbon and hydrogen are called Hydrocarbons.

 Types of Formulas
 1. Molecular Formula
- Formula which represents actual numbers of atoms in a molecule.
- EXAMPLES:
Water = H2O
Sodium Chloride = NaCl
Sulfuric Acid = H2SO4
 2. Empirical Formula
- Formula which represents the simplest ration of atoms present in it.
- EXAMPLES: Molecular Formula to Empirical Formula
Glucose = C6H12O6 → CH2O
Propene = C3H6 → CH2
 3. Structural Formula
- Shows connectivity between atoms and groups.

 4. Dash-Formula
- Have lines that show bonding electron pairs.
- EXAMPLES:

 5. Condensed Structural Formula

- In fully condensed formulas, all of the atoms that are attached to the carbon are usually written
immediately after that carbon, listing hydrogens first.
- EXAMPLES:
 6. Bond-Line Formula (Skeletal Formula)
- Most common type and the fastest to draw.
- EXAMPLES:

 NOMENCLATURE
- IUPAC system of Nomenclature
- International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

MOLECULAR MASS

- g/mol (gram per mole)

- Always give the exact mass of a mole of molecules
- Mass of a mole of a given molecule, used for covalent bond compounds

 Steps in Calculating Molecular Mass

 1st Step: Determine the number of atoms of the elements present in the molecule
 2nd Step: Find the atomic mass of each atom using the periodic table of elements. Multiply
the atomic mass to the number of atoms of the elements present in the molecule.
 3rd Step: Get the sum of all the product
- EXAMPLE: Mefenamic acid consists of C13H18O2. What is the molecular mass?
- Compound: C13H18O2
C = 13 × 12.01 = 156.13
H = 18 × 1.01 = 18.18 206.31 g/mol
O = 2 × 16 = 32

 Practice computing for molar masses of compounds

MOLE CONCEPT

- It is the number of particles found in one mole of a substance. It is the number of atoms in
exactly 12 grams of Carbon-12.
- Mole (mol) is used to measure the amount of substance. Latin, mole means a “massive heap” of
material.
 1 mole = 6.02 × 1023 (Avogadro’s Number) - no. of units in one mole of a substance
- EXAMPLES:
Given: 36g of H2O
Find: moles
Formula: moles = grams ÷ molar mass
Solution: H = 2 × 1.01 = 2.02
O = 1 × 16 = 16
Molar mass = 18.02 g/mol
moles = 36g × 18.02 g/mol
Answer: 2 moles

Given: 3 moles of CO2

Find: molecules
Formula: molecules = moles ÷ (6.02 × 1023 )
Solution: molecules = 3 moles ÷ (6.02 × 1023 )
Answer: 1.806 × 1024 molecules

 Practice computing mole concept problems (gram to mole, mole to molecule, mole to gram).

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION

- Allows us to calculate the percentage of each element in a compound.

- Percent composition is used to determine the empirical formula of a compound, which helps
identify the compound's molecular formula. It is used on food labels to break down a serving size
into categories like fat, cholesterol, sodium, carbohydrates, and protein. Percent composition is
important for understanding the financial aspects of everyday life, such as discounts in shops,
bank interest rates, and rates of inflation.

 Formula

Mass of Element
%Mass Percent = × 100%
Mass of Compound

- EXAMPLE: Calculate the percent compositions of Ethanol (C2H6O)

C = 2 × 12.01 = 24.02
H = 6 × 1.01 = 6.06
O = 1 × 16 = 16
Molar Mass = 46.08

Mass of Element
%Mass Percent = × 100%
Mass of Compound

24.02g
C: %Mass Percent = × 100% = 52.13%
46.08�

6.06g
H: %Mass Percent = × 100% = 13.15% 100%
46.08�

16g
O: %Mass Percent = × 100% = 34.72%
46.08�

 Practice solving for percentage compositions.