Chapter 4: Output (Data) Presentation / Elements

Introduction:

The transmitted data may be used by the system, finally for monitoring, controlling or
analyzing purposes. Thus the person handling the measuring instrument get the information
in the proper form according to the purpose for which it is intended. This function is done by
the data (output) presentation element.

 If the output is to be monitored, then visual display devices are used as output
presentation elements.
 If the output signal is to be recorded for analysis purpose, then magnetic tapes,
recorders, high speed cameras are used as data presentation elements.

For control and investigation purpose, the microprocessors, computers and

microcontrollers may be used as output presentation elements.
The data (output) presentation stage may be called terminating stage of an instrument.

For example:

Consider a simple analogue meter used to measure current or voltage as shown in Fig. 4.1
below.
The moving coil is primary sensing element. The magnets and coil together act as data
conditioning stage to convert an electrical current in the coil to a mechanical force. This force
is transmitted to the pointer through mechanical linkage which acts as data transmission
element. The pointer and scale act as output presentation element.

Current Moving Magnets & Force Mechanical Pointer

other linkages and Scale Observ
coil
er components

Primary sensing Data conditioning Data transmission Data presentation

Fig.4.1. Analogue meter for measurement of current

Generally output display devices are categorized as Indicating and Recording instruments

Indicating (Visual display) Recording

Instruments Instruments
Pointer and scale Graphical
Alphanumeric Magnetic
Graphical Semiconductor
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4.1. Indicating Instruments:

4.1.1. Analogue Pointer and Scale

In case of measuring instruments the effect of unknown quantity is converted into a

mechanical force which is transmitted to the pointer which moves over a calibrated scale. The
moving system of such instrument is monitored on a pivoted spindle. For the satisfactory
operation of any indicating instruments, following systems must be presented on an
instrument.

1. Deflecting system which is producing deflecting torque TD

2. Controlling system which is producing controlling torque TC
3. Damping system which is producing damping torque

Let us see the various ways in which these torques are obtained in an indicating instrument.

1. Deflecting System:

In most of the deflecting instruments the mechanical force which is proportional to the
quantity to be measured is generated. This force or torque deflects (moves) the pointer. The
system which produces such a deflecting torque is called deflecting system and the force is
denoted as deflection torque (TD). The deflecting torque overcomes:

 The inertia of the moving system

 The controlling torque provided by controlling system
 The damping torque provided by damping system

The deflection system uses one of the following effects produced by current or voltage to
produce deflection torque.

Magnetic effect: When a current carrying conductor is placed in uniform magnetic field, it
experiences a force which causes to move it. This effect is mostly used in many measuring
instruments like moving iron, attraction and repulsion type, permanent magnet moving coil
and so on.

Thermal effect: The current to be measured is passed through a small element which heats it
to cause a rise in temperature which is converted to an emf by a thermocouple attached to the
heating element.

Electrostatic effect: When two plates are charged, there is a force exerted between them,
which causes to move one of the plates. This effect is used in electrostatic instruments such as
voltmeters and cathode ray tubes.
 3

2. Controlling System:

This system should provide a force so that current or any other electrical quantity will
produce a deflection of the pointer, proportional to its magnitude. The output functions of his
system are:
a) It produces a force equal and opposite to the deflecting force in order to make
the deflection of the pointer at a definite magnitude.
If this system is absent then the pointer will swing beyond its final steady position
for the given magnitude and deflection will become indefinite.

b) It brings the moving system back to zero position when the force which
causes the movement of the moving system is removed. The pointer will
never come back to its zero position in the absence of controlling system.
Controlling torque is generally provided by springs. Sometimes gravity
control is also used.

3. Damping System:

The deflecting torque provides some deflection and controlling torque acts in the
opposite directions to that of deflecting torque. So before coming to rest, pointer always
oscillates due to inertia, about the equilibrium position. Unless a pointer rests, final
reading can not be obtained. So to bring the pointer to rest within short time, damping
system is required. The system should provide a damping torque only when the moving
system is in motion. Damping torque is proportional to velocity of the moving system
but it does not depend on operating current. It must not affect controlling torque or
increase the friction.
The following methods are used to produce damping torque.

a) Air friction damping b) Fluid friction damping c) Eddy current

damping

Basically for deflection of the moving system, different types of instrument movement
are used.
Moving coil (PMMC) Thermocouple
Moving coil (Dynamo meter) Electrostatic
Moving Iron Induction
Thermal hot wire Rectifier

PMMC = Permanent Magnet Moving Coil

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Moving Coil (D`Arsonval) Meter Movement:

The structure of a dc moving-coil (PMMC) meter is shown in Fig.4.3 below. A small

rectangular pivoted coil is wrapped around an iron cylinder and placed between the poles of a
permanent magnet. Because of the shape of the poles of the permanent magnet, the induction
magnetic field in the air gap is radial and constant.

Fig.4.2. D`Arsonval meter movement

A moving-coil meter is a very commonly used form of analogue voltmeter because of its
sensitivity, accuracy and linear scale, although it only responds to d.c. signals.

As shown schematically in Fig4.2 above, it consists of a rectangular coil wound round a soft
iron core that is suspended in the field of a permanent magnet. The signal being measured is
applied to the coil and this produces a radial magnetic field. Interaction between this induced
field and the field produced by the permanent magnet causes a torque, which results in
rotation of the coil.

The amount of rotation of the coil is measured by attaching a pointer to it that moves past a
graduated scale.

Now let see the mathematical relationship of the deflecting torque with the current.
The torque produced is given by the equation as follows.

T = B * H *W * N * I

Where: B = Magnetic flux density, H = Height, W= Width, N = turns ratio & I = current.
 5

From the formula above it is seen that by keeping constant all quantities except the current, then it
can be written as

T= K*I, where the torque becomes the function of the current.

The controlling force is produced by the tension of the spring which is attached with the
pointer.

The damping torque is produced by the eddy currents. Eddy current damping is based on the
principle that whenever a sheet of conducting metal but non magnetic like copper/ aluminium moves
in a magnetic field so as to cut through lines of force, eddy currents are set up on the sheet. Due to
these eddy currents, a force opposing the motion of the sheet is experienced between them and the
magnetic field. Hence if the strength of the magnetic field is constant, the damping force is
proportional to the velocity of the moving system and is zero when the moving system is at rest.

The D`Arsonval meter movement is used as an ammeter. Since the meter movement is a coil of very
fine wire with little mass, it has a high resistance and as a result, little torque (a small current) will
deflect it. If the meter movement is measuring heavier current, it must be larger, with greater mass
and smaller resistance. A meter measuring microamperes will most probably be used in a circuit with
a resistance of 100KΩ or larger. A meter measuring milli-amperes will most likely be use in a circuit
with a resistance of 1000Ω. In both cases the relative resistance is small with respect to the circuit
resistance. So the coil of the meter can be represented as below for measurement of current.

The two most important parameters of the moving coil are

 Its internal resistance (Rm) and

 Current handling capacity (Im). Im +
Rm
Basic meter

Fig.4.3. PMMC equivalent circuit

Although the meter resistance is an integral part of the meter movement, the meter movement can be
thought of as having two separate parts; the ideal meter with zero resistance, and the meter
resistance.

The PMMC instrument is essentially a low-level dc ammeter. However, with the use of parallel
connected resistors, it can be employed to measure a wide range of direct current level. The
instrument may also be made to function as a dc voltmeter by connecting appropriate value resistors
in series with the coil. AC ammeters and voltmeters can be constructed by using rectifier circuits
with a PMMC instruments. Ohmmeters can be made from precision resistors, PMMC instruments,
and batteries. Multi range meters are available that combine ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter
functions in one instrument.
 6

Basic Dc Ammeter:
It is the basic PMMC equivalent circuit connected with a parallel (shunt) resistor.

Rm = Internal resistance of coil

Rsh = Shunt resistance

Im = Full scale deflection current
Ish = Shunt current
I = Ish + Im = total circuit current

Fig.4.4. Basic d.c Ammeter equivalent circuit

Vsh
Rsh  .
The shunt resistor can be calculated as: I sh As the two resistances, R and R are in parallel,
sh m

the voltage drop across them is the same.

So, Vsh = Vm and thus, IshRsh = ImRm

I m Rm
Rsh 
Thus, I sh . But I = I-I .
sh m

I m Rm Rm I
Rsh  Rsh  m
Therefore,
 I  I m  or  m  1 Where Im

The m is called multiplying power of the shunt and defined as the ratio of total current to the current
through the coil. It can also be expressed as:

I R
m 1  m
Im Rsh

The shunt resistance may consist of a constant temperature resistance wire within the case of the
meter or it may be external shunt having low resistance.

Key Point: Thus to increase the range of ammeter 'm' times, the shunt resistance required is 1/ (m -1)
times the basic meter resistance. This is nothing but extension of ranges of an ammeter.
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Example 4.1: A 2 mA meter with an internal resistance of 100 Ω is to be converted to 0-150

mA ammeter. Calculate the value of the shunt resistance required in two
ways.

Solution: Given values are,

Rm = 100 Ω, Im = 2 mA and I = 150 mA

I m Rm Rm
Rsh  Rsh 
 I  Im   m  1 Class work
2 x10 3 Ax 100 
 3
Rsh = 150 x10 A  2 x 10 A
3

200 x 10 3 A
Rsh 
148 x 10 3 A

Rsh 1.351 Rsh 1.351

Multirange Ammeters

The range of the basic d.c ammeter can be extended by using a number of shunts and a
selector switch. Such a meter is
called multirange ammeter,

R1, R2, R3 and R4 are four shunts. When

connected in parallel with the basic
meter, they can give four different
ranges I1, I2, I3 and I4. The selector
switch (S) is multiposition switch,
having low contact resistance and
high current carrying capacity.

[Link] ammeter

The make before break type switch is used for the range changing. If the ordinary switch is
used, while range changing the switch remains open and full current passes the meter.
The meter may get damaged due to such high current. So the make before break switch is
used. The design of such switch is so that it makes contact with the next terminal before
completely breaking the contact with the previous terminal.

The multirange ammeters are used for the range up to 50 A. While using multirange
ammeters, the highest range should be sued first (nearest to the basic meter) and the current
 8

range should be decreased until good upscale reading is obtained. All the shunts are very
precise resistances and hence cost of such multirange ammeters is high.

The mathematical analysis of basic d.c ammeter is usually applicable to such multirange
ammeter. Thus,
R R R
R1  m R2  m Rn  m
m1  1 m2  1 and mn  1
,
Im Rm Im Rm Im Rm
R sh1  Rsh2  Rshn 
I1  I m I2  Im In  Im
or , and

Where; m1, m2 and--- mn are the shunt multiplying powers for the currents I1, I2 and ----In

Example 4.2: Design and draw a multirange d.c milliammeter with a basic meter having a
resistance of 75 Ω and a full scale deflection for the current of 2mA if the required
ranges are:
0 -10mA, 0 – 50mA and 0 – 100mA

Solution: The firs range is 0 – 10 mA and hence I1 = 10 mA while Im = 2 mA and Rm = 75 Ω

I m Rm 2 mA x75 150mA
Rsh1   18.75
I1  I m 10 mA 2 mA 8 mA
So, =

Complete the rest design task please!

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b) The Ayrton (Universal) Shunt

We have seen that in multistage ammeter, a make before break switch is must. The Ayrton
shunt or the universal shunt eliminates the possibility of having a meter without a single
shunt. The meter with the Ayrton shunt is shown in Fig.4.6 below.
The selector switch (S), decides on the
appropriate shunt required to change the
range of the meter. When the position of
the switch is at '1', then the resistance R1
is in parallel with the series combination
of R2, R3 and Rm. Hence current through
the shunt is more than the current
through the meter, thus protecting the
basic meter. When the switch is in the
position '2', then the series resistance of
R1 and R2 is in parallel with the series
combination of R3 and Rm. The current
through the meter is more than through
the shunt. In the position '3', the
resistance R1, R2 and R3 are in series and
acts as the shunt. In this position, the
maximum current flows through the
meter. This increases the sensitivity of
the meter.
Fig.4.6. Ammeter with Ayrton shunt

The voltage drop across the two parallel branches is always equal.

Thus IshRsh = ImRm . But;

In position '1', R1 is in parallel with R2 +R3 + Rm

I 1  R1   I m  R2  R3  Rm 
So, where I1 is the first range required. ------- (1)

In position '2', R1 + R2 is in parallel with R3 + Rm

I 2  R1  R2   I m  R3  Rm 
Thus, where I2 is the second range required. ------- (2)

In position '3', R1 + R2 + R3 is in parallel with Rm

I 3  R1  R2  R3   I m Rm
Therefore, where I3 is the third range required. ------- (3)

Note that! The current range I3 is the minimum while I1 is the maximum range possible.
Solving the equations (1), (2) and (3), the required Ayrton shunt can be designed.
 10

Example 4.3: Design and draw an Ayrton shunt to provide an ammeter with current
ranges 1A, 5A and 10A. A basic meter resistance is 50Ω and its fullscale
deflection current is 1mA.

Solution: Refer to fig.4.6

In position '1', R1 is shunt with R2 +R3 + Rm

I 1  R1   I m  R2  R3  Rm 
Thus, where I1= 10A, Im =1mA and Rm = 50Ω,

Then, 10A R1 = 1x10-3A (R2 +R3 + Rm)

R1 = 10 -4 ((R2 +R3 + 50Ω) ----------------------------- (a)

In position '2', R1 + R2 is shunt with R3 + Rm

I 2  R1  R2   I m  R3  Rm 
Therefore, where I2 = 5A,

5A (R1 + R2) = 1x10-3A (R3 + 50Ω)

Thus, R1 + R2 = 2x10- 4 (R3 + 50Ω) ----------------- (b)

In position '3', R1 + R2 + R3 is shunt with Rm

I 3  R1  R2  R3   I m Rm
So, where I3= 1A,
1A (R1 + R2 + R3) = 1x10-3A x 50Ω

R1 + R2 + R3 = 0.05Ω ------------------------------------------- (c)

From equation (c), R1 + R2 = 0.05 Ω - R3

Substituting in equation (b) we get,

0.05 Ω - R3 = 2x10- 4 (R3 + 50Ω)

0.05 Ω - R3 = 2x10- 4 R3 + 0.01Ω

0.05 Ω - 0.01Ω = R3 (1 +2x10- 4)

0.04
 0.0399
Thus, R3 = 1.0002 .

So, R1 + R2 = 0.05 Ω – 0.0399 Ω = 0.01Ω

Then R2 = 0.01Ω - R1
Substituting R2 in equation (a),

R1 = 10 - 4 (0.01Ω - R1 + 0.0399Ω + 50Ω)

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R1 = 10 - 6 Ω – 10 - 4 R1 + 3.99 – 6 Ω + 5- 3 Ω

1.0001 R1 = 5.00499 - 3 Ω

R1 = 0.005 Ω

And R2 = 0.01 Ω - 0.005 Ω = 0.005 Ω

From the above result, the shunt resistances of the designed Ayrton shunt are:

R1 = 0.005 Ω
R2 = 0.005 Ω and
R3 = 0.0399Ω

Now draw the designed Ayrton shunt ammeter by leveling all determined and given values
appropriately.
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Basic Dc Voltmeter:

The basic d.c. voltmeter is nothing but a PMMC D'Arsnvol meter. The resistance is required
to be connected in series with the basic meter to use it as a voltmeter. This series resistance is
called a multiplier.

The main function of the

multiplier is to limit the current
through the basic meter so that
the meter current does not exceed
the full scale deflection value.
The voltmeter measures the
voltage across the two points of a
circuit or a voltage across a
circuit component. The basic d.c
voltmeter is shown in Fig. 4.7.

Fig.4.7. Basic d.c Voltmeter

The voltmeter must be connected across the two points or a component, to measure the
potential difference, with the proper polarity.

The multiplier resistance can be calculated as:

V  I m Rs  I m Rm
From Fig.4.8, where: Rm = Internal resistance of the
meter

I m R S  V  I m Rm
RS = Series multiplier resistance
Im = Full scale deflection current
V
RS   Rm
Thus, Im V = Full range voltage to be
measured

Note! The multiplying factor for multiplier is the ratio of full range voltage to be measured
(V) and the voltage drop across the basic meter (v)
V
m
v
I  R  RS  R
m m m 1 S
v  I m Rm V  I m  Rm  R S  I m Rm Rm
Let, and . Thus,
RS   m 1 Rm
Hence the multiplier resistance can also be expressed as,

Key Point: Thus to increase the range of voltmeter 'm' times, the series resistance required
is (m -1) times the basic meter resistance. This is nothing but extension of ranges of a
voltmeter.
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Example 4.4: A moving coil instrument gives a full scale deflection with a current of 40
µA, while the internal resistance of the meter is 500Ω. It is to be used as a
voltmeter to measure a range of 0 – 10V. Calculate the multiplier resistance
needed.

Solution: Given values are: Rm = 500Ω, Im = 40 µA and V = 10V

VS 10V
RS   Rm   500  249.5 K
Thus
Im 40 x 10 6 A

a) Multirange Voltmeter:

The range of the d.c. voltmeter can be extended by using a number of multipliers and a
selector switch. Such a meter is called multirange voltmeter and shown in Fig.4.8.

Fig.4.8. Multirange Voltmeter

Resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4 are the four series multipliers. When connected in series with the
meter, they can give four different voltage ranges as V 1, V2 V3 and V4. The selector switch S
is multiposition switch by which the required multiplier can be chosen in the circuit.

The mathematical analysis of basic d.c. voltmeter is equally applied for such multirange
meter.

VS
RS   Rm
Thus from Im ,
V V2
R1  1  Rm , R2   Rm
Im Im and so on.
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b) Universal Multiplier

The more practical arrangement of universal multiplier resistances is shown in Fig 4.9.

Fig.4.9. Universal Voltmeter

In this arrangement, the multipliers are connected in a series string. The connections are
brought out from the junction of the resistances. The selector switch is used to pick the
required voltage range.

When the switch S is at position V 1, R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 acts as a multiplier resistances, while

when the switch S is at position V4 then the resistance R4 only acts as multiplier resistance. V4
is the lowest range while V 1 is the maximum voltage range. The multiplier resistances can be
calculated as:

In position V4, the multiplier is R4 only. The total resistance of the circuit is say RT,

V4
RT  R4  RT  Rm
Im Thus, ---------------------------- (1)

In position V3, the multiplier is R3 + R4.

V
RT  3
Thus, Im
R3  R4  RT  Rm
So,

R3  RT   Rm  R4 
--------------------------------------------- (2)

In position V2, the multiplier is R2 + R3 + R4.

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V2
RT 
Thus, Im

R2  R3  R4  RT  Rm
So,

R2  RT   Rm  R3  R4 
---------------------------------- (3)

In position V1, the multiplier is R1 + R2 + R3 + R4.

V1
RT 
Thus, Im

R1  R2  R3  R4  RT  Rm
So,

R1  RT   Rm  R2  R3  R4 
----------------------------------- (4)

Using the equations (1), (2), (3), and (4) multipliers can be designed. The advantage of this
arrangement is that the multipliers except R 4 have standard resistance values and can be
obtained commercially in precision tolerance. The first resistance R4 only is the resistance
having special value and must be manufactured specially to meet the circuit requirements.

Sensitivity of a Voltmeter

In a multirange voltmeter, the ratio of the total resistance R T to the voltage range remains the
same. This ratio is nothing but the reciprocal of the full scale deflection current of the meter
(1/Im). This value is called sensitivity of the voltmeter.

Thus the sensitivity of a voltmeter is defined as:

1 1
S S  V or K V
Full scale deflection current Or Im

Key Point: The sensitivity range is specified on the meter dial and it indicates the
resistance of the meter for a one volt range

The sensitivity is useful in calculating the resistance of a multiplier in d.c. voltmeter.

Consider the practical multirange voltmeter circuit in Fig.4.9.

Then the multiplier resistances can be obtained as:

R1  SV1   Rm  R2  R3  R4 
 16

R2  SV2   Rm  R3  R4 

R3  SV3   Rm  R4 

R4  SV4  Rm

Where: S = Sensitivity rating in Ω/V

Rm = Internal resistance of basic meter or coil
V1, V2, V3 and V4 are the required voltage ranges

Key Point: This method is called the sensitivity method of calculating the multiplier (series
string) resistances.

Example 4.5: Calculate the value of the multiplier resistance on the 500 V range of a d.c.
voltmeter, that uses 50µAmeter movement with an internal resistance of 200
Ω.

Solution: The sensitivity of the meter is:

1 1
S   20000  V  20 K V
I m 50 x10 6 A

RS  SV  Rm   20000  / V x 500V   200

Now

RS 10000000  200

RS  9998000  9.998M  10 M

Note! The more the value of S in Ω/V is, the more the sensitivity of the meter.

AC Voltmeters and Ammeters

Ac electromechanical meter movements come in two basic arrangements:

 those based on Dc movement designs
 those engineered specifically for Ac use
 17

Permanent- magnet moving coil (PMMC) meter movements will not work correctly to
alternating current, because the direction needle movement will change with each half-cycle
of the AC (Fig.4.10a).
Permanent-magnet meter movements, like permanent-magnet motors, are devices whose
motion depends on the polarity of the applied voltage (or, you can think of it in terms of the
direction of the current).

(a)

(b)
Fig.4.10. AC Voltmeter and Ammeter

(a) Passing AC through the D' Arsonval, meter movement causes useless flutter of the
needle
(b) Passing AC through the Rectifier, AC meter movement will drive it in one direction

In order to use a DC-style meter movement such as the D' Arsonval design, the alternating
current must be rectified into DC. Arranged in a bridge will serve to steer Ac through the
meter movement in a constant direction throughout all portions of the AC cycle (Fig.4.10b).
 18

Another strategy for a practical AC meter movement is to redesign the movement without the
natural polarity sensitivity of the DC type. This means avoiding the use of permanent magnet.
Probably the simplest design is to use a non magnetized iron vane to move the needle against
spring tension, the vane being attracted toward a stationary coil of wire energized by the AC
quantity to be measured as in Fig.4.11.

Fig.4.11. AC Iron vane meter

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4.1.2. Alphanumeric (Digital) Instruments

Introduction

An analogue system contains devices that manipulate the physical quantities represented in
analogue form. In analogue system the quantities can vary continuously over a range of
values. A digital system is a combination of devices designed for manipulating physical
quantities or information represented in digital form. i.e., they can take only discrete values
(that is binary). Thus, digital instruments are Analog–to-Digital converters (ADC). Digital
techniques achieve much greater levels of accuracy in signal processing than equivalent
analogue methods. However the time it takes to process a signal digitally is longer than that
required carrying out the sane operations by analogue techniques, and the equipment required
is more expensive.

Digital instruments can provide high input impedance, high accuracy, and resolution, and a
high speed of measurement. They provide an indication to the observer which is free from
ambiguity and requires no interpolation. Additionally they can store information, can be
designed easily, programmable and less affected by noise. Their limitations are that the real
quantities or physical quantities are analogue in nature. So there is a need to convert these
variables to digital, for manipulating the signal’s using digital circuits. Many devices and
most instrumentation transducers have an output signals in analogue form, while digital
systems like microprocessors, process binary coded data. So signals have to be in a digital
format.

Summarized Comparison of Digital and Analog Instruments

Digital Meter Analog Meter

Leaves no doubt about the measured Wrong scale might be used or might be read incorrectly
quantity
Superior resolution and accuracy (± Inferior resolution and accuracy (± 2%)
0.6%)
Indicates a negative quantity when the Pointer attempts to deflect to the left of zero when the
terminal polarity is reversed (dc case) terminal polarity is reversed (dc case)
Not usually damaged by rough Can be irreparably (permanently) damaged when
treatments dropped from bench (hand) levels
Switch automatically to an appropriate Suffer damage if the measured quantity is exceeds the
range or indicate overload when the selected full scale range
measured quantity is excessive

Main Units of Digital Instruments

 Logic Gates: perform logic functions detect the presence or absence of pulses process
digital signals.
 20

 Flip – Flops: can stay in two different stable states. They can store binary
information, count pulses, control the operation of digital circuits, synchronize digital
circuit operations and produce required wave shapes.

 Clock: a series of pulses used as a timing device. The Clock is used to synchronize
two or more circuits that operate together or in parallel. Many operations may be
combined and synchronized by a clock timing system.

 Counter: is a sequential digital circuit that counts and stores the number of input
pulses it receives.

 Register: temporarily stores binary information, acting as a link between main digital
system and input output channels. Data can be manipulated within a registers to
increase functionality through selective utilization of Flip-Flops and steering circuits.

 Analogue – to - Digital Converter (ADC): is required at the interface between

analogue transducer and the digital system, and DAC is often required at a later stage
to convert the signals back into analogue form. To take the advantages of digital
techniques while dealing with analogue inputs and outputs, the following steps are
necessary.

 Conversion of analogue to digital.

 Processing digital signals.
 Again converting to analogue.

The process of ADC consists of sampling the analogue signals at regular intervals of time.
Each sample of the analogue voltage is then converted into an equivalent digital value. This
conversion takes a certain finite time, during which the analogue signal can be changing in
value. The next sample of the analogue signal cannot be taken until the conversion of the last
sample to digital form is completed. The representation within the a digital system of a
continuous analogue signals is therefore a sequence of samples whose pattern only
approximately follow the change of the original signal. This pattern of sample taken is
successive, an equal interval of time is known as a discrete signal.

 Sample and Hold Circuit: is normally an essential element at the interface between
an analogue sensor or transducer and an ADC. It holds the input signal at a constant
level while the analogue to digital conversion process is taking place. This prevents
the conversion errors that would probably result if variations in the measured signal
were allowed to pass through to the converter. The operational amplifier circuit
shown in Fig.4.14. below provides this sample and hold function.
The input signal is applied to the circuit for very short time duration with the switch S 1
closed and S2 open, after which S1 is opened and the signal level is then held until, the
next sample is required, the circuit is reset by closing S2.(Fig.4.12).
 21

-
Vo o ut put
V1 a naloogu e
inp ut + +
SW1 U1

C 1 1 .0 u
SW2
o pe ra t i o na l a mp. c o nne c t e d
a s sa mpl e & hol d c i rc ui t s

[Link] and Hold circuit

 Digital Display: unit is a device which indicates the value of the measured quantity as
a number. It is the digital display device which indicates the value in decimal digits.
The number of digits corresponds to the significant figure needed to represent the
value. Digital display units are used as the output devices for digital measuring
instruments.

The input to the digital display is either a code on one or more input lines, indicating the
particular number to display, or the excitation of one of the inputs lines designating the
number to be displayed. There are a wide variety of digital readouts available such as a:
o Projection Display: projects the desired digit on a small screen by means of an
optical system and an appropriate mask. Each digit appears at the same plane.

o Light-Emitting-Diode (LED) Display: devices give out different lights to

indicate the level of measured quantity.

o Seven Segment Display: devices form the digits to be displayed by

illuminating the selected segments from a group. As all the available segments
are in the same plane, all digits will be displayed in the same plane.

o Liquid Crystal Display (LCD): are usually arranged in the same seven-
segment numerical format as the LED display. They use much less energy than
LED displays.

o A Gaseous Glow Display: tubes have a set of electrodes, each shaped in the
form of a digit. The selected electrode is surrounded by a gaseous discharge,
or glow, when the digit is selected.

o A Dot-matrix Display: or grid of illuminated dots may be used to form the

digit to be displayed.
 22

Digital Multimeters

A Digital multimeter is basically a digital voltmeter that can be configured to express for the
measurement of voltage, current (dc or ac) and resistance through voltage. All quantities
other than dc voltages are first converted into an equivalent dc voltage by having additional
processing circuits, after which they can be measured by the basic DVM. The ADC is the
central element of a DVM. The ADC is therefore, as a limit input range operating usually a
unipolar dc signal.

Fig.4.13. Block diagram of a digital multimeter

For measurement of dc voltage, the dc input stages provide high input impedance together
with attenuation amplification, and polarity sensing of the signal to ensure that the voltage
applied to the ADC is of the correct polarity.

For measurement of AC voltage the input voltage is converted into a DC voltage by means
of rectifier. A compensated attenuator is employed. Many manufactures provide the same
attenuator for both DC and AC measurements. True RMS measurement can be obtained by
the use of thermal converters.
 23

For measurement of resistance a constant current technique is used, depending on the range,
supplied from a battery or a constant current source is passed through the resistance under
measurement and the voltage developed across it is measured. The resistance value is
displayed in ohms.

For measurement of current, the unknown current is passed through a precision resistor in
many commercial digital multi meters and the voltage developed across the precision resistor
is measured. Current is derived by measuring the voltage drop across a known resistance and
scaling the digital read out accordingly. The current value is displayed in units of current.

For measurement of current, a current to voltage converter may also be used, as illustrated by
the Fig.4.14.

Fig.4.14. A current to voltage converter circuit

The current under measurement is applied to summing junction of the input of the op-amp.
The current in the feedback resistor I R is equal o the input current I IN because of very high
input impedance of the op-amp. The current IR causes a voltage drop across one of the
resistors, which is proportional to the input current I IN. Different resistors are employed for
different ranges.

4.1.3. Graphical Display Instruments

 24

A graphical representation of the AC wave shape is displayed by the Cathode Ray Tube
(CRT) especially if the electron beam is swept side-to-side across the screen of the tube while
the measured Ac voltage drives the beam up and down (scanning). A CRT with its practically
weightless electron beam "movement" displays the Peak (or Peak-to-Peak if you wish) of an
Ac waveform rather than Average or Effective (RMS) values. Still, a similar problem for all
arise: how do we determine the average and RMS values of a displayed waveform?
Conversion factors between Peak and RMS only hold so long as the waveform falls neatly
into a known category of shape (Sine, Square and Triangle are the only examples with Peak /
RMS / Average conversion factors given here!).

RMS =
0.707(Peak)
AVG =
0.637(Peak)
P-P = 2(Peak)

RMS = Peak
AVG = Peak
P-P = 2(Peak)

RMS =
0.577(Peak)
AVG = 0.5(Peak)
P-P = 2(Peak)

Fig.4.15. RMS, Average, and Peak-to-Peak values for Sine, Square and Triangle waves

The Oscilloscope displays a picture of the shape of an input signal on a light emitting
Phosphor screen. It changes the electrical signal to a visual light energy. The CRO is an X-Y
plotter. The X-axis correspondences to a signal placed on the Horizontal control of the
cathode ray tube and the Y-axis correspondence to a signal placed on the vertical control of
the CRT. A signal placed on the horizontal plate causes the electron beam to deflect in the
horizontal direction. A signal placed on the vertical plates causes the electron beam to deflect
in the vertical direction. The CRT generates the electron beam, accelerates the beam to a
high velocity, deflects the beam to create the image, and contain a phosphor screen when the
electron beam eventually becomes visible. For accomplishing these tasks various electrical
signals and voltages are required, which are provided by the power supply circuits of the
oscilloscopes.
● Low voltage supply is required for the heater of the electron gun for
generation of electron beam
● High voltage supply of the order of few thousands volts, is required for
CRT to accelerate the beam.
● Normal voltages supply say a few hundred volts, is required for other
control circuits of the oscilloscopes.
 25

Consider the block diagram of an oscilloscope shown in Fig.4.16 on page 27.

It consists of different kind of sections. Now let’s analyze these sections.

☻CRT: The heart of an oscilloscope is the CRT. It generates the electron beam, accelerates
the beam to a high velocity, deflects the beam to create the image, and contain a
phosphor screen when the electron beam eventually becomes visible.

☻P.S.U: For electronic equipment to operate they need electrical power and different types
of signals to accomplish different tasks, which are provided by the power, supply
circuits of the oscilloscope.

☻Deflection system: The electron beam moves up or down, left or right depending on the
applied electrical voltage.

☻Vertical section: The vertical deflection plates are fitted between the gun and the screen
to deflect the beam in vertical direction according to the signal applied
to the deflection plates.
☻Horizontal section: The horizontal deflection plates are fitted between the gun and the
screen to deflect the beam in horizontal direction according to the
signal applied to the deflection plates.
☻Time base circuit: To obtain a display that shows the form of the input signal applied to
the vertical input, a voltage which makes the horizontal positions of the
beam proportional to time must be applied.
☻Trigger circuits: In a triggered sweep model, the horizontal sweep is turned off with the
CRT beam remaining at the left hand side of the CRT screen, until a
vertical signal is encountered.
☻Delayed sweep: It has a feature of allowing seeing of a small feature, or section, of a
larger waveform.

For the display of signals as a function of time the horizontal system provides a saw tooth
voltage to the X plates of the oscilloscopes together with the blanking waveform necessary to
suppress the fly back. The sweep speed required is determined by the wave form being
observed. In time measurement the sweep can be either continuous, providing repetitive
display, or single shot, ion which the horizontal system is triggered to provide a single sweep.
To provide a stable display in the repetitive mode the display is synchronized either internally
from the vertical or externally using the signal triggering or initiating the signal being
measured. Most oscilloscopes provide facilities for driving the X-plates from an external
source to enable, for example. As
lissajous figure to be displayed.

For comparison purposes, simultaneous viewing of multiple inputs is often required. These
can be provided by the use of dual-trace or dual beam methods.

In the dual-trace method the beam is switched between the two inputs signals. Alternate
sweeps of the display can be used for one of the two signals, or, in a single sweep, the display
can be chopped between the two signals.
 26

Dual beam oscilloscopes use two independent electron beams and vertical deflection systems.
These can be provided with either a common horizontal system or two independent
horizontal systems to enable the two signals to be displayed at different sweep speeds.

Delayed sweep enables the sweep to be initiated some time after the trigger. This delayed
sweep facility can be used in conjunction with the time base to provide expansion of one part
of the waveform.

The trigger system allows the user to specify a position on one or more of the input signals in
the case of external triggering where the sweep is to initiate. Typical facilities provided by
trigger level of controls are auto (which trigger at the mean level of the waveform) and
trigger level and direction control, i.e. triggering occurs at a particular signal level for
positive going signals.

The signals to be observed as a function of time are applied to the vertical plates of the
oscilloscopes. The input stages of the vertical system matches the voltages levels of these
signals to the drive requirement of the deflection plates of the oscilloscopes .The coupling of
the input stage can be either DC or AC.

The important specification for the vertical system includes bandwidth and sensitivity. The
bandwidth is generally specified as the highest frequency which can be displayed with less
than 3 db loss in amplitude compared with its value at low frequencies. The rise time T r, of
an oscilloscope to a step input is related to its bandwidth, B, by Tr = 0.35/B. In order to
measure the rise time of a waveform with an accuracy of better than 2% it is necessary that
the rise time of the oscilloscope should be less than 0.2 of that of the waveform. Analogue
oscilloscopes are available having bandwidth of up to 1 GHZ.

The deflection system of an oscilloscope, gives a measure of the smallest signal the
oscilloscope can measure accurately. There is a tradeoff between bandwidth and sensitivity
since the boniest level generated either by the amplifier itself or by pickup by the amplifier is
greater in wideband measurements. High sensitivity oscilloscopes may provide bandwidth
limiting controls to improve the display of low level signals at moderate frequencies.

Troubleshooting Questions

1. If there is no signal on the vertical input of the oscilloscope, what kind of waveform is
displayed on the face of the oscilloscope?
2. If the sweep signal is absent, what kind of waveform is displayed on the face of the
oscilloscope?
3. With no signal applied to the vertical & horizontal input connectors a stationary dot
will be present on the face of the CRT. What kind of effect does it have if it remains
on the face of the CRT? What can be done to remove the dot from the face of the
screen?
 27

Fig.4.16. Block Diagram of Basic Oscilloscope