INDEX
[Link] TOPIC PAGE
NO.
1. Abbreviation 2
2. Introduction 3-6
3. Theory 7-8
4. Scope and Limitation 9-10
5. Aim 11
6. Apparatus 11-14
7. Procedure 16
8. Observation 17
9. Calculation 18
10. Result 19
11. Conclusion 19
12. Experiential pictures 20
13. Bibliography 21
1
ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations Expansions
f Focal Length of the concave mirror
n Refractive Index of Oil
Radius of curvature of the concave
R
mirror
Average distance between the legs of the
I
spherometer
Difference between readings of
h spherometer when placed on the concave
surface and on the glass slab
c Speed of light in vacuum
2
INTRODUCTION
When a beam of light encounters another medium, we find that some part of
light gets reflected back into the first medium and the rest of the light passes
through to the second medium with some deviation. The phenomenon, by
which light passes from one medium to another after deviating from the
original path by some angle, is known as REFRACTION and it is represented
mathematically by a dimensionless quantity (ratio) known as REFRACTIVE
INDEX.
In optics, the refractive index or index of refraction is a dimensionless constant for a
given medium that describes how light propagates through the medium. It is
denoted by the letter ‘n’. Mathematically it is defined as the ratio of speed of
light in vacuum to that in the given medium i.e.,
𝑐
𝑛=
𝑣
Where c is the speed of light in vacuum, which is approximately
3 × 108 ms-1 and v is the speed of light in the medium.
For example, refractive index of water is 1.33; this means that light travels 1.33
times slower in water than in vacuum.
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Refractive index describes how much light bends when entering a material.
This is the historically first use of refractive indices and is described by Snell’s
law of refraction, i.e.
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅1
=
𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅2
Where Ø1 and Ø2 are the angles of incidence and refraction respectively of a
ray crossing the interface between two media with refractive indices n1 and n2.
The refractive indices also determine the amount of light that is reflected when
reaching the interface, as well as the critical angle for total internal reflection.
The refractive index of a medium varies with the wavelength of light. This is
called dispersion and causes the splitting of white light into its constituent
colors in prisms and is responsible for the formation of rainbows and also
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chromatic aberration in lenses. Light propagation in absorbing materials can be
described by using a complex valued refractive index.
The concept of refractive index is widely used within the full electromagnetic
spectrum; from X-rays to radio waves. It can also be used with wave phenomenon
such as sound. In this case the speed of sound is used instead of that of light and a
reference medium other than vacuum must be chosen.
HISTORY:
Thomas Young was the first person who used and coined the name ‘index of
refraction’, in 1807. At the same time, he changed the value of refractive power
into a single number instead of the traditional ratio of 2 numbers. The ratio had the
disadvantage of different appearances. Newton, who called it the ‘proportion of the
sine of incidence and that of refraction’, wrote it as ratio of two numbers, like 4 and
3 for water.
Young didn’t use a symbol for the index of refraction, in 1807. In the following
years, others started using different symbols: n, m and µ. The symbol n gradually
prevailed.
Refractive index need not always be a positive rational number greater than 1.
Research has proven the existence of materials with refractive indices lesser than
1.a widespread misconception is that since, according to the theory of relativity,
nothing can travel faster than light in vacuum, the refractive index cannot be lower
than 1. This is erroneous since the refractive index measures the phase velocity of
light, which does not carry information. The phase velocity is the speed at which
does not carry information. The phase velocity is the speed at which the crests of
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the wave move and can be faster than the velocity of light in vacuum and thereby
gives a refractive index value that is lesser than1.
Research has also that materials with refractive indices that are negative can be
created. Light propagation in absorbing materials can be described by using a
complex-valued refractive index. The imaginary part then handles the attenuation,
while the real part accounts for the refraction.
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THEORY
• If the tip of object needle 0 be at the Centre of curvature C, tip of image will
exactly coincide with it. (Principle axis is vertical to the plane).
• When oil is filled in concave mirror, object needle is again replaced to move to
C' to remove parallax between tips of object needle and its image.
• A ray starting from C will reach at E without deviation because it is along radius
of curvature.
• Due to oil in the concave mirror the position of object and image shifts to C' i.e.,
now ray starting from C' after refraction moves along ED and then DC to make
apparent image of center of curvature.
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LNDC' = i (angle of incidence) = LBC'D
LMDE = r (angle of refraction) = LBCD
aµw=sin i/sin r=DC/DC’
In triangle ABC’D, sin i =DB/DC’
Triangle BCD, sin r = DB/DC
For normal view, D will be near B.
Therefore aµw = BC/BC’
If small quantity of oil in concave mirror B will be very near to P i.e.
BC ~ PC and PC’ ~BC’
aµw = PC/PC’= Real radius of curvature of the mirror/Apparent radius of
curvature of the mirror
Hence, the refractive index of the oil is
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
The real focal length of the concave mirror can be calculated using a
spherometer.
𝑙2 ℎ
𝑅= +
6h 2
Where l is the average distance between the legs of the spherometer and h is the
difference in height between the concave mirror and the plane mirror.
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SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
1. Scope:
The refractive index of a material is one of the most important optical properties as it
has many practical applications and a far-reaching scope. Some of these applications
are listed below.
a. Identifying a substance based on its refractive index:
Since refractive index is a fundamental physical property of a substance, it is used to
identify a particular substance. It is used to measure solids (glasses and gemstones),
liquids and gases. Most commonly it is used to measure the concentration of solute in
aqueous solution. For a solution of sugar, the refractive index is used to measure the
sugar content.
b. Calculating the purity of a substance based on refractive index:
Since a substance can be uniquely identified by measuring its refractive index, we can
find out its purity by measuring refractive index. If light of certain wavelength is
passed through a 1oo% pure substance, the light will deviate from its original path.
However, if there is an impurity, then deviation is different. Thus, we can find out if a
substance is pure or not as well as the percentage purity. This method is prevalent in
the pharmaceutical industry, where refractometers are used to calculate the refractive
index of a drug or its concentration with accuracy.
Apart from this, refractive index of a substance is also used to calculate the focusing
power of lenses and dispersive power of prisms. It is also used to differentiate
gemstones.
2. Limitations:
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This project too has limitations. The conditions for the experiment may not be perfect
and even the slightest deviation from ideal environment can alter the readings. To
obtain near perfection for actual value of refractive index of ethanol and glycerine,
multiple readings need to be taken and the mean is calculated.
Ethanol and methanol used may not be 100% pure. There may also be parallax error.
Fortunately, this error can be easily corrected by adjusting the head position above the
tip of the optical needle. Also, a distance of 30 cm should be maintained from the head
of the observer and the tip of the optical needle to obtain accurate readings.
Some more steps can be taken. For example, the mirror used for the experiment must
be flat and have a very reflective surface. Only a few drops of liquid should be used for
layer to be thick. Finally, the legs of the spherometer must be vertical and lie
perpendicular to the surface.
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EXPERIMENT OBJECTIVE
AIM:
To find the refractive index of castor oil using a concave mirror and an adjustable
object needle.
APPARATUS
1. CONCAVE MIRROR
A concave mirror or converging mirror is an optical device that has a reflecting surface
that bulges inwards. They are used to focus light.
In this project we use a concave mirror (a mirror which bulges inwards) which has a
definite radius of curvature.
2. CASTOR OIL
Castor oil is a pale-yellow fluid obtained from castor beans. It is used as a purgative, a
lubricant and in manufacturing oil products.
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3. CLAMP STAND
4. OPTICAL NEEDLE
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5. HALF METRE RULER
6. SPHEROMETER
A spherometer is an instrument used for precise measurement of the radius of a sphere.
The usual form consists of a fine screw moving in a nut carried on the center of a small
three-legged table or frame; the feet forming the vertices of an equilateral triangle. The
lower end of the screw and those of the table legs are finely tapered and terminate in
hemispheres so that each rest on a point. If the screw has 2 turns of the thread to the
millimeter the head is usually divided into 50 equal parts, so that differences of 0.01
millimeter may be measured. A lens however may be fitted, in order to magnify the
scale divisions. A vertical scale fastened to the table indicates the number of whole
turns of the screw and serves as an index for reading the divisions on the head.
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Since the spherometer is essentially a type of micrometer, it can be employed for
purposes other than measuring the curvature of a spherical surface. For example, it can
be used to measure the thickness of a thin plate.
7. GLASS SLAB
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PROCEDURE
• Place the concave mirror on a horizontal surface (plane) so that its principle axis is
along vertical.
• Hold the optical needle horizontally in a clamp stand so that its tip lies just above the
pole 'P' and at a distance equal to 2f (f is focal length) as shown in figure 1.
• Remove the parallax between the needle and its image.
• Mark the real and inverted image of the optical needle in the mirror. Note the reading
of this image.
• Measure the distance (PC) using plumb line and meter scale.
• This measured distance is the actual radius of curvature of the concave mirror.
• Now add small amount of water to the concave mirror which will change the position
of image needle.
• Adjust the screw to upper or lower the optical needle and adjust its position from 'C'
to 'C" to remove parallax between the needle and its shifted image is seen.
• Measure the distance (PC') which is the apparent radius of curvature of the concave
mirror.
• Repeatedly do the experiment for four to five times and record the readings.
• Find the real focal length of the concave mirror using a spherometer.
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OBSERVATIONS
Observation for real focal length measured using a spherometer:
[Link]. Initial C.S.R No. of Complete Final C.S.R on M=a-b (If H=
on Concave Rotation, n Plane Surface, a>b) n x pitch + m ×
Mirror, a b M=100+a-b L.C
(mm) (mm) (If a<b) (mm)
1 20 0 50 32 .32
2 18 0 48 30 .30
3 24 0 52 28 .28
MEAN, H = 0.30 mm
Observation For Refractive Index:
[Link]. Real Radius of Apparent Radius of 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
Curvature (cm) Curvature (cm) 𝜇=
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
(1) (2) (3) (4)
1 53.4 36.6 1.459
2 53.4 36 1.483
3 53.4 36.2 1.475
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CALCULATIONS
(i) Mean Length:
𝑙1+𝑙2+𝑙3 9.3
L= = = 3.1cm
3 3
(ii) Radius of curvature:
𝑙 ×𝑙 ℎ
R= + = 30 cm
6ℎ 2
(iii) Mean Refractive Index:
1.459 + 1.483 + 1.475
= 1.472
3
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RESULT
Through this experiment we found that the refractive index of castor oil is 1.472.
This is very close to the real value of the refractive index of castor oil which is around
1.473
CONCLUSION
The objective of this experiment was to calculate the value of the refractive index of
castor oil using a concave mirror with the help of an adjustable optical needle.
The basic concept behind this experiment is that the phenomenon by which light passes
from one medium to another after deviating from the original path by some angle, is
known as REFRACTION and it is represented mathematically by a dimensionless
quantity (ratio) known as REFRACTIVE INDEX.
In optics, the refractive index or index of refraction is a dimensionless constant for a
given medium that describes how light propagates through the medium. It is denoted
by the letter ‘n’. Mathematically it is defined as the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to
that in the given medium
After performing the experiment, we found that the refractive index of castor oil was
1.472
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EXPERIMENTAL PICTURES
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
• [Link]
• [Link]
• Encyclopedia Britannica
• [Link]
• [Link]
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