Nanostructures

LIPOSOMES

Liposomes are concentric bilayered vesicles in which an

aqueous volume is entirely enclosed by a membranous
lipid bilayer mainly composed of natural
or synthetic phospholipids.

Liposomes were first produced in England in 1961 by

Alec D. Bangham. The size of a liposome ranges from some
20 nm up to several micrometers
 Liposome =Phospholipid+
cholesterol

Hydrophillic head

Hydrophobic tail
The lipid moecules are usually phospholipids-amphipathic
moieties with a hydrophilic head group and two hydrophobic
tails.
Cross-section of liposomes:

Polar Lipids
(Phospholipid)

Lipid Soluble
ingredients
(Drugs,Nutrients
& vitamins)
H2O Layer Water Soluble
ingredients
(Drugs, Nutrients
& vitamins)
components of liposomes:

The structural components of liposomes

include:
A. Phospholipids
B. cholesterol
A. General representation of
phospholipids:
The most common natural phospholipid is the phospatidylcholine (PC ).
Polar Head Groups
Naturally occurring phospholipids used are :
PC: Phosphatidylcholine.
PE: Phosphatidylethanolamine.
Three carbon glycerol
PS: Phosphatidylserine
Synthetic phospholipids used are:
DOPC: Dioleoyl phosphatidylcholine
DSPC: Disteroyl phosphatidylcholine
DOPE: Dioleoyl phosphatidylethanolamine
DSPE: Distearoyl phosphatidylethanolamine
 Phospholipids

Phosphatidylcholine- natural
Amphipathic molecule
Hydrophilic polar head-
Phosphoric acid bound to water
soluble molecule.
Glyceryl bridge
Hydrophobic tail-
2 fatty acid chain containing 10-24 carbon
atoms and 0-6 double bond in each chain.

The amphipathic molecule self organise

in ordered supramolecular structure when
confronted (meet face to face)
with solvent.
•Molecules of PC are not soluble in water.
•In aqueous media they align themselves closely in planar bilayer sheets in
order to minimize the unfavorable action between the bulk aqueous
phase and the long hydrocarbon fatty chain.
•Such unfavorable interactions are completely eliminated when the
sheets fold on themselves to form closed sealed vesicles.
 Advantages of liposomes:
Provides selective passive targeting to tumor tissues.
(liposomal doxorubicin) .

Increased efficacy and therapeutic index.

Reduction in toxicity of the encapsulated agent.

Site avoidance effect (avoids non-target tissues).

Improved pharmacokinetic effects .

Flexibility to couple with site-specific ligands to achieve

active targeting.
 Disadvantages of liposomes:
Production cost is high.

Leakage and fusion of encapsulated drug/

molecules.

Sometimes phospholipid undergoes oxidation and

hydrolysis like reaction.

Short half-life.

Low solubility.
In gene delivery.
As drug delivery carriers.
Enzyme replacement therapy.
Chelation therapy for treatment of heavy metal poisoning.
Liposomes in antiviral/anti microbial therapy.
In multi drug resistance.
In tumour therapy.
In immunology.
In cosmetology
 Niosomes
Niosomes are non-ionic surfactant based unilamellar or multilamellar
bilayer vesicles up on hydration of non ionic surfactants with or
without incorporation cholesterol .

The niosomes are very small, and microscopic in size. Their size lies in
the nanometric scale.

Niosomes are a novel drug delivery system, in which the medication is

encapsulated in a vesicle. Both hydrophilic
& lipophilic drugs, entrap either in the
aqueous layer or in vesicular membrane
made of lipid materials.
Structure of niosomes: Polar heads facing
hydrophilic region

Hydrophilic drugs
located in
aqueous regions
encapsulated
Hydrophobic drugs
localized in the
hydrophobic
lamellae

These vesicular systems are similar to liposomes that can be

used as carriers of amphiphilic and lipophilic drugs.

It is less toxic and improves the therapeutic index of drug by

restricting its action to target cells.
 Components of Niosomes:

•Cholesterol and Non ionic surfactants are the two major components
used for the preparation of niosomes.
•Cholesterol provides rigidity and proper shape. The surfactants play a
major role in the formation of niosomes.
•Non-ionic surfactants like spans (span 20,40,60,85,80), tweens (tween
20,40,60,80) are generally used for the preparation of Niosomes.
• Few other surfactants that are reported to form niosomes are as follows :

• Ether linked surfactant

• Di-alkyl chain surfactant
• Ester linked
• Sorbitan Esters
• Poly-sorbates
 Advantages of niosomes:
•They are osmotically active and stable.
•They increase the stability of the entrapped drug.
•The vesicle suspension being water based offers greater patient
compliance over oil based systems
•Since the structure of the niosome offers place to accommodate
hydrophilic, lipophilic as well as ampiphilic drug moieties, they can be
used for a variety of drugs.
•The vesicles can act as a depot to release the drug slowly and of
controlled release.
•Biodegradable, non-immunogenic and biocompatible.
•Aggregation
• Fusion
• Leaking of entrapped drug
• Hydrolysis of encapsulated drugs which limiting the shelf
life of the dispersion.
Classification of niosomes

Small Large
Unilamellar Unilamellar Multilamellar
Vesicle Vesicle Vesicle
(SUV) (LUV) (MLV)

Typical Size Ranges: SUV: 20-50 nm – MLV:100-1000 nm

 Dendrimers
• The name comes from Greek word “dendron” which means
“tree”.

• Also called as ‘’arborols/ cascade molecules’’

• They are family of nanosized, highly branched three

dimensional molecules.

• Synthesis of polyamidoamine(PAMAM) dendrimer in 1985

was a turning point.

20
 Structure Of Dendrimer
1) An interior core
2) Interior layers composed of repeating units radically
attached to cores.
3) Exterior layer (terminal functionality) attached to
interior generations.
3D Structure of Dendrimer
 Properties of Dendrimers
1) Monodispersity
2) Nanoscale size and shape
3) High aqueous solubility
4) High solubility in non polar solutions
5) Non crystalline
6) Low compressibility
 Mechanisms of Drug Delivery

 Simple encapsulation:- It directly encapsulates guest

molecules into macromolecule interior

 Electrostatic interaction:-Surface functional groups enhances

solubility of hydrophobic drugs by electrostatic interaction e.g.
Ibuprofen, ketoprofen, indomethacin.

 Covalent conjugation:-The drug is covalently bound to

dendrimers & its cleavage occurs via chemical or enzymatic
cleavage of hydrolytically labile bonds. It allows tissue targeting
& controlled delivery as drug-dendrimer conjugate diffuse slower
than the free.
 What are fullerenes?
The element carbon can exist in different structural forms, which are known as
allotropes.

Diamond and graphite

are the two most common
allotropes of carbon.

Carbon can also exist in other forms, collectively called

fullerenes.

The first of these, buckminsterfullerene, was discovered

by accident, in 1985, and its discovery opened up a whole
new area of chemistry.
 What are the physical properties of C60?
The physical properties of buckminsterfullerene are:

 It is a black solid at room

temperature which does not
conduct electricity.

 It is insoluble in water but

dissolves in petrol to form a deep
red solution.

 Its molecules are strong and hard,

but elastic, like a football. They can
be squashed to 70% of their normal
size, but bounce back.
 What are the chemical properties of C60?
The chemical properties of buckminsterfullerene include:

 The molecules can be used as cages to trap

atoms and smaller molecules inside them.

 The surface of C60 molecules can be coated

with other atoms. For example, coating
with hydrogen makes a smooth substance
that is even more slippery than Teflon.

 The molecules can be joined together to

make bigger fullerene structures.
 More about fullerenes
C60 molecules are also known as
‘buckyballs’.

Since the discovery of this first fullerene, other

types of fullerenes that have been made include:

 C70 molecules, which are shaped

like a rugby ball.

 Buckybabies, with less than sixty

carbon atoms.

 Fuzzyballs, with a coating of

hydrogen atoms.

 Giant fullerenes, with many more than

sixty carbon atoms.
 What are the uses of fullerenes?
Some of the uses of fullerenes that scientists are currently working on include:

 Non-stick slippery coatings for

machinery, which act like miniature ball
bearings.

 Cages to hold drug molecules that can be

delivered directly into the body.

 Molecular sieves, which traps large particles like viruses while allowing smaller,
healthy particles to pass through.

 Chemical sponges to soak up toxic substances in the body.

 What are Carbon nanotubes.
CNTs are allotropes of carbon.

Cylindrical carbon molecules have applications in

nanotechnology, electronics, optics and other fields of
materials science, as well as potential uses in architectural
fields.

They exhibit extraordinary strength and unique electrical

properties, and are efficient conductors of heat.

Their final usage, however, may be limited by their potential

toxicity.
 What are nanotubes?
Nanotubes are another form of fullerene. They are
tubes of carbon hexagons, like sheets of graphite rolled
into cylinders.

Nanotubes have many useful properties,

including:

 very high tensile strength

 unique electrical properties
 good heat conductance.

Multi-walled nanotubes exist. In these, several tubes can rotate and slide
within in each other, almost without friction.

Metal atoms can be attached to the outer surface of the tubes.

With these properties, what might nanotubes be used for?

 What are the uses of nanotubes?
The properties of nanotubes make them useful in many ways.

Some examples include:

 Thinner, lighter TV screens.

 Smaller, thinner optical fibres.

 Strong, light waterproof fabrics.

 Stronger building materials.

 Smaller, lighter electrical circuits.

 How CNTs are made
• Arc discharge
– CNTs Can be found in the carbon soot of graphite electrodes
during an arc discharge involving high current. This process
yields CNTs with lengths up to 50 microns.
• Laser Ablation
– In the laser ablation process, a pulsed laser vaporizes a graphite
target in a high-temperature reactor while an inert gas is inserted
into the reactor. Nanotubes develop on the cooler surfaces of the
reactor as the vaporized carbon condenses.

• Other methods where CNTs are created:

- Chemical Vapor Decomposition
- Natural, incidental, and controlled flame environments
 Types of CNTs

• Single Wall CNT (SWCNT)

• Multiple Wall CNT (MWCNT)

• Can be metallic or semiconducting

depending on their geometry.
 Single- walled
-Most single-walled
nanotubes (SWNTs) have
a diameter of cloes to 1
nanometer, with a tube
length that can be many
millions of time longer

-The structure of a
SWNTs can be
conceptualized by
wrapping a one-atom-
thick layer of graphite
called graphene in to a
seamless cylender
If:
m=0 , the nanotubes are called zigzag
n=m ,the nanotubes are called armchair
Otherwise ,they are called chiral
 Multi-walled
• Multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs) consist of
multiple rolled layer (concentric tubes) of
graphene

Triple-walled
armchair CNTs
 Strength Properties
• Carbon nanotubes have the strongest tensile strength of
any material known.
• It also has the highest modulus of elasticity.

Elongation at Break
Material Young's Modulus (TPa) Tensile Strength (GPa)
(%)
SWNT ~1 (from 1 to 5) 13-53E 16

Armchair SWNT 0.94T 126.2T 23.1

Zigzag SWNT 0.94T 94.5T 15.6-17.5

Chiral SWNT 0.92
MWNT 0.8-0.9E 150
Stainless Steel ~0.2 ~0.65-1 15-50
Kevlar ~0.15 ~3.5 ~2
KevlarT 0.25 29.6
 Electrical Properties
• If the nanotube structure is
armchair then the electrical
properties are metallic
• If the nanotube structure is chiral
then the electrical properties can
be either semiconducting,
otherwise the nanotube is a
moderate semiconductor
• In theory, metallic nanotubes can
carry an electrical current density
of 4×109 A/cm2 which is more than
1,000 times greater than metals
such as copper
 One-Dimensional Transport
• Due to their nanoscale dimensions, electron transport in
carbon nanotubes will take place through quantum effects
and will only propagate along the axis of the tube. Because
of this special transport property, carbon nanotubes are
frequently referred to as “one-dimensional.”
 Thermal Properties
• All nanotubes are expected to be very good thermal
conductors along the tube, but good insulators
laterally to the tube axis.

• It is predicted that carbon nanotubes will be able to

transmit up to 6000 watts per meter per Kelvin at
room temperature; compare this to copper, a metal
well-known for its good thermal conductivity, which
transmits 385 watts per meter per K.

• The temperature stability of carbon nanotubes is

estimated to be up to 2800oC in vacuum and about
750oC in air.
 Defects

• Defects can occur in the form of atomic

vacancies. High levels of such defects can lower
the tensile strength by up to 85%.

• Because of the very small structure of CNTs, the

tensile strength of the tube is dependent on its
weakest segment in a similar manner to a chain,
where the strength of the weakest link becomes
the maximum strength of the chain.
 Applications
Nanotubes are rolled-up graphene sheets, and graphene is
one of the stiffest materials when subjected to deformations
parallel to the sheet.

Nanotubes show exceptional mechanical properties,

especially a high strength-to-weight ratio.

Applications:
Nanotube sensors
Nanotube as SPM tips
Energy Storage
Conductive Adhesives and Connectors
Biomedical Applications
Drug Delivery, Implantable Nanosensors ,
Antimicrobials
 Applications
• Nanotubes hold the promise of creating novel
devices, such as carbon-based single-electron
transistors, that significantly smaller than
conventional transistors.
• Nanotubes’ excellent strength to weight ratio
creates the potential to build an elevator to space.
 Cancer treatment
• Use carbon nanotubes as drug delivery
tools
 Torus
-Torus is theoretically described
as carbon nanotube bent into a
torus (doughnut shape) .

-Nanotorus are predicted to have

many unique properties such as
:
+magnetic moments
+thermal stability …
-Vary widely depending on
radius of the torus and the
radius of the tube