CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL

Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural

development of any country. It is vital for economic development of any region.
Progress follows the line of transportation. Attempts are being made to decentralize the
population centres away from the sides of the main transportation routes. Of all the
means of transportation, the transportation by road is only mode, which could give
maximum service to one end all. India occupied 2 places in the context of road
network, as it is having a wide network of 33 lakh kms. It is broadly having express
ways of 1,455 kms, national highways of 1,42,126kms, state highways of 1,76,166kms,
major district roads of 5,61,940kms and rural roads of 56,00,000 kms.

In this project the road is categorized as other roads and it is designed as a

flexible pavement according to the IRC and IS specifications. The IRC procedure based
on the CBR value is adopted to determine the thickness of the flexible pavement.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT STUDY

The main objectives of the present study include the following

 To provide the route to access the people move to different places.

 To determine the thickness of the pavement using IRC design charts.
 To design all the geometric features involved in the construction of the road.

1
 CHAPTER 2

TRANSPORTATION
2.1. GENERAL:

In this chapter, a brief review of the importance of the roads in transportation

sector, classification of roads, various types of pavements are described.

2.2. IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION:

Transportation contributes to the economical, industrial, social and cultural

development of any country. Transportation plays a vital role for the economic
development of any region since every commodity produced whether it is food,
clothing, industrial products or medicine needs transportation at all stages from
production to distribution.

The adequacy of transportation system of a country indicates its economic and

social development. Progress follows the line of transportation. Attempts are being
made to decentralize the population centres away from the sides of the main
transportation routes. The, various social effects of transportation include sectionalism
and transportation, concentration of population into urban area etc. It is essential for
strategic movement in emergency for the defence of country and to maintain better law
and order.

[Link] OF ROADS

The transportation by road is the only, which could give maximum service to one
and all. About 65% of freight and 80% passenger traffic is carried by the roads.
National highways constitute only about 2% of the road network but 40% of the total
road traffic. Road transport requires a relatively small investment for the government.
The flexible of changes in location, direction, speed and timings of travel is not
available with any other mode of transport except roads. The major objective of the
design and construction is to provide adequate load carrying capacity and good ride-
quality which permit safe operation of traffic under all -weather condition.

2
2.4. CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS:

 National Highways (NH)

 State Highways (SH)
 Major District Roads (MDR)
 Other District Roads (ODR)
 Village Roads

Table2.1 Classification of Roads

Classification Lengthinkms

Express ways 1,455

National Highways 1,42,126

State Highways 1,76,166

Major District Roads 5,61,940

Rural and Other Roads 56,00,000

2.5. PAVEMENT TYPES

The pavements are broadly classified as follows

 Flexible pavements
 Rigid pavements
 Compacted pavement

2.5.1. Flexible pavements

Flexible pavements structure that maintains intimate contact with and distributes
loads to the subgrade and depends on aggregate interlock, particle friction and cohesion
for stability

Eg: Earth roads, gravel roads, WBM roads B.T roads etc.,

The pavement having low flexible strength and flexible in their structural action
under the loads are known as flexible pavements.

3
A typical flexible pavement consists of components

 Soil sub grade

 Sub base course
 Base course
 Surface course

The flexible pavement layers transmit the vertical or compressive stresses to the
lower layers by grain-to-grain transfer through the points of contact in the granular
structure. A well compacted granular structure consisting of strong graded aggregate
can transfer the compressive stresses through a wider area and thus forms a good
flexible pavement layer. Bituminous concrete is one of the best flexible pavement
layers.

Soil subgrade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the layers of

pavement materials placed over it. The loads on the pavement are ultimately received
by the soil subgrade for dispersion to the earth mass. Base and sub-base courses are
used under flexible pavement to improve the load supporting capacity by distributing
the load through a finite thickness. The surface course is provided to give smooth riding
surface and to resist the pressure exerted by the tiers.

Fig.2.1 Flexible pavement

4
 CHAPTER 3

SURVEYING DETAILS
3.1. GENERAL

In this chapter geological condition existed and the surveying work carried out
laboratory experiments over the materials used in the flexible pavement at site are
presented.

3.2. STUDY AREA

In the present work, data regarding the traffic volume is collected on the site to
understand the concept of pavement design the road is designed as flexible pavement
based on the CBR method of design recommended by the IRC.

3.3. GEOLOGICAL CONDITION

The geological condition of the site comprises of rocky strata in deeper layers
along with good type of hard gravel and weathered sand stone with white light colour.
The main geological feature consists of rocks with sedimentary type. The rock
composition is of silica-based quartz. It is suitable for construction of the pavement in
its original condition.

3.4. TERRAIN

The terrain of site consists of steeper gradient due to mountain area. The terrain
also comprises of undulations, steeper slopes and natural drains. Steep valleys
foundalong the edge of the road. It is allowed for vertical curves and horizontal curves

3.5. SURVEYING DETAILS

By using Auto level instrument, survey is conducted and the following details are
obtained.

 Levelling
 Deviation angles
 Longitudinal profile

5
 Fig 3.1. Auto level instrument

TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENT OF A LEVELING

Each surveying instrument needs two type of adjustment

 Temporary adjustment
 Permanent adjustment

The temporary adjustment for level consists of the following:

 Setting up the level

 Levelling up
 Elimination of parallax

3.6. PROFILE LEVELING (LONGITUDINAL SECTIONING):

Profile levelling, like differential levelling, requires the establishment of turning

point on which both back and foresights are taken. In addition, any number of
intermediate sights may be obtained on points along the line from each set up of the
instrument. In fact, points on the profile line are merely intermediate station.

It is generally best to set up the level to one side of the profile line to avoid too
short sights on the points near the instrument. For each set up, intermediate sights
should be taken after the foresight on the next turning station has been taken. The level
is then set up in an advanced position and a back sight is taken on that turning point.

6
 The positions of the intermediate points on the profile are simultaneously
located by chaining along the profile and noting their distance from the point of
commencement.

When the vertical profile of the ground is regular or gradually curving. Level
are taken on points at equal distance apart and generally at interval of a chain length.
On irregular ground where abrupt changes of slope occur, the points should be chosen
nearer. For purpose of checking and future reference, temporary bench mark should be
established along the section.

7
 CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME AND RESULTS

4.1 GENERAL

In this chapter, the materials used soil, aggregate, bitumen of laboratory

experiments over the materials used in the flexible pavement at our project site are
presented.

4.2 MATERIALS USED:

Following materials are used in the construction of flexible pavement.

1. Soil

2. Aggregate

3. Bitumen

Soil: Subgrade soil is an integral part of the road pavement structure as it provides the
support to the pavement from the beneath. The subgrade soil and its properties are
important in the design of pavement structure. The main function of the subgrade is to
give adequate support to the pavement and for this the subgrade should possess
sufficient stability under adverse climate and loading condition. Compacted soil and
stabilized soil are often used in sub-base or base course of highway material.

Aggregate: Aggregate form the major portion of pavement structure and they form the
prime material used in pavement construction. Aggregate have to bear stresses
occurring due to the wheel load on the pavement and on the surface course they also
have to resist wear due to abrasive action of traffic. These are used in pavement
construction in cement concrete, bituminous concrete and other bituminous types and
also as granular base course underlying the superior pavement layers. Most of the road
aggregate is prepared from natural rock. Gravel aggregate are small rounded stones of
different sizes which are generally obtained from some river beds. Sand is fine
aggregate weathering of rock. Based on the strength property, the coarse aggregate may
be divided as hard aggregate and soft aggregate. The hard aggregates are preferred to
resist the abrasive and crushing effects of heavy traffic load and to resist weather
condition.
8
 In the case of low-cost road construction for use in lower layers of pavement
structure, soft aggregate can also be used. The soft aggregate includes morrum, kankar,
laterite, brick aggregate and slag.

Bitumen: Bituminous binders used in pavement construction works include both

bitumen and tar. Bitumen is a petroleum product obtained by the distillation of
petroleum crude whereas road tar is obtained by the destructive distillation of coal or
wood. Both bitumen and tar have similar appearance, black in colour though they have
different characteristics. Both these materials can be used for pavement works.

4.3 LABORATORY TESTS ON MATERIALS

Following are the laboratory tests which are used over different materials used
inflexible pavement construction.

Soil

 Grain size Analysis

 Liquid limit
 Plastic limit
 Proctor Compaction Test
 CBR Test

Aggregates

 Flakiness Index
 Elongation Index
 Impact Test
 Gradation Test

Bitumen

 Penetration test
 Ductility test
 Impact test.

4.3.1 Gradation Test For WMM Material

9
Aim:-

To determine the grades of WMM material by sieves analysis.

Material used:-

 Weighting balance
 Sieves (sizes 53, 45, 22.4, 11.2, 4.75, 2.36, 0.6, 0.075mm)
 Trayes
 Tape
 Digging tools

Procedure:-

 Mark a pit size square shape minimum 30cm sq.

 Excrude all material with the help of digging tools.
 Collect material in tray steel or plastic.
 If material moist then oven dry or leave it for 30 to 60 minutes for drying the
sample.
 Weight the total sample take from the pit and note it.
 Then after start sieving of materials.
 If unable to sieve in one shot then sieve it one by one.
 Note down the reading weight in data sheet.
 And calculate the readings and note it.
 It must be a limit as per MORT&H, Weighting must be in grams.

Fig.4.1. Sieves Fig.4.2. Note down the Readings

10
 Fig.4.3. Sieving the Materials [Link] Materials

Weight of sample taken (in gms):19388

IS Sieve Weight Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative Limits as per

size (mm) retained Wt. retained percentage percentage MORT&H
(gm) (gm) retained (%) passing (%)
53 - - - 100 100
45 - - - 100 95-100
22.4 4422 4422 22.81 77.19 60-80
11.2 4056 8478 43.73 56.27 40-60
4.75 3785 12263 63.25 36.75 25-40
2.36 2291 14554 75.07 24.93 15-30
0.6 1288 15842 81.71 18.29 8-22
0.075 0-5

Table 4.1 WMM Test Result

Result: After doing this test it is verified within limits as per MORT&H.

11
 CHAPTER 5

BITUMINOUS CONCRETE ROAD (B.C ROAD)

5.1 DEFINITION:

Bituminous concrete is the highest quality, string and durable. It is used as base
course as well as wearing course and widely used.

5.2 MACHINERY USED IN CONSTRUCTION OF BITUMINOUS

ROADS:

CLEARING THE SITE: Bull dozer, scraper.

PREPARING SUB-GRADE: Tractor, dozer, grader.

PREPARING SUB-BASE: Dumpers, graders, Vibratory roller, Sprinkled machine.

PREPARING BASE COURSE: Dumpers, graders, roller ,Sprinkled machine.

PREPARING OF SURFACE COURSE: Paver, Vibratory flat wheeled roller.

[Link] [Link]

12
 [Link] roller [Link]

[Link] Fig.5.6. Grader

13
 [Link] [Link] Flat Wheeled roller

5.3 PAVEMENT CROSS SECTION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD

Consists of different layers:

 Embankment
 Subgrade
 Subbase
 Base course
 Wearing course

5.4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF MATERIALS ARE USED DEPENDING

ON THE LAYER REQUIREMENT:

5.4.1 Construction Of Sub grade

Material used:-Selected soil, Moorum, Gravel, Aggregate maximum 50mm.

Construction method:-

 The sub grade is constructed by spreading the loose soil and compacting the
same at optimum moisture content of the soil in layer.
 The maximum compacted thickness of each layer is generally limited to 200mm
as per MORTH.

14
5.4.2 Construction Of Subbase (GSB)

Material used:-Crushed stone aggregates, gravel course sand, selected soil with less
fine and low plasticity.

Construction method:-

 GSB layer is constructed on the top of the prepared subgrade. The subbase material
is spread to uniform thickness specific cross slop. Then the moisture content of the
material is checked and addition quantity of water required to bring up to the optimum
content is sprinkled at a uniform rate the loose GSB layer is compacted by roller.
5.4.3 Construction of Base Course(WMM)

Material used:-Hard crushed aggregates and adequate proportion of water mixed

thoroughly in a mixing plant.

Construction method:-

Fig.5.9. Wet Mix Macadam Plant

 WMM is prepared in a mixing plant.

 The WMM mixture is transported to the site and spread using self-propelled
type paver finisher machine.
 WMM layer is compacted using a vibratory roller of minimum static weight of
10 tones and compacted thickness in less than 250mm.
 After the WMM layer dried for at least 24 hours in dry weather.

15
5.5 BITUMINOUS ROAD DEPTHS OF DIFFERENT LAYERS

Embankment-200mm

Subgrade- Soil -200mm

Subbase-GSB (Granular Sub Base)-200mm

Size 40,20,12,6,dust mm of crushed stone aggregate.

Basecourse-WMM (Wet Mix Macadam)-250mm

Size 40,20,12,6, dust mm of crushed stone aggregate.

Surface course-

DBM (Dense Bituminous Macadam)-50mm

Size 20,12,6, dust mm of bituminous mixture.

BC (Bituminous concrete)-30mm

Size 12,6, dust mm of bituminous mixture.

5.6 DEFINITIONS

Carriage way:

The carriage depends on the width of traffic lane and number of lanes. The
carriage way intended of single line of traffic movement may be called as traffic lane.

The width of single lane as per IRC 3.75m and for two or more lanes, the width
of 3.5m per lane is considered sufficient.

Shoulders:

The shoulder are provided on either sides of a road. The land width between
outer edge of carriageway and the inner edge of formation width or drain (in case of
cutting) is called shoulder.

The functions shoulders are given below:

1. To give lateral stability to carriage way.

2. To provide parking space in emergency.
3. To provide space for repair of vehicles.
4. To provide space for overtaking vehicles.

16
Table 5.1 Width of Shoulders (AS PER IRC):

Class of road Min. Shoulder With in m Remarks

Plain areas Hilly areas

NH and SH ways 3.00 1.25 For single lane
NH and SH ways 2.50 0.90 For double lane
M.D Roads 1.80 0.50
O.D Roads 1.80 0.50
Village roads 1.20 0.50

Formation Width:

Formation width or road way is the sum of width of carriage way and width of
shoulders on either side. Formation width is the top width of road embankment or the
bottom width of roadway in cutting excluding side drains.

Table 5.2Formation Widths (As per IRC):

[Link]. Road classification Plain and Rolling Mountain and

Terrain Steep Terrain

1. NH & SH ways
Single lane 12.00 6.25
Double lane 12.00 8.80

2. Major District Road

Single lane 9.00 4.75
Double lane 9.00 -

3. Other District Road

Single lane 7.50 4.75
Double lane 9.00 -

4. Village Road
Single lane 7.50 4.00

17
Right of way:

Right of way is the area of land acquired and reserved for future development. It
is desirable to acquire more land because of the cost of adjoining land invariably
increase after laying the road.

Camber (or) Cross Full (or) Cross Slope:

The rise given to the centre of the carriage way (crown)with reference to its
edge is called “camber”. The cross section of road surface shows convexity upwards
and highest point on the surface is known as crown.

5.7 PAVEMENT MARKINGS

Definition: Pavement markings are marked with white paint of line 10 cm thick.
Yellow paints are used to indicate parking space.

Types Of Pavement Markings

[Link] line

2. Lane line

[Link] space limits markings

[Link] markings

[Link] overtaking lines

[Link] lines

[Link] walk lines

8. Kerb marking

18
Fig.5.10. Center line marking Fig.5.11. Transverse line marking

Fig.5.12. Center line marking Fig.5.13. Double lane marking

19
5.8 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE OF BITUMINOUS ROAD:

[Link] of Sub Grade:

Here sub grade is prepared over the foundationof required depth and it is
[Link] potholes and the depressions on the surface of the road are properly
filled up and compacted.

Fig.5.14. Subgrade layer Fig.5.15. Compacting with Roller

[Link] of Subbase (GSB):

The Subbase (GSB) is spread over the sub grade of required depth. The proper
camber is to be provided. For roads single layer of compacted thickness 200 mm is
sufficient.

[Link] base layer [Link] Sub base (GSB)

20
[Link]:

After spreading of GSB rolling is done by means of rollers. Rolling is to be done

by 6 to 10 tonne roller. Rolling should begin from edges to the crown and check the
proper camber and gradient.

Fig.5.18. Rolling

[Link] of BACE Course (WMM):

The Base course (WMM) is spread over the sub base of required depth. The
proper camber is to be provided. For roads single layer of compacted thickness 250
mm is sufficient.

Fig.5.19. Base course layer Fig.5.20. Compacted WMM layer

21
[Link] of Water:

After the screenings are placed water is sprinkled and rolling is properly done.
The Crushed stone aggregrate should be well bounded and firmly set.

Fig.5.21. Sprinkling of Water

[Link] and Drying:

This surface is allowed to day for a night or one day. The bituminous surface is to
be done. It should be dried completely.

[Link] of Emulsion:

A thin layer of emulsion material Like prime coat is supplied over the base
course after the application of tack coat is done.

PRIME COAT: It will be applied before 24 hours

TACK COAT: It will be applied before 3 hour

22
 Fig.5.22. Prime coat Fig.5.23. Tack coat

[Link] of Surface Course:

The Surface curse is spreadover the base course after tack coating of required
depth. The proper camber is to be provided. For DBM layer of compacted thickness 50
mm and BC layer of compacted thickness is 30mm is sufficient.

Fig.5.24. DBM layer Fig.5.25. BC layer

23
 Fig.5.26. Gauge checking

[Link] to Traffic:

After 24 hours of layers, road is opened for traffic.

Fig.5.27. Opening to Traffic

24
5.8.10. Advantages:

 Life cost is low.

 A smooth Ride Surface.
 It will give good service.
 Quick Repair.
 Temperature Resistance.

5.8.11. Disadvantages:

 Less durable.
 Low tensile strength.
 Cost of construction high.

Precautions:

 Roller to be used 8-12 tonnes.

 The precautions should be taken to place correct camber.
 The length of road should be constructed correctly

5.8.11. Suggestions for Improvement and Safety Measures at Site: -

 All workmen should use helmets at work site, provided by the contractor.
 All workmen should wear reflective jackets, while working in traffic moving
zone.
 Adequate precautions should be taken to prevent accidents from electric current
while digging operation in underway.
 Workers employed on bituminous works, stone crusher, concrete batching plant
etc, should wear protective goggles, gloves, gumboots, ear plunges etc.
 All construction vehicles should have reverse horns.

25
5.9 BITUMINOUS CONCRETE ROAD

Fig.5.28. Bituminous Concrete Road

26
 CONCLUSION
Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural
development any country. Transport economics is used to understand both the
relationship between the transport system and the wider economy and the complex
network effects when there are multiple paths and competing modes for both personal
and freight (road/rail/air/ferry) and where Induced demand can result in increased or
decreased transport levels when road provision is increased by building new roads or
decreased (for example California State Route 480). Roads are generally built and
maintained by the public sector using taxation although implementation may be through
private contractors)or occasionally using road tolls.

In this project the road is categorized as other roads and it is designed as a

flexible pavement according to the IRC and IS specifications. The total length of road
considered is 7 km.

Bituminous road surfaces are also considered a sustainable option for road
paving material where bitumen is used binder as this material can be recycled. The
bitumen, produced by the refineries, plays an important role in road durability which is
also important for sustainability. It is good flexible pavement for temperature resistance
and load bearable.

27
 REFERENCES

[1].Transportation Engineering -2019-2020 Falcon Publishers, Author: Y. Rama

Mohana Rao
[2].Building material and Construction practice -2019-2020 Falcon Publishers,
Author: R. Shankar – [Link] babu
[3]. Transportation Engineering - 2015 Khanna Publishers, Author: V.N. Vazirani -
S.P. Chandola
[4].Transportation Engineering and Planning - Prentice Hall of India, Author:
[Link] - P.D. Prevedouros

28