Standard integrals

! !"#
%
1. ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐 𝑛 ≠ −1
%&' 7. ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝑐

2. ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑐 8. ∫cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝑐

3. ∫ 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑐 9. ∫tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log sec 𝑥 + 𝑐 or − log cos 𝑥 + 𝑐

'
4. ∫ ! 𝑑𝑥 = log 𝑥 + 𝑐 10. ∫cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − log cosec 𝑥 + 𝑐 or log sin 𝑥 + 𝑐

! !
5. ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 + 𝑐 12. ∫sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 + 𝑐 or log tan
!
+
#
+𝑐
" $

( $
!
6. ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐 13. ∫cosec 𝑥 = log cosec 𝑥 − cot 𝑥 + 𝑐 or log tan
!
+𝑐
)*+ (
"
 Standard integrals

" ',-*. "! ' ./0 "!

13. ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥− +𝑐 19. ∫sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝑐
" " "

20. ∫cosec 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cosec 𝑥 + 𝑐

" '&-*. "! ' ./0 "!
14. ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥+ +𝑐
" " " ! "!
21. ∫ !
𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥+𝑐
!"#
"!
" "
15. ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sec 𝑥 − 1 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐 = − cos 𝑥+𝑐
! "!
22. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥+𝑐
!$# !
" "
16. ∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cosec 𝑥 − 1 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐 =
"!
− cot 𝑥+𝑐
"
17. ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝑐
! "!
23. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥+𝑐
# # ! "!
"
18. ∫ cosec 𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + 𝑐 =
"!
− cosec 𝑥+𝑐
Integration by substitution
 Integration using trigonometric identities
! "#$ %
Ø sin 2𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = !
&'"#$ %
Ø sin 𝐴 + 𝐵 = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
! ! !
Ø cos 2𝑥 = cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑥 − 1
Ø sin 𝐴 − 𝐵 = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = 1 − 2 sin 𝑥 =!

&("#$! %
Ø cos 𝐴 + 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
&'"#$! %

! "#$ %
Ø cos 𝐴 − 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 Ø tan 2𝑥 = &("#$! %

Ø sin 3𝑥 = 3 sin 𝑥 − )
4 sin 𝑥
120 3&120 4
Ø tan 𝐴 + 𝐵 = Ø cos 3𝑥 = )
4 cos 𝑥 − 3 cos 𝑥
',120 3 120 4

) "#$ %("#$" %
120 3,120 4 Ø tan 3𝑥 = !
Ø tan 𝐴 − 𝐵 = &() "#$ %
'&120 3 120 4 !
Ø 1 + sin 2𝑥 = cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥
Ø 1 − sin 2𝑥 = cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 !
 Integration using trigonometric identities
5&6 5,6
Ø sin 𝐶 + sin 𝐷 = 2 sin cos
Ø 2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = sin 𝐴 + 𝐵 + sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) " "

5&6 5,6
Ø 2 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = sin 𝐴 + 𝐵 − sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) Ø sin 𝐶 − sin 𝐷 = 2 cos sin
" "

5&6 5,6
Ø 2 cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 + 𝐵 + cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) Ø cos 𝐶 + cos 𝐷 = 2 cos cos
" "

Ø 2 sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 − 𝐵 − cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) Ø cos 𝐶 − cos 𝐷 = 2 sin

5&6
sin
5,6
" "
 Integrals of Some Particular Functions

!" % "#$ !"

1. ∫ " 7#$7 = &$ log "'$
+𝐶 4. ∫ 7 7
= log 𝑥 + 𝑥 & − 𝑎 & +𝐶
" #$

!" % $'" !" #% "

2. ∫ $7#" 7 = &$ log $#"
+𝐶 5. ∫ 7 7
= sin +𝐶
$ #" $

!" % #% " !"

3. ∫ " 7'$7 = $
tan
$
+𝐶 6. ∫ 7 7
= log 𝑥 + 𝑥 & + 𝑎 & +𝐶
" '$
 Integration by Partial Fraction
! " where 𝑝 𝑥 & 𝑞 𝑥
Rational function 𝑓 𝑥 = are polynomial f in 𝑥
n
# "

Proper rational function Improper rational function

If deg 𝑝 𝑥 < deg 𝑞 𝑥 If deg 𝑝 𝑥 ≥ deg

" !
𝑞 𝑥 ! !
!"# ! "! "# ! "# ! "#
Eg, ! , # Eg, , !
! "# ! "# !"# ! "$!"#
 To make an improper rational function into a proper rational
function
(
! "#
Consider an example,
!"# 𝑥−1
&
𝑥 +1 𝑥+1 × 𝑥−1 +2 2 𝑥+1 𝑥 +1&
= = 𝑥−1 +
𝑥+1 𝑥+1 𝑥+1 𝑥 &
− −
+𝑥
Polynomial
+
Proper
rational
−𝑥 + 1
function
function −𝑥 − 1
Remainder + +
= Qoutient +
Divisor
2
Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder
Dividend Remainder
= Quotient +
Divisor Divisor
 Partial Fraction of various forms
Form of Rational Function Form of Partial Fraction
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝐵
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏)
,𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 → +
𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑏
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞
!
→ 𝐴
+
𝐵
!
𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
𝑝𝑥 !+ 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 → 𝐴
+
𝐵
+
𝐶
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑐) 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑏 𝑥−𝑐

𝑝𝑥 !
+ 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 → 𝐴
+
𝐵
!
+
𝐶
!
𝑥 − 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑏) 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑏

𝑝𝑥 !+ 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 → 𝐴
+ !
𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
!
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
 Integration by Parts

𝒅𝒖
" 𝒖. 𝒗 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒖 "𝒗 𝒅𝒙 − " . "𝒗 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 Integration of
𝐼 𝐼𝐼 𝒅𝒙 product of two
functions

Selection of first function:

Choose the first function as the function which comes first in the Choose second
function which is
word ILATE, where
easily integrable

I L A
T E
inverse algebraic trigonometric exponential
logarithmic
trigonometric function function function
function
function
 𝒙 "
Integral of the type ∫ 𝒆 𝒇 𝒙 + 𝒇 𝒙 𝒅𝒙

𝒙 % 𝒙
∫ 𝒆 𝒇 𝒙 + 𝒇 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒆 𝒇 𝒙 + 𝒄
 Integrals of some more types

! % !
1. ∫ 𝑥 $ − $
𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 $ − 𝑎 $ − log 𝑥 + 𝑥 $ − 𝑎 $ +𝐶
$ $

! % !
2. ∫ 𝑥 $ + $
𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 $ + 𝑎 $ + log 𝑥 + 𝑥 $ + 𝑎 $ +𝐶
$ $

! % ! !
3. ∫ 𝑎 $ − $
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 $ − 𝑥 $ + sin&# +𝐶
$ $ %
 Some Properties of Definite Integrals

𝒃 𝒃
𝑷𝟎 : ∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = ∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒕)𝒅𝒕

𝒃 𝒂 𝒂
𝑷𝟏 : ∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = − ∫𝒃 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙. In particular, ∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎

𝒃 𝒄 𝒃
𝑷𝟐 : ∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = ∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 + ∫𝒄 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙

𝒃 𝒃
𝑷𝟑 : ∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = ∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒂 + 𝒃 − 𝒙)𝒅𝒙

𝒂 𝒂
𝑷𝟒 : ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒂 − 𝒙)𝒅𝒙

(Note that 𝑷𝟒 is a particular case of 𝑷𝟑 )

 Some Properties of Definite Integrals
"( ( (
𝐏B : ∫C 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫C 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫C 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

"( (
𝐏D : ∫C 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 2∫C 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, if 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) and
0 if 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
( (
𝐏E : (i) ∫,( 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 2∫C 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, if 𝑓 is an even function, i.e., if 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).

(
(ii) ∫,( 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0, if 𝑓 is an odd function, i.e., if 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥).
Area between a curve and the 𝒙-axis
"
For the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0, ∫! 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 is the area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥),
the 𝑥-axis and the straight line 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑥 = 𝑏

" "
Area = ∫! 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫! 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝒙=𝒂 𝒙=𝒃
Area between a curve and the 𝒚-axis
$
For the curve 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑦 ≥ 0,∫# 𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 is the area bounded by the curve𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑦 ,
the 𝑦-axis and the straight line 𝑦 = 𝑐, 𝑦 = 𝑑
𝒚
𝒚=𝒅

" " 𝒙 = 𝒈(𝒚)

Area = ∫! 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫! 𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦

𝒚=𝒄
𝒙′ 𝒙
𝑶
𝒚′
It may happen that some of the portion of the curve is above x-axis and some
is below 𝑥 −axis, then the area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the 𝑥 −axis and
the ordinates 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is given by

Area = 𝐴# + 𝐴$
 The order of highest differential coefficient
( or highest order derivative ) appearing in a differential equation

Degree = Highest exponent of the highest derivative.

! "
Example:
𝑑𝑦 #
+𝑥 + sin 𝑥 = 𝑦
𝑑𝑥

Degree = 3
The solution which contains as many arbitrary constants as the order of the
differential equation is called the general solution of the differential equation

A solution obtained by giving particular values to arbitrary constants in the general

solution of a differential equation is called the particular solution.
$%
= ℎ(𝑦) , 𝑔(𝑥)
$&

$%
= 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
'(%)

Q) Find the general solution of

Now, Integrating above equation
on both the sides $% *+% !
=
$& *+& !
$% $% $&
∫ = ∫ 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ ∫ *+% ! = ∫ *+& !
'(%)

,*
tan (𝑦) = ,*
tan (𝑥) +𝐶
A function 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to be homogeneous function of degree 𝑛 if 𝐹 𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦 =
-
𝜆 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) for any nonzero constant 𝜆

𝑑𝑦 𝑓* (𝑥, 𝑦)
= 𝑓* (𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑓# (𝑥, 𝑦) are homogeneous
𝑑𝑥 𝑓# (𝑥, 𝑦)
function of same degree
Standard step, put 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥 or 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦

$% $. $& $.
Then, =𝑣+ 𝑥 or =𝑣+ 𝑦
$& $& $% $%
 𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑄 [ where 𝑃 and 𝑄 are functions of 𝑥 alone or constants
𝑑𝑥 ]
For solving such equation we multiply both sides by integrating factor =

General solution is ∫ 0$& ∫ 0$&

𝑦𝑒 = ∫𝑄𝑒 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑦 𝐼. 𝐹. = ∫ 𝑄 𝐼. 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑄 [ where 𝑃 and 𝑄 are functions of 𝑦 alone or constants
𝑑𝑦 ]

For solving such equation we multiply both sides by integrating factor =

General solution is ∫ 0$% ∫ 0$%

𝑥𝑒 = ∫𝑄𝑒 𝑑𝑦 or 𝑥 𝐼. 𝐹. = ∫ 𝑄 𝐼. 𝐹. 𝑑𝑦
 Vector
Vector

A directed line segment is called a vector.

A B

Initial point Terminating point

 Types of Vectors
1. Zero vector :- A vector whose magnitude is zero. It is represented as 𝐴𝐴 or 0.
2. Unit vector :- A vector whose magnitude is unity
3. Coinitial vectors :- The vectors whose initial points are same
4. Parallel or Collinear vectors :- Vectors which are parallel to each other.
5. Negative vectors :- A vector whose magnitude is same as that of a vector 𝑎⃗ but
whose direction is opposite to that of 𝑎⃗ is called negative vector of 𝑎⃗ and is denoted
by −𝑎.
⃗

6. Equal vectors :- Two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏 are said to be equal if they have the
same magnitude and the same direction.
 Magnitude of a Vector

-
Let 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝚤̂ + 𝑏𝚥̂ + 𝑐 𝑘 be any vector
then 𝑎⃗ or 𝑎 = 𝑎 ! + 𝑏 ! + !
𝑐 .

Components of a Vector

-
Let 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎 𝚤̂ + 𝑏 𝚥̂ + 𝑐 𝑘 be a vector. Then
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 𝑎𝚤,̂ 𝑏𝚥,̂ 𝑐 𝑘-

Scalar components Vector components

 Position Vector Vector joining two points
Z Z

A(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 , 𝒛𝟏 )
P(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛
) B(𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 , 𝒛𝟐 )

Y
O
Y
O

X 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑥! 𝑖ˆ + 𝑦! 𝑗ˆ + 𝑧! 𝑘ˆ & 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑥" 𝑖ˆ + 𝑦" 𝑗ˆ + 𝑧" 𝑘ˆ

𝑂𝑃 = position vector of point P ∴ 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝑦 𝚥̂ + 𝑧 𝑘4 = 𝑥" − 𝑥! 𝑖ˆ + 𝑦" − 𝑦! 𝑗ˆ + 𝑧" − 𝑧! 𝑘ˆ
 Unit vector along a given vector

Unit vector in the direction of the given vector 𝑎⃗ is obtained by dividing the vector

𝑎⃗
by its magnitude, i.e., 𝑎/ =
𝑎⃗
 Section Formulae
The position vector of a point 𝑅 dividing a line segment joining the points P &
Q whose position vectors are 𝑎⃗ & 𝑏 respectively, in the ratio 𝑚 ∶ 𝑛

"#$%&
(i) internally, is given by
"$%

"#'%&
(ii) externally, is given by
"'%

(
The position vector of the middle point of PQ is given by (𝑎⃗ + 𝑏)
!
 Direction Ratios and Direction Cosines of a vector

Z
Direction Cosines of cos 𝛼 , cos 𝛽 , cos 𝛾
𝑂𝑃 ∶ = 𝑙 = 𝑚 = 𝑛 P(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)

𝜸
! ! ! Relationship among
𝑙 +𝑚 +𝑛 =1 𝜷
DC’s
Y
Direction Ratios : Three numbers 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 which are 𝜶
proportional to the direction cosines

& # * X
i.e., = =
) " %
Direction Ratios and Direction Cosines of a vector
+
Let 𝑎⃗ = 𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝑦 𝚥̂ + 𝑧 𝑘. Then

Direction Ratios of 𝑎⃗ = Scalar components of 𝑎⃗

= 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧

Direction Cosines of 𝑎⃗ = Scalar components of 𝑎-

=
! # $
, ,
" " "

! # $
∴𝑙= , 𝑚= , 𝑚= where 𝑟 = magnitude of 𝑎⃗
" " "
 Triangle Law of Vector Addition

It states that if two vectors can be represented both in

magnitude and direction by the two sides of a triangle
taken in the same order then their resultant can be
represented both in magnitude and direction by the third
side of a triangle taken in the opposite order.
 Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition

It states that if two vectors can be represented

both in magnitude and direction by the two sides
of a triangle taken in the same order then their
resultant can be represented both in magnitude
and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram taken in the opposite order.
 Dot (or Scalar) Product of Two Vectors

𝑎.
⃗ 𝑏 = 𝑎⃗ 𝑏 cos 𝜃 , 0≤𝜃≤𝜋
𝑏

𝜃
𝑎⃗
 Observations

1. 𝑎.
⃗ 𝑏 is a scalar quantity. 2. 𝑎.
⃗ 𝑏 = 𝑏. 𝑎⃗ (commutative property)

3. If 𝜃 = 0 then 𝑎.
⃗ 𝑏 = 𝑎⃗ 𝑏 4. If 𝜃 = 90° then 𝑎.
⃗ 𝑏=0
⇒ 𝑎.
⃗ 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎⃗ !
⇒ 1 1
𝚤.̂ 𝚥̂ = 𝚥.̂ 𝑘 = 𝑘. 𝚤̂ = 0
𝚤.̂ 𝚤̂ = 𝚤̂ ! =1 And
If 𝑎.
⃗ 𝑏=0
1 1
Similarly, 𝚥.̂ 𝚥̂ = 𝑘. 𝑘 = 1

".$ 𝑎⃗ = 0 or 𝑏 = 𝜃 = 90°
5. Angle between two vectors ∶ cos 𝜃 =
" $ 0 is not defined
(𝜃 i.e. 𝑎⃗ ⊥ 𝑏
in this case)
6. To find dot product
1 1
If 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎% 𝚤̂ + 𝑏% 𝚥̂ + 𝑐% 𝑘 & 𝑏 = 𝑎! 𝚤̂ + 𝑏! 𝚥̂ + 𝑐! 𝑘
Then 𝑎.
⃗ 𝑏 = 𝑎% 𝑎! + 𝑏% 𝑏! + 𝑐% 𝑐!
 Projection of a Vector

Projection of 𝑎⃗ on 𝑏, is given by
𝑎⃗

𝑏 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏
ˆ
𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏 = 𝑎⃗ ⋅ = 𝜃 𝑏
|𝑏| |𝑏|

Projection of 𝑎⃗ on 𝑏
 Cross (or Vector) Product of Two Vectors

𝑎×𝑏
⃗ = 𝑎⃗ 𝑏 sin 𝜃 𝑛,
0
𝑏
𝑛
magnitude direction
𝜃
0≤𝜃≤𝜋
& 𝑛/ → unit vector 𝑎⃗
⊥ to both 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏
 Observations

1. 𝑎×𝑏
⃗ is a vector quantity. 2. 𝑎×𝑏
⃗ ≠ 𝑏×𝑎⃗ but 𝑎×𝑏
⃗ = −𝑏×𝑎⃗

3. If 𝜃 = 90° then 𝑎×𝑏

⃗ = 𝑎⃗ 𝑏 𝑛/ 4. If 𝜃 = 0° then 𝑎×𝑏
⃗ =0
⇒ 𝚤× ̂ 𝚥̂ = 𝑘- T̂ ⇒ 𝚤×
̂ 𝚤̂ = 𝚥× - 𝑘- = 0
̂ 𝚥̂ = 𝑘×
𝚥× -
̂ 𝑘 = 𝚤̂
- 𝑘ˆ ȷ̂ And If 𝑎×𝑏
⃗ =
𝑘×𝚤̂ = 𝚥̂
0
&×#
5. Angle between two vectors ∶ sin 𝜃 = 𝑎⃗ = 0 or 𝑏 = 𝜃=0
& #
0 is not defined
(𝜃 i.e. 𝑎⃗ ∥ 𝑏
6. To find cross product in this case)

𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘-
𝑎×𝑏
⃗ = 𝑎( 𝑏( 𝑐(
𝑎! 𝑏! 𝑐!
Area of triangle Area of parallelogram

𝑏 𝑏 Area = 𝑎×𝑏
⃗
𝑎⃗
𝑎⃗

:
Area = 𝑎×𝑏
⃗
;
:
𝑏 𝑎⃗ Area = 𝑎×𝑏
⃗
;
Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a Line

L (line)

O Y

X
 Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a Line
joining two points

A line can have infinite DR’s

Equation of a line

Z
P
A

Y
O
X
 Equation of a line in a plane
Equation of a line passing through two given points A and B
Distance between two skew lines

Q
Distance between two parallel lines
T

P
Angle between two lines
 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝐟𝐚𝐯𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝑬
𝐏 𝑬 =
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
A fair coin is tossed twice An unfair coin is tossed twice
< =
<
𝑃 𝐻 = =𝑃 𝑇 𝑃 𝐻 ≠𝑃 𝑇 Let 𝑃 𝐻 = and 𝑃 𝑇 =
= A A

Sample 𝑆 = {𝐻𝐻, 𝑇𝑇, 𝐻𝑇, 𝑇𝐻}

𝑆 = {𝐻𝐻, 𝑇𝑇, 𝐻𝑇, 𝑇𝐻}
Space
< = = B
< < < < Probabilities D D D D
Probabilities B B B B

Unequal probable outcomes

Equally likely outcomes
Event, E: getting at least one head
Event, E: getting at least one head = 𝐻𝐻, 𝐻𝑇, 𝑇𝐻
= 𝐻𝐻, 𝐻𝑇, 𝑇𝐻 𝑃 𝐸 = 𝑃 𝐻𝐻 + 𝑃 𝐻𝑇 + 𝑃 𝑇𝐻 ü
< < < = < = C
= A×A + A×A + A + A = D
> ? A
𝑃 𝐸 = = > ? A
> @ B 𝑃 𝐸 = = û
> @ B
 Conditional Probability

probability of occurrence of event 𝐴, when

the event 𝐵 has already occurred

𝑷 𝑨∩𝑩
𝑷(𝑨/𝑩) = Example:
𝑷 𝑩

A fair die is tossed.

Sample space, 𝑆 = 1,2,3,4,5,6
probability of event A
A : getting number greater than 2 probability of
when event B has
occurred B : getting an odd number getting number
𝐴 = 3,4,5,6 and 𝐵 = 1,3,5 greater than 2
when it is given
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 3,5 that the die
So, 𝑃 𝐴 𝐵 =
! "∩$
=
%/'
=
% shows an odd
! $ (/' ( number
 " #∩% !
" # ∩%
!
1. 𝑃(𝐵/𝐴) = 2. 𝑃(𝐴 /𝐵) =
" # " %

!
" # ∩% !
" # ∩% !
! ! !
3. 𝑃(𝐴 /𝐵) = 4. 𝑃(𝐴 /𝐵 ) =
" % " %!

Properties of Conditional Probability

1. 𝑃((𝐸 ∪ 𝐹)/𝐺) = 𝑃(𝐸/𝐺) + 𝑃(𝐹/𝐺) − 𝑃((𝐸 ∩ 𝐹)/𝐺).

!
2. 𝑃(𝐸 /𝐺) = 1 − 𝑃(𝐸/𝐺).

3. 𝑃(𝑆/𝐺) = 𝑃(𝐺/𝐺) = 1.
 Multiplication Theorem of Probability

Probability of simultaneously occurrence of the events 𝐸 and 𝐹 is

𝑃 𝐸 ∩ 𝐹 = 𝑃 𝐸 . 𝑃(𝐹/𝐸) where 𝑃 𝐸 ≠ 0

Or 𝑃 𝐸 ∩ 𝐹 = 𝑃 𝐹 . 𝑃(𝐸/𝐹) where 𝑃 𝐹 ≠ 0

This result is known as multiplication rule of probability.

 Independent Events

probability of occurrence of one event, is

not affected by occurrence of other event

𝑃 𝐸 ∩ 𝐹 = 𝑃 𝐸 ×𝑃 𝐹
Three events 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are said to be mutually independent, if

𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑃(𝐴)×𝑃(𝐵)

𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 = 𝑃(𝐴)×𝑃(𝐶)

𝑃 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 = 𝑃(𝐵)×𝑃(𝐶)

𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 = 𝑃(𝐴)×𝑃(𝐵)×𝑃 𝐶
 Theorem of Total Probability

Let events 𝐸& , 𝐸' , … , 𝐸( form a partition of the sample space 𝑆 of an experiment. If 𝐴 is
any event associated with sample space 𝑆, then
(
𝑃(𝐴) = 𝑃 𝐸& ⋅ 𝑃 𝐴/𝐸& + 𝑃 𝐸' ⋅ 𝑃 𝐴/𝐸' + ⋯ + 𝑃 𝐸( ⋅ 𝑃 𝐴/𝐸( = ∑)*& 𝑃 𝐸) ⋅ 𝑃 𝐴/𝐸)

Bayes’ Theorem

If 𝐸& , 𝐸' , … , 𝐸( are 𝑛 non-empty events which constitute a partition of sample space 𝑆,
Also, let 𝐴 be any non-zero event, then probability
" ," ⋅" #/,"
𝑃 𝐸+ /𝐴 = % ∀𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑛
∑"#$ " ," ⋅" #/,"
 Random Variable
A random variable is a real valued function, whose domain is the sample space of a
random experiment. Generally, it is denoted by capital letter 𝑋.

Probability Distribution of a Random Variable

Let 𝑋 be a random variable which can take 𝑛 values 𝑥& , 𝑥' , … , 𝑥( .
Let 𝑝& , 𝑝' , … , 𝑝( be the respective probabilities.
Then, a probability distribution table is given as follows:
𝑿 𝑥< 𝑥= 𝑥A ⋯ 𝑥>
𝑷(𝒙) 𝑝< 𝑝= 𝑝A ⋯ 𝑝>

where 𝑝+ > 0, 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛 and 𝑝& + 𝑝' + 𝑝0 + ⋯ + 𝑝( = 1.