Technical Document
1. Introduction
1.1 General Considerations
1.1.1 Types of Aerospace Vehicles and Missions
1.1.2 The Role of Sensors and Control Systems in Aerospace
1.1.3 Specific Design Criteria for Aerospace Vehicles and Their Sensors
1.1.4 Physical Principles Influencing Primary Aerospace Sensor Design
1.1.5 Reference Frames Accepted in Aviation and Astronautics
1.2 Characteristics and Challenges of the Atmospheric Environment
1.2.1 Components of the Earth's Atmosphere
1.2.2 Stationary Models of the Atmosphere
1.2.3 Anisotropy and Variability in the Atmosphere
1.2.4 Electrical Charges in the Atmosphere
1.2.5 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in the Atmosphere
1.2.6 Geomagnetism
1.2.7 The Planetary Atmosphere
1.3 Characteristics and Challenges of the Space Environment
1.3.1 General Considerations
1.3.2 Near-Earth Space
1.3.3 Circumsolar (Near-Sun) Space
1.3.4 Matter in Space
1.3.5 Distances and Time Scales in Deep Space
2. Air Pressure-Dependent Sensors
2.1 Basic Aircraft Instrumentation
2.2 Fundamental Physical Properties of Airflow
2.2.1 Fundamental Airflow Physical Property Definitions
[Link] Pressure
[Link] Air Density
[Link] Temperature
[Link] Flow Velocity
2.2.2 The Equation of State for a Perfect Gas
2.2.3 Extension of Definitions: Total, Dynamic, Static, and Stagnation
2.2.4 The Speed of Sound and Mach Number
[Link] The Speed of Sound
[Link] Mach Number and Compressibility
2.2.5 The Source of Aerodynamic Forces
2.3 Altitude Conventions
2.4 Barometric Altimeters
2.4.1 Theoretical Considerations
[Link] The Troposphere
[Link] The Stratosphere
2.4.2 Barometric Altimeter Principles and Construction
2.4.3 Barometric Altimeter Errors
[Link] Methodical Errors
[Link] Instrumental Errors
2.5 Airspeed Conventions
2.6 The Manometric Airspeed Indicator
2.6.1 Manometric Airspeed Indicator Principles and Construction
2.6.2 Theoretical Considerations
[Link] Subsonic Incompressible Operation
[Link] Subsonic Compressible Operation
[Link] Supersonic Operation
2.6.3 Manometric Airspeed Indicator Errors
[Link] Methodical Errors
[Link] Instrumental Errors
2.7 The Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
2.7.1 VSI Principles and Construction
2.7.2 Theoretical Considerations
[Link] Lag Rate (Time Constant)
[Link] Sensitivity to Mach Number
[Link] Sensitivity to Altitude
2.7.3 VSI Errors
2.8 Angles of Attack and Slip
2.8.1 The Pivoted Vane
2.8.2 The Differential Pressure Tube
2.8.3 The Null-Seeking Pressure Tube
3. Radar Altimeters
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Definitions
3.1.2 Altimetry Methods
3.1.3 General Principles of Radar Altimetry
3.1.4 Classification by Different Features
3.1.5 Application and Performance Characteristics
[Link] Aircraft Applications
[Link] Spacecraft Applications
[Link] Military Applications
[Link] Remote Sensing Applications
3.1.6 Performance Characteristics
3.2 Pulse Radar Altimeters
3.2.1 Principle of Operation
3.2.2 Pulse Duration
3.2.3 Tracking Altimeters
3.2.4 Design Principles
3.2.5 Features of Altimeters with Pulse Compression
3.2.6 Pulse Laser Altimetry
3.2.7 Some Examples
3.2.8 Validation
3.2.9 Future Trends
3.3 Continuous Wave Radar Altimeters
3.3.1 Principles of Continuous Wave Radar
3.3.2 FMCW Radar Waveforms
3.3.3 Design Principles and Structural Features
[Link] Local Oscillator Automatic Tuning
[Link] Single-Sideband Receiver Structure
3.3.4 The Doppler Effect
3.3.5 Alternative Measuring Devices for FMCW Altimeters
3.3.6 Accuracy and Unambiguous Altitude
3.3.7 Aviation Applications
4. Other Altimeters and Sensors
4.1 General Overview
4.2 Special Altimeter Designs
4.3 Future Development Directions for Altimeters
4.4 High-Precision Inertial Sensors
4.4.1 Optical Gyroscopes
4.4.2 Fiber-Optic and Ring-Laser Gyroscopes
4.4.3 MEMS-Based Gyroscopes and Accelerometers
4.5 Integrated Navigation Systems
5. Air Data Computers
5.1 Overview of Air Data Computers
5.2 Air Data Sensor Integration Techniques
5.3 Advanced Digital Air Data Computers
5.4 Fault Tolerant Air Data Systems
6. Optical Airflow Sensors
6.1 General Overview
6.2 Types of Optical Airflow Sensors
6.3 Laser Doppler Velocimeters
6.4 LIDAR Systems
7. Ground Proximity Warning Systems
7.1 Overview of GPWS
7.2 Enhanced GPWS Technologies
7.3 Future Trends in Ground Proximity Warning
8. Atmospheric Data Acquisition
8.1 Overview of Atmospheric Sensing
8.2 Balloon-Based Atmospheric Profiling
8.3 Satellite-Based Atmospheric Sensors
8.4 Ground-Based Atmospheric Observations
9. Navigation Sensors
9.1 Global Navigation Satellite Systems
9.2 Inertial Navigation Systems
9.2.1 Basic Concepts
9.2.2 Advanced Applications
9.3 Radio Navigation Systems
9.3.1 VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Range)
9.3.2 DME (Distance Measuring Equipment)
9.3.3 ILS (Instrument Landing System)
9.3.4 Future Radio Navigation Systems