Electronic Devices &

System
D R C H INMAY EE D ORA
D E P T. OF E L EC T RONICS & COM MUNICATION E N GI NEE RING
C E N TURION U N I VERSITY OF T EC HNOLOGY & M A NAGE MENT
Power Amplifiers

• While the voltage amplifier raises the voltage level of the signal, the power
amplifier raises the power level of the signal.
• Besides raising the power level, it can also be said that a power amplifier is a
device which converts DC power to AC power and whose action is controlled by
the input signal.

• The DC power is distributed according to the relation,

• DC power input = AC power output + losses
Introduction
•An amplifier receives a signal from some pickup transducer or other input source and provides a
larger version of the signal to some output device or to another amplifier stage.
•An input transducer signal is generally small (a few millivolts from a cassette or CD input, or a
few microvolts from an antenna) and needs to be amplified sufficiently to operate an output
device (speaker or other power-handling device).
•In small-signal amplifiers, the main factors are usually amplification linearity and magnitude of
gain. Since signal voltage and current are small in a small-signal amplifier, the amount of power-
handling capacity and power efficiency are of little concern.
• A voltage amplifier provides voltage amplification primarily to increase the voltage of the input
signal.
•Large-signal or power amplifiers, on the other hand, primarily provide sufficient power to an
output load to drive a speaker or other power device, typically a few watts to tens of watts.
Hence, Power Amplifiers (PA) deliver power to a given load with maximum efficiency while
faithfully transferring the modulation from the input to the output.
 A Power transistor differs from the other transistors, in the following
factors.
•It is larger in size, in order to handle large powers.
•The collector region of the transistor is made large and a heat sink is
placed at the collector-base junction in order to minimize heat
generated.
•The emitter and base regions of a power transistor are heavily
doped.
•Due to the low input resistance, it requires low input power.
Types of Power Amplifier
Classification Based on Mode of Operation
•Class A: When the collector current flows at all times during the full cycle of
signal, the power amplifier is known as class A power amplifier.
•Class B: When the collector current flows only during the positive half cycle of
the input signal, the power amplifier is known as class B power amplifier.
•Class C: When the collector current flows for less than half cycle of the input
signal, the power amplifier is known as class C power amplifier.
•Class AB: By combining the class A and class B amplifiers so as to utilize the
advantages of both.
Terms of Power Amplifier
•The power efficiency of an amplifier, defined as the ratio of power output to
power input.

•Power dissipation capability can be defined as the ability of a power transistor

to dissipate the heat developed in it. Metal cases called heat sinks are used in
order to dissipate the heat produced in power transistors.
•Distortion is defined as the change of output wave shape from the input wave
shape of the amplifier. An amplifier that has lesser distortion, produces a better
output and hence considered efficient.
Class A amplifier
•A Class A power amplifier is one in which the output current flows
for the entire cycle of the AC input supply. Hence the complete
signal present at the input is amplified at the output.
•The only differences between circuit beside and the small-signal
version considered previously is that the signals handled by the
large signal circuit are in the range of volts, and the transistor
used is a power transistor that is capable of operating in the range
of a few to tens of watts.
•DC Bias operation:
• The intersection of the dc bias value of IB with the dc load
line then determines the operating point ( Q -point) for
the circuit.
• The quiescent-point values are those calculated using
equations mentioned.
• If the dc bias collector current is set at one-half the
possible signal swing (between 0 and VCC /RC ), the largest
collector current swing will be possible.
• Additionally, if the quiescent collector–emitter voltage is
set at one-half the supply voltage, the largest voltage
swing will be possible.
A small input signal, as shown in Figure, will cause the base current to vary above and below the dc bias point,
which will then cause the collector current (output) to vary from the dc bias point set as well as the collector–
emitter voltage to vary around its dc bias value.
As the input signal is made larger, the output will vary further around the established dc bias point until either
the current or the voltage reaches a limiting condition. For the current this limiting condition is either zero
current at the low end or VCC/RC at the high end of its swing. For the collector–emitter voltage, the limit is either
0 V or the supply voltage, VCC .
Power Consideration
• The power into an amplifier is provided by the supply voltage. With no input signal, the dc current drawn
is the collector bias current ICQ. The power then drawn from the supply is

• Output Power :
• The output voltage and current varying around the bias point provide ac power to the load. This ac power
is delivered to the load RC in the circuit.
• The ac signal Vi causes the base current to vary around the dc bias current and the collector current around
its quiescent level ICQ.
• As shown in Figure, the ac input signal results in ac current and ac voltage signals. The larger the input
signal, the larger is the output swing, up to the maximum set by the circuit. The ac power delivered to the
load ( RC ) can be expressed in a number of ways.
The output characteristics with operating point Q is
shown in the figure above. Here (Ic)Q and
(Vce)Q represent no signal collector current and voltage
between collector and emitter respectively. When
signal is applied, the Q-point shifts to Q1 and Q2. The
output current increases to (Ic)max and decreases to
(Ic)min. Similarly, the collector-emitter voltage increases
to (Vce)max and decreases to (Vce)min.
D.C. Power drawn from collector battery Vcc is given by
= ( )
This power is used in the following two parts −
•Power dissipated in the collector load as heat is given
by =( )
Power given to transistor is given by = −
When signal is applied, the power given to transistor is used in the following two parts −
•A.C. Power developed across load resistors RC which constitutes the a.c. power output.

•Where I is the R.M.S. value of a.c. output current through load, V is the R.M.S. value of
a.c. voltage, and Vm is the maximum value of V.
•The D.C. power dissipated by the transistor (collector region) in the form of heat, i.e.,
(PC)dc
Using RMS signals. The ac power delivered to the load (RC) may be expressed using:
Overall Efficiency
The overall efficiency of the amplifier circuit is given by

= =
8 8
The maximum power input can be calculated using the dc bias current set to one-half the maximum value:
 Advantages of Class A Amplifier
•It has high fidelity because of the output exact replica of an input signal.
•It has improved high-frequency response because the active device is ON full time, i.e.
no time is required to turn on the device.
•There is no crossover distortion because the active device conducts for the entire cycle
of the input signal.
•The single ended configuration can be easily & practically realized in class A amp.
Disadvantages of Class A Amplifier
•Due to the large power supply and heat sink, class A amplifier is costly and bulky.
•It has Poor Efficiency.
•Due to the transformer coupling frequency response is not as good.
Applications of Class A Amplifier
•The Class A Amplifier more suitable for outdoor musical systems, since the transistor
reproduces the entire audio waveform without ever cutting off. As a result, the sound is
very clear and more linear, that is, it contains much lower levels of distortion.
•They are usually very large, heavy and they produce nearly 4-5 watts of heat energy per a watt
of output. Therefore, they run very hot and need lots of ventilation. So they are not at all ideal
for a car and rarely acceptable in a home.
 Class B Power Amplifier
•When the collector current flows only during the positive half cycle of
the input signal, the power amplifier is known as class B power
amplifier.
•The biasing of the transistor in class B operation is in such a way that
at zero signal condition, there will be no collector current.
The operating point is selected to be at collector cut off voltage. So,
when the signal is applied, only the positive half cycle is amplified at
the output.
•When the signal is applied, the circuit is forward biased for the
positive half cycle of the input and hence the collector current flows.
But during the negative half cycle of the input, the circuit is reverse
biased and the collector current will be absent. Hence only the
positive half cycle is amplified at the output.
•As the negative half cycle is completely absent, the signal distortion
will be high. Also, when the applied signal increases, the power
dissipation will be more. But when compared to class A power
amplifier, the output efficiency is increased.
Push-Pull Configuration
Though the efficiency of class B power amplifier is higher than class A, as only one half
cycle of the input is used, the distortion is high. Also, the input power is not completely
utilized. In order to compensate these problems, the push-pull configuration is
introduced in class B amplifier.
• The circuit of a push-pull class B power amplifier
consists of two identical transistors T1 and T2 whose
bases are connected to the secondary of the center-
tapped input transformer Tr1. The emitters are shorted
and the collectors are given the VCC supply through the
primary of the output transformer Tr2.

• The circuit of class B push-pull amplifier shown in the

above figure clears that both the transformers are
center-tapped. When no signal is applied at the input,
the transistors T1 and T2 are in cut off condition and
hence no collector currents flow. As no current is drawn
from VCC, no power is wasted.
•When input signal is given, it is applied to the input
transformer Tr1 which splits the signal into two
signals that are 180o out of phase with each other.
•These two signals are given to the two identical
transistors T1 and T2.
•For the positive half cycle, the base of the transistor
T1 becomes positive and collector current flows.
•At the same time, the transistor T2 has negative half
cycle, which throws the transistor T2 into cutoff
condition and hence no collector current flows.
•For the next half cycle, the transistor T1 gets into cut
off condition and the transistor T2 gets into
conduction, to contribute the output.
•Hence for both the cycles, each transistor conducts
alternately. The output transformer Tr3 serves to join
the two currents producing an almost undistorted
output waveform.
Power Efficiency
The current in each transistor is the average value of half sine loop.
For both halves of sine loop, Idc is given by

where I (p) is the peak value of the output current waveform. The power input equation results
in

Using an rms meter to measure the voltage across the load, the output power can be calculated
as
Power efficiency using I(p) = VL(p)/RL,

Equation above shows that the larger the peak voltage, the higher is the circuit efficiency, up to
a maximum value when VL(p) = VCC .
this maximum efficiency then being,
 Complementary Symmetry Push-Pull Class B Amplifier
•The push pull amplifier which was just discussed improves
efficiency but the usage of center-tapped transformers
makes the circuit bulky, heavy and costly.
•To make the circuit simple and to improve the efficiency, the
transistors used can be complemented, as shown in the
following circuit diagram.
•The above circuit employs a NPN transistor and a PNP
transistor connected in push pull configuration.
•When the input signal is applied, during the positive half
cycle of the input signal, the NPN transistor conducts and
the PNP transistor cuts off. During the negative half cycle,
the NPN transistor cuts off and the PNP transistor conducts.
•In this way, the NPN transistor amplifies during positive half
cycle of the input, while PNP transistor amplifies during
negative half cycle of the input. As the transistors are both
complement to each other, yet act symmetrically while being
connected in push pull configuration of class B, this circuit is
termed as Complementary symmetry push pull class B
amplifier.
Advantages
The advantages of Complementary symmetry push pull class B amplifier are as follows.
•As there is no need of center tapped transformers, the weight and cost are reduced.
•Equal and opposite input signal voltages are not required.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of Complementary symmetry push pull class B amplifier are as follows.
•It is difficult to get a pair of transistors (NPN and PNP) that have similar characteristics.
•We require both positive and negative supply voltages.
Cross–over Distortion
•In the push-pull configuration, the two identical
transistors get into conduction, one after the other
and the output produced will be the combination of
both.
•When the signal changes or crosses over from one
transistor to the other at the zero voltage point, it
produces an amount of distortion to the output wave
shape. For a transistor in order to conduct, the base
emitter junction should cross 0.7v, the cut off
voltage. The time taken for a transistor to get ON
from OFF or to get OFF from ON state is called
the transition period.
•At the zero voltage point, the transition period of
switching over the transistors from one to the other,
has its effect which leads to the instances where
both the transistors are OFF at a time. Such
instances can be called as Flat spot or Dead
band on the output wave shape.
•This cross over distortion effect is the
main disadvantage which reduces the
overall peak to peak value of the
output waveform which in turn reduces
the maximum power output.
•Cross-over distortion is less
pronounced for large input signals,
where as it causes severe disturbance
for small input signals.
•This cross over distortion can be
eliminated if the conduction of the
amplifier is more than one half cycle,
so that both the transistors won’t be
OFF at the same time.
•This idea leads to the invention of
class AB amplifier, which is the
combination of both class A and class
B amplifiers.
Class AB Power Amplifier

• Class A has the problem of low efficiency and

class B has distortion problem, this class AB is
emerged to eliminate these two problems, by
utilizing the advantages of both the classes.
•The cross over distortion is the problem that
occurs when both the transistors are OFF at the
same instant, during the transition period. In order
to eliminate this, the condition has to be chosen
for more than one half cycle. Hence, the other
transistor gets into conduction, before the
operating transistor switches to cut off state. This
is achieved only by using class AB configuration,
as shown in the following circuit diagram.
•The small bias voltage given using diodes D1 and
D2, as shown in the above figure, helps the
operating point to be above the cutoff point.
Hence the output waveform of class AB results as
seen in the above figure. The crossover distortion
created by class B is overcome by this class AB,
as well the inefficiencies of class A and B don’t
affect the circuit.
•So, the class AB is a good compromise between
class A and class B in terms of efficiency and
linearity having the efficiency reaching about 50%
to 60%. The class A, B and AB amplifiers are
called as linear amplifiers because the output
signal amplitude and phase are linearly related to
the input signal amplitude and phase
 Class C Power Amplifier
•When the collector current flows for less than half cycle of the
input signal, the power amplifier is known as class C power
amplifier.
•The efficiency of class C amplifier is high while linearity is
poor. The conduction angle for class C is less than 180o. It is
generally around 90o, which means the transistor remains
idle for more than half of the input signal. So, the output
current will be delivered for less time compared to the
application of input signal.
•The following figure shows the operating point and output of
a class C amplifier.
•This kind of biasing gives a much improved efficiency of
around 80% to the amplifier, but introduces heavy distortion
in the output signal. Using the class C amplifier, the pulses
produced at its output can be converted to complete sine
wave of a particular frequency by using LC circuits in its
collector circuit.
 Summary of Power Amplifiers

 The quiescent DC operating point (Q-

point) of an amplifier determines the
amplifier classification.
 By setting the position of the Q-
point at half way on the load line of
the amplifiers characteristics curve,
the amplifier will operate as a class A
amplifier.
 By moving the Q-point lower down
the load line changes the amplifier
into a class AB, B or C amplifier.
 Problems on Power Amplifiers
Q1. If in Fig. 1; R1 = 10 kΩ ; R2 = 2.2 kΩ ; RC = 3.6 kΩ ; RE = 1.1. kΩ and VCC = + 10 V, find the d.c.
power drawn from the supply by the amplifier.
The current I1 flowing through R1 also flows through R2 ( assumption because IB is small).

D.C. voltage across R2, V2 = I1 R2 = 0.82 mA × 2.2 kΩ = 1.8V

D.C. voltage across RE, VE = V2 – VBE = 1.8V – 0.7V = 1.1V
D.C. emitter current, IE = VE/RE = 1.1V/1.1 kΩ = 1 mA
∴ IC ≅ IE = 1 mA
Total d.c current IT drawn from the supply is;
IT = IC + I1 = 1 mA + 0. 82 mA = 1.82 mA
∴ D.C. power drawn from the supply is
Pdc = VCC IT = 10V × 1.82 mA = 18.2 mW
Determine the a.c. load power for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.
In an RC coupled power amplifier, the a.c. voltage across load RL (= 100 Ω ) has a
peak- to-peak value of 18V. Find the maximum possible a.c. load power.
The peak-to-peak voltage, VPP = 18V.
Therefore, peak voltage (or maximum voltage) = VPP/2 and the r.m.s value, VL =
VPP/2√2 .
A power amplifier supplies 50 W to an 8-ohm speaker. Find (i) a.c. output voltage
(ii) a.c. output current.
Calculate the (i) output power (ii) input power and (iii) collector efficiency of the
amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 3. It is given that input voltage results in a base
current of 10 mA peak.

First draw the d.c. load line by locating the two end points viz.,
IC (sat) = VCC/RC = 20 V/20 Ω = 1 A = 1000 mA
and VCE = VCC = 20 V as shown in Fig. 4.
A power transistor working in class A operation has zero signal power
dissipation of 10 watts. If the a.c. output power is 4 watts, find : (i) collector
efficiency (ii) power rating of transistor.

(ii) The zero signal power represents the worst case i.e. maximum power dissipation in a
transistor occurs under zero signal conditions.
∴ Power rating of transistor = 10 W
It means to avoid damage, the transistor must have a power rating of at least 10 W.
A class A power amplifier has a transformer as the load. If the transformer has a
turn ratio of 10 and the secondary load is 100 Ω, find the maximum a.c. power
output. Given that zero signal collector current is 100 mA.
A class A transformer coupled power amplifier has zero signal collector current of
50 mA. If the collector supply voltage is 5 V, find (i) the maximum a.c. power
output (ii) the power rating of transistor (iii) the maximum collector efficiency.
For a class B amplifier using a supply of VCC = 12V and driving a load of 8Ω, determine (i)
maximum load power (ii) d.c. input power (iii) collector efficiency.
A class B push-pull amplifier with transformer coupled load uses two transistors
rated 10 W each. What is the maximum power output one can obtain at the load
from the circuit?
The power dissipation by each transistor is PT = 10W. Therefore, power dissipated by two
transistors is
P2T = 2 × 10 = 20W.