Algebra of Matrices Overview
Uploaded by
prashantjangra52Algebra of Matrices Overview
Uploaded by
prashantjangra52Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
BLOCK II:
ALGEBRA OF MATRICES
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 63
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
UNIT 3: ALGEBRA OF MATRICES
CONTENTS:
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objective
3.3 Matrix
3.4 Sub matrix of a matrix
3.5 Equality of matrix
3.6 Type of matrix
3.7 Addition of matrix
3.8 Subtraction of two matrices
3.9 Principal diagonal of any matrix
3.10 Properties of matrix addition
3.11 Multiplication of a matrix with scalar
3.12 Properties of multiplication of matrix with a scalar
3.13 Multiplication of two matrices
3.14 Properties of multiplication of two matrices
3.15 Some special type of matrices
3.16 Trace of matrix
3.17 Transpose of matrix
3.18 Conjugate of the matrices
3.19 Transpose conjugate of a matrix
3.20 Symmetric matrix
3.21 Skew symmetric matrix
3.22 Hermitian matrix
3.23 Skew Hermitian matrix
3.24 Orthogonal matrix
3.25 Unitary matrix
3.26 Idempotent matrix
3.27 Involutory matrix
3.28 Nilpotent matrix
3.29 Summary
3.30 Glossary
3.31 Self assessment question
1.31.1 Multiple choice questions
1.31.2 Fill in the blanks
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 64
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
3.32 References
3.33 Suggested readings
3.34 Terminal questions
1.34.1 Short answer type questions
1.34.2 Long answer type question
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we investigate the matrix and algebraic operation
define on them, the matrix may be viewed in rectangular form, the linear
system of equation and there solution may be efficiently investigate using
the properties of matrix, consider the system of equation
here x, y are unknowns and there coefficient are taken from
any field then the arrangement of these equations in rectangular form
* + is example of matrix
3.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
Understand matrix and their types.
Use of operations like addition of matrices, multiplication of
matrices etc.
Find transpose of a matrix.
Find conjugate of a matrix.
Know about symmetric and skew symmetric matrices.
Know about the Hermition and skew Hermition matrices.
Understand some special type of matrices.
3.3 MATRIX
Definition: A rectangular representation of a set of mn numbers into m-
rows and n columns is known as matrix representation of order m n and
represented as follows:
[ ] or ( ) or ‖ ‖
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 65
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Usually matrix is denoted by A, B, C… etc. A matrix A can be
represented as:
A = aij mn
row ( horizontal line)
column ( vertical line)
The element of matrix can be taken from the any field.
If the element of matrices are be taken from real field then the matrix is
known as real matrix,
A matrix is usually written as
A=[ ]
Generally there are two types of matrices
(i) Row Matrix:
Definition: A matrix contains only one row and any number of columns is
known as row matrix.
A = 1 2 3 4 1n is row matrix of order 1 n .
(ii) Column Matrix:
Definition: A matrix contain only one column and any number of rows is
called column matrix
A =[ ] is column matrix of order n 1.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 66
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
3.4 SUB MATRIX OF THE MATRIX
Definition: A matrix obtained by omitting zero or more rows but not all
and simultaneously omitting zero or more columns but not all is known
as sub matrix of a original matrix.
Example: - if A = ( ) Then
= (1 2 3) is sub matrix of A (omitting row)
=( )is sub matrix of A (omitting column)
= (4) is sub matrix of A (omitting 1st row, 2nd column and column)
=( ) is not sub matrix of A
Note: Every matrix is sub matrix of itself.
3.5 EQUALITY OF MATRIX
If A = [ ] and B = [ ] then two matrix A and B are equal if
m = p, n = q and
= i, j
Example 1 A = ( ) and B = ( ) are not equal because
A and B have different order
A=( ) and B = ( ) are not equal because
A=( ) and B = ( ) are equal matrix
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 67
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
3.6 TYPES OF MATRICES
(i) Null Matrix:
Definition: A matrix is said to be null matrix if it‟s all entries are zero.
A = ,[ ] -
(ii) Square Matrix:
Definition: A matrix is said to be square matrix if matrix have same
number of rows and columns.
A=[ ] is square matrix if m = n
For example: =* + is square matrix
* + is not a square matrix
(iii) Identity Matrix:
Definition: A matrix is said to be identity matrix if it‟s all elements in
principal diagonal is 1 and remaining element are 0.
i.e. A = {[ ] | }
(iv) Upper Triangular matrix:
Definition: A matrix A = [ ] is said be upper triangular matrix if,
A = {[ ]
Example: A = [ ]
(v) Lower Triangular Matrix:
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 68
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Definition: A matrix A = [ ] is said to be lower triangular matrix if
A = {( )
Example: A = [ ] where and
are any number
i.e. A = [ ] is lower triangular matrix
(vi) Strict Upper Triangular Matrix:
Definition: A matrix A = [ ] is said to be strict upper triangular
matrix if
A = {( )
(vii) Strict Lower Triangular Matrix:
Definition: A matrix A = [ ] is said to be strict lower triangular
matrix if
A = {( )
Example: A = [ ] and B=[ ]
A is strict upper triangular and B is strict lower triangular matrix
3.7 ADDITION OF MATRICES
Let A and B be two same order matrices then there sum is defined to be
the matrix of same order obtained by adding the corresponding element of
A and B.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 69
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
i.e. if A = [ ] B=[ ]
Then A+B = [ ] where
A=[ ] and B = [ ]
Then A+B = [ ]
3.8 SUBTRACTION OF TWO MATRICES
If A and B are any two same order matrix m n then their subtraction is
defined to the matrix of same order obtained by subtraction of
corresponding of A and B.
i.e. if A = [ ] B=[ ]
Then A-B = [ ] where
3.9 PRINCIPAL DIAGONAL OF ANY MATRIX
Definition: A = [ ] be any matrix then the line along (such
that ) is known as principal diagonal of square matrix.
Principal diagonal
Non principal diagonal
a11 a12 a13
a a 23
21 a 22
a31 a32 a33
Super diagonal
Sub diagonal
3.10 PROPERTIES OF MATRIX ADDITION
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 70
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
(i) Matrix Addition Is Commutative:Let A and B are any two
matrix of order m n
A aij mn
and B bij mn
Then A+B = aij mn
+ bij mn
= cij mn
where
= aij bij mn
= bij aij
mn
= bij mn
+ aij mn
= B +A, hence
(ii) Matrix Addition Is Associative:If A, B, C be three matrices
of order m n
A aij mn
, B bij mn
, C cij mn
Then (A + B) + C = a ij mn bij + c
mn ij mn
= aij bij mn
+ cij mn
= (aij bij ) cij
mn
(by the definition of sum of two
matrices)
= aij (bij cij ) mn
= aij mn
+ b ij cij
mn
= aij mn
+ b
ij mn cij mn
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 71
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
= A + (B + C)
(iii) Existence Of Additive Identity: A aij mn is a matrix and
O bij mn
such that = 0 i, j
Then A + O = aij mn
bij mn
= aij bij
mn
= bij aij
mn
= bij mn
aij mn
= O + aij mn
=O+A
O is additive identity of matrix A
(iv) Existence Of Additive Inverse:If A aij mn and B bij mn
where,
Then A + B = aij mn
+ bij mn
= aij bij
mn
= aij (aij ) mn
= aij aij
mn
= 0mn = O
So B = is additive inverse of A
3.11 MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX WITH A
SCALAR
If k is a scalar and A aij mn
is a matrix then,
kA bij mn
where, bij kaij
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 72
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
a11 a12 a13 ka11 ka12 ka13
Example: A then kA
a 21 a 22
a 23 23 ka21 ka22 ka23 23
3.12 PROPERTIES OF MULTIPLICATION OF
MATRIX WITH A SCALAR
(i) If and are two scalar and A is any matrix of order m n then,
Proof Let A aij mn
then,
= a
ij mn
= ( K1 K 2 )aij mn
= K1 (aij ) K 2 (aij ) mn
= K1aij
mn
+ K2 aij
mn
= K1 aij mn
+ K 2 aij mn
(ii) If A and B are two matrices of same order then
= where a is any scalar
Proof Let A and B are two matrices of order m n
A aij mn ,
B bij mn
then
= a aij mn
bij mn
= a aij bij mn
(by matrix addition)
= a aij bij
mn
(by distributive scalar
multiplication)
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 73
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
= aaij abij mn
= aaij mn
abij mn
(by definition of
distribution law)
= a aij mn
a bij mn
=
3.13 MULTIPLICATION OF TWO MATRICES
Two matrices can be multiplied only when the number of columns in first
matrix (called pre factor) is equal to the number of rows in the second
(called post factor) such matrix are said to be comfortable for
multiplication.
A aij mn ,
B b jk n p
Then AB cik m p
Where cik = ai1b1k ai 2 b2 k ....
n
cik a ij b jk
i 1
Example:A = [ ] and B=[ ]
Then AB = [ ][ ]
[ ]
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 74
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Commutative Matrix With Respect To Multiplication: If A
and B are any two matrices of same order then
If AB = BA Then A and B are said to be commutative matrices.
Example: A = * + and B= * +
AB = * + BA = * + AB = BA
Anti-Commute Or Skew Commute Matrices: If A and B are
any two matrices then AB = -BA Then A and B are said to be anti-
commutative.
Example: A = * + B=* +, AB = * +
BA = * +
AB = -BA
Important Note: Two matrix may or may not be commutative
If A = * +B = * +
AB = * +BA = * +
AB BA
And if A=* +B= * +
AB = * + BA = * + AB = BA
Note: The product of two non-zero matrices may be zero (null) matrix.
Example: ( ) ( )
( )
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 75
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
3.14 PROPERTIES OF MULTIPLICATION OF
TWO MATRICES
Multiplication of matrices is distributive with respect to addition i.e. if A,
B and C are any three matrices and confirmable for addition and
multiplication then
A (B + C) = AB +AC
Proof:Let A, B, C are any three matrices of order m n , n p and n p
respectively
A=[ ] ,B=[ ] ,C=[ ]
Then B+C = [ ] +[ ] = [ ]
∑ ( )
∑( )
∑ ∑
= element of AB+ element of AC
= element of (AB + AC)
element of and element of (AB + AC) are same
hence,
Example: If A and B are any square matrix of order n Then show that
1. = A2 + AB + BA + B2
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 76
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
2. (A + B) (A – B) = A2 – AB + BA –B2
Solution:A = [ ] ,B=[ ]
Then A + B = C = [ ]
Therefore we have
1. = (A + B) (A + B) =
= A.A + B.A + A.B + B.B (by distribution law)
= A2 + BA + AB + B2
2. (A + B) (A – B) = (A+ B) A + (A + B) (-B)
= A.A + B.A + A (-B) + B (-B)
= A2 + BA – AB –B2
Note:
The sum of two upper triangular (lower triangular) matrix is also
upper triangular (lower triangular)
The product of two upper (lower triangular) matrix is also upper
(lower triangular) matrix
If A is upper (lower) triangular matrix and K is any positive integer
than is also upper (lower) triangular matrix.
3.15 SOME SPECIAL TYPE OF MATRICES
(i) Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix is said to be diagonal matrix
if it is both upper and lower triangular matrix.
Or
A square matrix is said to be diagonal matrix if all principal
diagonal are zero or may not be zero but remaining element are zero, i.e.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 77
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
A= {( )| }
Example:A = [ ] is a diagonal matrix
(ii) Scalar Matrix:A square diagonal matrix is said to be scalar
matrix if it‟s all principal diagonal elements are equaland remaining
element are zero.
i.e. A = {( )| }
Example:A = [ ] is a scalar matrix
Example: If A is any scalar matrix then total number of non-trivial entry
of A is =….
Solution: A = [ ] be any scalar matrix then only one entry taken
independently so total number of non-trivial entry of any scalar matrix is 1
A=[ ] (Here k is taken independently)
3.16 TRACE OF MATRICES
If A = [ ] is square matrix then trace of A is sum of all principal
diagonal element
Example: A = [ ] Then trace A =?
Solution: Trace A = 2 + 6 + 1 = 9
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 78
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
3.17 TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
If A = [ ] be any matrix then transpose of A is obtained by
interchanging its rows and columns and is denoted by the symbol or
i.e. A = [ ] Then =[ ] where =
A=* + Then =[ ]
Example: If A and B any two matrices and confirmable to addition and
multiplication then show that
(i) = +
(ii) =
(iii) =
(iv) =A
Solution:
(i) If A and B are any two matrix of order m n then A + B will be a
matrix of order m n and will be a matrix of order n m
Let is element of (A + B) where A = aij mn
, B = bij mn
Then element of
= element of (A + B) =
= element of A + element of B
= element of + element of
element of + )
Thus the matrices and + are of the same order and their
element are equal hence = +
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 79
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
(ii) Let A = aij mn
and K is any scalar then KA is also a matrix of
order m n consequently will be a matrix of type n m
= element of KA = K[ element of A]
=K[ element of ]= element of K(AT)
element of
Matrix and are of the same order and their elements
are equal so =
(iii) Let A = aij
mn
and B = b jk
nk
then is a matrix of order n m
and is a matrix of order k n
= c ji nm
where =
= d kj k n
where =
AB is a matrix of order m k
will be of order k m
Now element of = element of AB
n
aij b jk
j 1
n
c ji d kj
j 1
n
d kj c ji = (k, i)th element of ATBT
j 1
= element of
The matrices and are of the same order and their
elements are same
Hence =
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 80
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
(iv) A = aij mn
then will be of order m k also element
of = element of = element of A
Hence =A
3.18 CONJUGATE OF THE MATRIX
Let be any complex number then conjugate of Z is the mirror
image of complex number Z about real axis.
Let A = aij mn
is any matrix then conjugate of A is the matrix obtained by
replacing its elements by the corresponding conjugate number it is denoted
by ̅
i.e. ̅ = bij nm
where = ̅̅̅̅ i, j
̅ =[ ̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Example: If A = * + then ]
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
2 = 2 + 0i ̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = 2 - 0i = 2
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = 5 – 6i
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = 7+3i
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = 3-4i
So, ̅ =* +
Example: If A and B are any two matrices and confirmable to matrix
addition and multiplication and K is any complex number then show that
(i) ̅̅̅̅̅̅ = A
(ii) (̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ) = ̅ + ̅
(iii) (̅̅̅̅ ) = ̅ ̅
(iv) (̅̅̅̅) = ̅ ̅
Solution:
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 81
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
(i)
A = aij mn
then
̅ = a ij
m n
A and ̅̅̅̅̅̅ are of same order
Now element of ̅̅̅̅̅̅ is a conjugate complex of the element
of ̅
= the conjugate element of ̅̅̅̅
= ̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ =
= element if A
Hence ̅̅̅̅̅̅ = A
(ii) Let A = aij mn
and B = bij mn
then ̅ and ̅ are the matrix of
order m n
Now element of (̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅)
= the conjugate element of element of (A + B)
= the conjugate element of
=( ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ) because ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = ̅̅̅ + ̅̅̅
= ( ̅̅̅̅ + ̅̅̅̅)
= the conjugate of element of A + the conjugate of element
of B
= element of ̅ + ̅)
Hence (̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅) = ̅ + ̅
(iii) Let A = aij mn
and B = a jk n p
are two matrices
Then ̅ and ̅ are also matrices of order m n and n p respectively
(̅̅̅̅) and ( ̅ ̅ are of same order
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 82
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
The conjugate of element of (̅̅̅̅)
n n n
aijb jk aijb jk aij b jk
j 1 j 1
j 1
= element of ̅ ̅
Hence (̅̅̅̅) = ̅ ̅
(iv) Let A = aij
mn
and let K is any complex number then (̅̅̅̅) and
( ̅ ̅ will be a matrix of order m n
Now element of (̅̅̅̅)
= The conjugate of
element of (KA) = Kaij K aij
= ̅ (The conjugate of element of A
Hence (̅̅̅̅) = ( ̅ ̅)
3.19 TRANSPOSED CONJUGATE OF A MATRIX
Transpose of the conjugate of a matrix A is called transposed conjugate of
A i.e.
If A is any matrix the transposed conjugate matrix of A is obtained by
interchanging rows and columns and taking conjugate of each element
It is denoted by or by
A = aij mn
then
= b ji nm
where b ji aij
Example: if A = [ ] Then
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 83
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
= [ ]
Example: If A and B are any two matrices confirmable to matrix addition
and multiplication Then proof that
1. ( =A 3. =
2. = 4. =
̅
Proof:
1. ( ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
= ̅̅̅̅̅̅ =A
=A ̅̅̅̅̅̅ = A
2. = ( ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅)
= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ =
= ̅̅̅̅ + ̅̅̅̅ (̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ) = ( ̅+ ̅ )
= +
= +
( AB) AB
T
3.
BT AT ( AB)T B T AT
B A
T T
B A
4.
KA
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 84
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
K ( A) T
=̅
= ̅
3.20 SYMMETRIC MATRIX
Definition: A square matrix A is said to be symmetric matrix if its
element is the same as its element
i.e. if A = aij mm
then
Example: A= * +
=* +=A
3.21 SKEW SYMMETRIC MATRIX
Definition: A skew matrix A = aij
mm
is said to be skew symmetric
matrix if element of A is the negative of element of A
i.e. if A = [ ]
Example:A = [ ]
=[ ]=
Example: If A and B are two square symmetric matrices of same order
then what can be say about
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 85
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
1. A+B 2. AB
3. KA 4. 1
Solution:A and B are two same order square symmetric matrices
So
1. = + =A+B
(A + B) is also symmetric matrix of same order
2. =
=BA
Case 1: If A and B are commutative then A B = B A
= B A = (A B)
AB is symmetric
Case 2: If A and B are anti-commutative then
AB = -BA
= BA = - (AB)
AB is skew symmetric
Case 3: If A and B are neither commutative nor anti-commutative then
(AB) is neither symmetric nor skew symmetric
Case 4: IF one of A or B is null matrix then
AB = 0 = BA
= BA = 0 = -0 = AB = -AB
So (AB) is both symmetric and skew symmetric
3. =
=K = KA
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 86
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
So KA is symmetric matrix
4. = = A
Where K 1
Hence is symmetric matrix.
Example: If A and B are two symmetric matrices of order n, then show
that AB + BA is symmetric matrix
Solution: A and B are two symmetric matrices then A and B
Since both are of same order matrix, so multiplication and addition are
confirmable
Now = +
= + = BA + AB
= (AB + BA) ( addition of matrices is commutative)
Hence AB + BA is symmetric matrix
Example: If A and B are two skew symmetric matrices of same order then
prove that (KA) and (A + B) are also skew symmetric matrices where K
is any constant
Solution: A and B are two skew symmetric matrix
Then = - A and =-B
Now = =K = K(-A) = -KA =
- (KA)
Hence (KA) is skew symmetric matrix
Again = + = -A + (-B) = - (A + B)
Hence (A + B) is also skew symmetric matrix
Example: If A and B are two skew symmetric matrix of same order then
prove that (AB) may or may not be skew symmetric
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 87
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Solution: If A and B are two skew symmetric matrix of same order
= - A and
= - B Then AB is called matrix of same order
Now = = (-B) (-A) = BA
Case 1: If A and B are commutative
Then AB = -A
So = BA = AB
Hence AB is symmetric matrix
Case 2: If A and B are anti-commutative
Then AB = -BA
So = (BA) = - (AB)
Hence (AB) is skew symmetric matrix
Case 3: If either A = 0 or B = 0
Then AB = 0 = BA
So = (BA) = 0 = - (AB)
In this case AB both symmetric and skew symmetric matrix.
Hence the product of two skew symmetric matrix need not be skew
symmetric.
3.22 HERMITIAN MATRICES
A square matrix A = aij mm
is said to be Hermitian matrix if its
element is the conjugate of its element
i.e. A = aij mm
then A is Hermitian of =A
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 88
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
2 2 3i 3 4i
Example: A = 2 3i 3 4 5i
3 4i 4 5i 4
2 2 3i 3 4i
Then = 2 3i 3 4 5i
3 4i 4 5i 4
2 2 3i 3 4i
̅̅̅̅̅̅ = 2 3i 3 4 5i = A
3 4i 4 5i 4
= A hence A is Hermitian matrix
Example: Prove that the principal diagonal elements of Hermitian
matrices are real.
Solution: Let A be any square matrix, A = aij
mm
Let + are principal diagonal element of A
A is Hermitian matrix so = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
is principal diagonal element of A
̅ is principal element of
But = A
̅ =
- = +
2 =0
=0 i
Hence the principal diagonal elements of Hermitian matrix are real.
Example: If A is any Hermitian matrix then what can be say about (KA)
where K is any complex constant.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 89
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Solution: A is any Hermitian matrix
= A
Now = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅ = ̅ = ̅
Case 1: K is any real number
Then ̅ =K
And KA
So (KA) is Hermitian matrix
Case 2: If K is any complex number whose real and imaginary part both
are non-zero
K = say
̅ =
= ̅̅̅A= (KA)
In this case (KA) is not Hermitian matrix.
Case 3: If K is purely imaginary then KA
Hence in this case KA is Skew Hermitian matrix.
3.23 SKEW HERMITIAN MATRIX
Definition: A square matrix A = aij mm
is said to be skew hermitian
matrix if its element is negative of conjugate if its element
i.e. if
A = aij mm
Then = - ̅̅̅
Example: A =[ ] where a, b, c, d, e, f all are
real constant
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 90
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Then =[ ]
̅̅̅̅ = [ ]
=-[ ] = -A
Hence A is skew Hermitian matrix.
Example: If A and B are skew Hermitian matrices of same order then
prove that (A + B) is also skew Hermitian matrix
Solution: A and B any two square skew Hermitian matrix of same order so
(A + B) is confirmable to addition and
= -A, = -B
Now = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = ̅̅̅̅ + ̅̅̅̅
= + = + = - (A + B)
Hence (A + B) is skew Hermitian matrix.
Example: If A is any skew Hermitian matrix and K is any complex
constant then what can be says about KA?
Solution:A is any skew Hermitian matrix
So = -A
Now = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅ = K AT = ̅ =- ̅A
Case 1: If K is real constant
Then ̅=K
And = - ̅ A = -KA
So KA is Skew Hermitian matrix.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 91
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Case 2:If K is purely imaginary
Then ̅ = -K
And =- ̅A= = KA
So (KA) is Hermitian matrix.
Case 3: If K = where a, b both are non-zero real number
Then ̅ = (a - ib)
And = ̅A== KA or -KA
So in this case (KA) is neither Hermitian nor skew Hermitian matrix
Case 4: If K = 0 or A is null matrix
Then = ̅
= 0 = KA = =
So in this case (KA) is hermitian and skew hermitian both
3.24 ORTHOGONAL MATRIX
A square matrix `Aˊ is said to be orthogonal matrix if =I= A
Note: If A is orthogonal matrix then the sum of square of each row‟s or
column‟s element is equal to 1 and the product of corresponding different
row‟s or column‟s is equal to zero.
Example: Show that the matrix [ ] is orthogonal matrix
Solution: Let A = [ ]
Then =[ ]
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 92
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Now = [ ][ ]=
[ ]
Example: If A and B are any two orthogonal matrix of same size then
prove that (AB) is also orthogonal matrix
Solution: A and B are two orthogonal matrix
=I= A
And =I= B
Since A and B are of same order so AB is confirmable.
Now = AB
=A
= AI
=A =I
(AB) = (AB)
= ( A) B
= IB
= B
=I
We have (AB) =I= (AB)
Hence (AB) is orthogonal matrix.
3.25 UNITARY MATRIX
Definition: A square matrix A is said to be unitary matrix if =I=
A
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 93
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Example:A = * +
=* + ̅̅̅̅ = * +
=* +* + =* +
A=* +* + = * +
=I= A
A is unitary matrix
Example: If A is unitary matrix then for what value of K, (KA) is also
unitary matrix.
Solution: A is unitary matrix so = A=I
Let (KA) is also unitary matrix so (KA) = (KA) = I
(KA) = (KA) ( ̅ )=K ̅A =I
K ̅I=I
K ̅=I
So K is unit modulus
Hence (KA) is also unitary matrix if K is of unit modulus.
3.26 IDEMPOTENT MATRIX
Definition: A matrix A is said to be idempotent matrix if =A
Example: Consider a matrix A = * +
= A.A = * +* +=* +
=* +=A
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 94
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Hence A is idempotent matrix.
Example: If A and B are two square matrices show that AB = A and BA =
B Then show that both A and B are idempotent matrices.
Solution: Since AB = A……….. (1)
Post multiply by A in both side in equation (1)
AB = A
(AB) A = A.A
A (BA) = A.A
AB = BA = B
AB = A
Again BA = B
Post multiple by B in both side
(BA)B = B.B
B (AB) =
BA =
Hence A and B both are idempotent
Example: If A and B are two idempotent matrices of same order then
prove that if (A + B) is idempotent then AB and BA both are null matrices.
Solution: Let A and B are two idempotent matrix
= A and =B
Let (A + B) is also idempotent matrix
= (A +B)
(A + B) (A + B) = (A + B)
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 95
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
A.A + A.B + B.A + B.B = A + B
+ AB + BA + =A+B
A + AB + BA + B = A + B = A, =B
AB + BA = O…………………………… (1)
Pre multiply both sides by A in (1)
Then A.(AB) + A(BA) = A.0 = O
B + ABA = O =A
AB + ABA = O…………………………….. (2)
Again post multiply both sides by A in (1)
Then ABA + BA.A = 0.A = O
ABA + B =O =A
ABA + BA = O……………………………….. (3)
From (2) and (3)
AB = BA put in (1) then
3.27 INVOLUTORY MATRIX
Definition: A square matrix A is said to be involutory matrix if =I
Example: Consider a matrix A = [ ] then show that A is
involutory.
Solution: A = [ ]
[ ][ ] [ ]
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 96
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Hence A is involutory matrix.
Example: If A and B are two involutory matrix of same order then prove
that if (A + B) is involutory then AB + BA = -I
Solution: Let A and B are two involutory matrix =I=
Again let (A + B) is involutory matrix
=I
(A + B) (A + B) = I
A.A + A.B + B.A + B.B = I
+ AB + BA + =I =I=
I + AB + BA + I = I
AB + BA = I – 2 I
AB + BA = - I
3.28 NILPOTENT MATRIX
Definition: A square matrix A is said to be nilpotent matrix if there exist a
positive integer n such that = O (O is null matrix). The smallest
positive integer m such that = 0 then m is called index of null matrix
A.
Example: Show that the matrix A =[ ] is nilpotent matrix with
index 3.
Solution: A = [ ]
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 97
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Then = A.A = [ ][ ]=[ ]
= .A = [ ][ ]=[ ]
Hence A is nilpotent matrix
Since least positive integer is 3 such that = 0, so index A is 3.
Example: If A and B are two nilpotent matrix of same order then show
that A + B and AB may or may not be nilpotent
Solution:
(1) Let A = * + and B = * +
A and B both are nilpotent matrix.
=O=
Now A+B=* ++* +=* +
=* +* += * +
(A + B) is nilpotent
AB = * ++* +=* +
(AB) is nilpotent
(2) Let A = * + B=* +
Clearly A and B are nilpotent because
= = null matrix (O)
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 98
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
But A+B=* ++* +=* + is not nilpotent matrix
Because no positive integer m exist such that
(3) Let A = * + and B = * +A and B both are nilpotent.
But (A.B) = * +* +=* + is not nilpotent matrix.
Example: If A and B are any two nilpotent matrices of same order and
commute to each other, then show that (A +B) is also nilpotent matrix.
Solution:A and B are any two nilpotent matrices and
Let index of A = , index of B =
=O=
=O= Where and are positive integer
Case 1: If r then =O
Then
Hence (A + B) is nilpotent matrix
Case 2: If r Then
(m1 m2 1) r (m1 m2 1) m1 ( r m1 )
m2 1
m2 (m1 , m2 I )
The greater number of is either or
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 99
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
and B m O
2
so, B ( m m
1 2 1) r
O
Hence (A + B) is nilpotent matrix
The index of (A + B) is less than or equal to .
3.29 SUMMARY
In this unit we learned the concept of algebra of matrix,along with some
important matrices that will further help us understand the matrix in all its
forms, like orthogonal matrix, idempotent matrix , involutory matrix,
nilpotent matrix etc.
3.30 GLOSSARY
1. Non trivial entries: The entries of matrix over any field which we
can take independently
2. Trivial entries: The entries of matrix over any field which can not
be taken independently
3. Trace: Sum of all principal diagonal entries
3.31 SELF ASSESMENT QUESTIONS
1.31.1 Multiple Choice Questions:
1. A =* + and B = * + then for what values of P, A and B are
equal matrix
(a) 5 (b) 2
(c) 7 (d)
None of these
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 100
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
2. If A is any matrix of order m n and all entry of matrix A is equal,
then total number of sub matrix of A is equal to
(a) n (b)
(c) m+n (d) m
3. If A = * + and B = * + Then
(a) AB = * + (b)
AB = * +
(c) AB = * + (d)
AB = * +
4. The number of possible different element in a square matrix of
order n in which where, p + q = r + s is
(a) n (b)
2n
(c) 2n – 1 (d) 2
5. Total number non trivial entry in upper triangular matrix of order n
is
(a) (b)
(c) (d) n
6. A and B are two involuntary matrix, (A + B) is also involuntary if
(a) AB + BA = O (b)
AB + BA = I
(c) AB + BA = -I (d)
AB + BA = 2I
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 101
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
7. If A = [ ] then trace is
(a) 10 (b) 5
(c) 3 (d) 2
Answers:
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c)
5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (a)
1.31.2 Fill In The Blanks:
Fill in the blanks „‟………‟‟ so that the following statements are complete
and correct
1. A square matrix is said to be idempotent if ………
2. Trace (A + B) = ………..
3. The diagonal element of Hermitian matrix is ……….
4. If A and B are two nilpotent matrix and confirmable to
multiplication then (AB) is also nilpotent if AB = ……
5. The sum of square of each rows of orthogonal matrix is ………..
6. A square matrix is skew symmetric if ………
7. If A and B are two symmetric matrices then is
also symmetric if ……….
Answers:
1. A 2. Trace A + 3. Real 4. BA
Trace B
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 102
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
5. 1 6. –A 7.
3.32 REFERENCE
1. Linear Algebra, [Link] & Vikas Bist :Narosa publishing
House
2. Matrices .[Link] &[Link] :Krishna Parakashan
Media
3. Schaum‟s out line ( Linear Algebra)
3.33 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Matrices .[Link] &[Link] :Krishna Parakashan
Media
2. Schaum‟s out line ( Linear Algebra)
3.34 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1.34.1 Short answer type questions:
1. Show that the matrix [ ] is skew symmetric
2. Show that the matrix [ ] is orthogonal
3. If A and B are symmetric matrices of order n, Then show that AB +
BA is symmetric and AB –BA is skew symmetric.
4. Express the following matrix as the sum of a symmetric and a
skew symmetric matrix * +
5. If A is a square symmetric of order n, then show that trace of
is equal to sum of square of each element of A
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 103
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
6. If A is an idempotent matrix, show that B = I–A is also idempotent
matrix and AB = BA =O (Null Matrix)
7. Show that the matrix A = [ ] satisfies the equation
1.34.2 Long answer type questions:
1. If * + then show that
2. Prove that the product of two matrices
* + and [ ] Is a zero
matrix when and differ by an odd multiple of ⁄
3. If A = [ ] then find the values of
4. If A and B are two nilpotent matrices then show that if (AB) is
nilpotent then index of (AB) (index A, index B)
5. Show that every square matrix is uniquely expressively as the sum
of two matrices one is hermitian and other is skew hermitian
6. If A = [ ] is hermitian matrix
7. A=[ ] and =[ ] then find the value of a, b, c,
e and h
8. Show that principal diagonal element of skew symmetric matrix is
zero
9. Show that every square matrix is uniquely expressible as the sum
of symmetric and skew symmetric matrix.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 104
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
10. Prove that the principal diagonal element of skew Hermitian
matrix are purely imaginary or zero.
11. If A is skew hermitian matrix then what values of n show that is
also skew hermitian matrix
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 105
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
UNIT 4: DETERMINANTS
CONTENTS:
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objective
4.3 Determinant
4.3.1 Determinant of order 1
4.3.2 Determinant of order 2
4.3.3 Determinant of order 3
4.4 Minors and cofactor
4.5 Definition of determinant in terms of cofactor
4.6 Properties of determinant
4.7 Vandermonde matrix
4.8 Product of two determinant of the same order
4.9 Non singular and singular matrix
4.10 Linear equation
4.11 System of non –homogenous linear equation( Cramer‟s rule)
4.12 Adjoint of square matrix
4.13 Method for finding the value of determinant of order 4 or
more .
4.14 Determinants and volume
4.15 Summary
4.16 Glossary
4.17 Self assessment questions
4.17.1 Multiple choice questions
4.17.2 Fill in the blanks
4.18 References
4.19 Suggested readings
4.20 Terminal questions
4.20.1 Short answer type questions
4.20.2 Long answer type question
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 106
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we show that how to find the determinant of the matrix,
we emphasize that an n n array of scalars enclosed by straight lines
called determinant of order the determinant function was first
discovered during the investigation of system of linear (Homogeneous and
Non Homogeneous) Equation.
We solved the determinant of matrix of order … and then we define
a determinant of general n n matrix.
4.2 OBJECTIVE
After reading this unit you will be able to:
Understand minors and cofactors.
Find determinant value of a square matrix.
Understand properties of determinant and its uses.
Find product of the two determinant and its uses.
Know about singular and nonsingular matrices.
Find solution system of non-homogeneous linear using Cramer‟s
Rule.
Find Adjoint of a square matrix.
4.3 DETERMINANT
Definition: Each n-square matrix is assigned a special scalar is called
determinant of A, and it is denoted by | |
| |= | |
4.3.1 DETERMINANTS OF ORDERS 1
If A a11 11 then | |
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 107
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
4.3.2 DETERMINANTS OF ORDERS 2
If * + then | | (Product of principal diagonal element) –
(Product of non-principal diagonal element)
| |
Example: - if * + then, | |= (2.5) – (4.3)
= 10 – 12
= -2
4.3.3 DETERMINANTS OF ORDERS 3
Let
A aij 33
[ ]
Then | |
Or
| | | | | | | |
Or
a11 a12 a13
A a 21 a 22 a 23
a31 a32 a33
Then arrange these number in rows and columns and first two rows again
write in
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 108
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
last
m1 l1
a11 a12 a13
m2 l2
a21 a22 a23
l3
m3
a31 a32 a33
a11 a12 a13
m1+ m2+ m3=M l1+ l2+ l3=L
a21 a22 a23
A M L
4.4 MINORS AND COFACTORS
Consider the determinant of 3 3 matrix (in general)
A= | |
Then if we leave the column and the row passing through the element ,
then the second order determinant is called minor of the element and it
is denoted by
For example: The minor of the element | |
The minor of the element | |= M 12
Cofactors: The minor multiplied by is called cofactor of the
element and it is denoted by
For example: - The cofactor of the element
The cofactor of the element
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 109
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
4.5 DEFINITION OF DETERMINANTS IN
TERMS OF COFACTOR
Let A be any n-row‟s square matrix then the determinants of A is the sum
of the product of the element of any column or any row with their
corresponding cofactor
n
i.e. A a
i 1 or j 1
ij Aij where, either i or j is fixed
Example:
1. If
| | ∑
2. Write the cofactors and minors of each element of the matrix
[ ]
Solution: The matrix of the element | |
The matrix of the element | |
The matrix of the element | |
The matrix of the element | |
The matrix of the element | |
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 110
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
The matrix of the element | |
The matrix of the element | |
The matrix of the element | |
The matrix of the element | |
The cofactor of the element
The cofactor of the element
The cofactor of the element
The cofactor of the element
The cofactor of the element
The cofactor of the element
The cofactor of the element
The cofactor of the element
The cofactor of the element
4.6 PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
Theorem 1: The value of determinant does not change when rows and
columns are interchange
Proof: Let A be any square matrix of order n
[ ]
Then
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 111
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
| | ∑
Let us take a matrix of order 3 for example
[ ]
| | | | | | | |
| | | | | |
[ ]
Hence the determinants of any matrix A and its transpose matrix are
equal.
Theorem 2: If any two columns or rows of a determinant are interchanged
then the values of determinant is negative multiple of determinant of
original matrix.
Proof: - Consider a matrix A of order 3
[ ]
| | | | | | | |
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 112
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Now interchanging any two rows or columns
a 21 a 22 a 23
Then new matrix A1 a11 a12 a13
a31 a32 a33
| |
[
]
[
]
So, A1 A
Note:
1. If any row or column in any matrix is multiplied by any scalar K
then determinant of the matrix is K times of the determinants of the
original matrix
For example: | | | |
2. If all the elements of matrix multiplied by constant K then
determinant is equal to time of the value of determinant of original
matrix, where n is order of matrix.
i.e. | | | |
3. If any two rows or columns are identical of any matrix then
determinant is zero.
Theorem 3: If in a determinant each element in any row or column
consists of the sum of two terms, then determinant can be written as sum
of two determinants
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 113
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Proof: Let [ ]
Expanding the determinant along the first column
| | | | | |
| |
| | | | | | | |
| | | |
| | | |
Theorem 4: If the element of any row or column added by K time the
corresponding element of any other row or column, then determinants of
the matrix are same
Proof: - [ ] and [ ]
Then | |
| | | |
| | | |
A KO [ If any two columns are identical then determinant
will be zero]
| |
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 114
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Example: If [ ] then show that
| |
Solution: | | [ ]
Applying then we get
[ ]
Expanding the determinant along the first column
| | | | | | | |
= (b a)(c 2 a 2 ) (b 2 a 2 )(c a) 0 0
{ }
(b a )(c a )(c b)
(a b)(b c)(c a)
4.7 VANDERMODE MATRIX
A matrix is at form
[ ]is called vandermode matrix
And its determinant
| | ∏ ( )
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 115
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Example 4: Find the determinant of
| |
Solution:
------
Where
( n 1))( n 2 )
1
Then n (1) 2
Example 5: Let A be a square matrix of order n, then show that
1. | ̅| ̅̅̅̅
| | 2. | | ̅̅̅̅
| |
Solution 1. let A aij nn
[ ] then A aij n n
So | ̅| |̅̅̅| |̅̅̅̅̅| ̅̅̅̅
| |
2. A be a square matrix of order n, and ̅̅̅̅
So | | |̅̅̅̅| |̅ | | ̅| ̅̅̅̅
| |
| | | | and | ̅| ̅̅̅̅
| |
Example 6: Show that the determinant of Hermitian matrix always a real
number
Solution: Let A be a Hermitian matrix
Then
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 116
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
| | | |
AT A
̅̅̅̅
| | | |
Let is the determinant of A
| |
̅̅̅̅
| |
But ̅̅̅̅
| | | |
| |
Example 7: Show that the determinant of Skew symmetric matrix of odd
order is zero.
Solution: Let A be a skew symmetric of odd order
| | | | | | | | | |
| |
| | | | | | | |
Since n is odd so
Now | | | |
| |
| |
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 117
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
4.8 PRODUCT OF THE TWO DETERMINANT OF
THE SAME ORDER
Example 8: If A and B are two square matrices of same order then prove
that
| | | || |
Solution: Let [ ] [ ]
[ ]
Now we know that
If | | | | | | | |
| || |
| |
Hence | | | || |
Rule: Let A and B are only two matrices of same order
Let | | | | and | | | |
then
| || |
| |
In general this is simply row by column multiplication
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 118
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Example 9: If A be a square matrix of order n then show that
| | | |
Solution: Let A and B are two square matrices of order n
Then we know that | | | || |
If we replace B with A then
| | | || |
| | | |
In similar way | | | |
Example 10: Show that the determinant of an idempotent matrix is either
0 or 1
Solution: Let A is an idempotent matrix, then
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
Note: It is necessary condition the determinant of idempotent matrix is 0
or 1 but not sufficient.
For Example: If * + Then | |
Example 11: Show that the determinant of orthogonal matrix is either 1 or
-1
Solution: Let A is an orthogonal matrix, then
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 119
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
| | ||
| || |
| || | | | | |
| | ||
| |
Note: Determinant of a diagonal matrix, upper triangular matrix, lower
triangular matrix is the product of principal diagonal elements.
Example 12: If [ ] Then | |
Solution: [ ]is upper triangular matrix so its determinant
values are the product of principal diagonal matrix
Hence | |
Example 13: Show that the value of determinant of skew Hermitian
matrix of order n, is either 0 (zero) or purely imaginary if n is odd and
real, if n is even.
Solution: Let A be a skew Hermitian matrix and
| |
(By definition of skew Hermitian matrix)
| | | |
|̅̅̅̅| | |
̅̅̅̅
| | | |
Case 1: If n is even then,
̅̅̅̅
| | | | | |
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 120
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
| |
Case 2: If n is odd then,
A A x iy ( x iy ) 2 x 0 x 0
̅̅̅̅
| | | |
| | If then | |
If then | | is purely imaginary.
4.9 NON SINGULAR MATRIX AND SINGULAR
MATRIX
Non- Singular Matrix: A matrix „A‟ is said to be non-singular matrix if
its determinant is non zero.
Singular Matrix: A matrix „A‟ is said to be singular matrix if its
determinant is zero.
4.10 LINEAR EQUATION (HOMOGENEOUS AND
NON-HOMOGENOUS EQUATION)
Linear homogenous equation: The equation is of the form
is called linear homogenous equation in x, y, z.
Linear non-homogenous equation: The equation is of the form
is called non-homogenous equation in x, y, z.
4.11 SYSTEM OF NON-HOMOGENOUS LINEAR
EQUATION (CRAMER’S RULE)
If we have n linear simultaneous equation in n variable ,
i.e.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 121
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Let | |
Suppose is the cofactor of element in then multiplying this given
equation by , and adding
where, is the determinant obtained by replacing first column
element of by then
Again multiplying these equations by and adding then we
get
Where is determinant obtained by replacing second column element of
by
In similar way, we get
This method of solving n simulations linear non-homogenous equation
provided | | where A is the coefficient matrix. This method is known
as Cramer‟s rule
Example 14: Solve the following system at equation by Cramer‟s rule
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 122
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Solution: The coefficient matrix of given system at non-homogenous
linear equation is
[ ] [ ]
| | | | | | | |
Therefore the system of non-homogenous linear has unique solution
Now using Cramer‟s rule
[ ] [ ]
[ ]
Hence the solution is
4.12 ADJOINT OF A SQUARE MATRIX
Let [ ] be a square matrix of order n then the transpose of a
matrix B=[ ] where is the cofactor of the element called
Adjoint of matrix A and it is denoted by AdjA or adjA.
a11 ... a1n
If A ... ... ...
a n1 ... a nn nn
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 123
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
A11 ... A1n
Then the cofactor matrix C ... ... ...
An1 ... Ann nn
Then adjA= transpose of the matrix C
A11 ... A1n
adjA= C ... ... ...
An1 ... Ann nn
Example 17: Find the adjoint of the matrix
[ ]
Solution: Let us find the cofactor etc at the element of | |
we have
1 2
A11 5 , | | | |
3 1
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
Therefore the matrix C formed at the cofactor of the element of | | is
5 1 3
C 3 1 1
1 1 1
Now adjA is the transpose of the matrix C.
adjA= 3
Example 18: Prove that at the values of given determinant
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 124
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
| |
Solution: We have | |
Applying R2 R2 R1 and R3 R3 R1
| | or | | by
1 1
R2 R2 , R3 R3
2 6
Solving the determinant along the first row then we get
Put then the value of determinant
= 6(4-2) - 4(8-3) + (3.4 - 4)
= 6.2 - 4(5) + 8
=12 - 20 + 8
=0
Example 19: If | |
Solution: We have | | | | | |
(By theorem (properties of determinants))
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 125
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
=| | | |
(By taking common from first row, second row and third row of
the second determinant)
=| | | |
(By then of the first determinant so determinant is
unchanged)
| |
By vandermode matrix the value of above determinant is
but
So
So if | | then must be zero.
Hence
Example 20: Prove that if and | |
Solution: We have | |
Multiplying by in first, second and third column of the determinant
from left side respectively then we get
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 126
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
| |
Taking xyz common from row at the above determinant
| | after that
Then determinant is time the original determinant.
| | ( C2 C2 C1 , C3 C3 C1 )
| |
Expanding along first row
| |
| |
Taking is common from first and second column
{ }
( y x)( z x)( z y)( yz 2 xz 2 zy 2 xy 2 ) 0
But because all are distinct, so
= 0.
Example 21: Solve the following system of linear equation by Cramer‟s
rule
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 127
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Solution: We have | |
Thus and therefore the system has a unique solution given by
| | | | | |
Hence
4.13 USEFUL METHOD FOR FINDING THE
VALUE OF DETERMINANT OF ORDER 4 OR
MORE
Let A be any non zero square matrix of order n A aij nn
with
Step 1: Choose an element in A such that a ij =1 or if nonexistent,
Step 2: Using as a swivel, apply elementary row or column operations
to put 0‟s in all the other positions in the column or row containing
i.e. if we apply row operation then to put 0 in all the other position in the
column and similar for column operation
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 128
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Step 3: Expand the determinant by the column or row (according to our
selection of operation) containing
Example 22: Find the determinant of a matrix A of order 4 4
| | | |
Solution:| | | |
Step 1: Choose an element because
Step 2: Apply row operation and put 0‟s in all the other positions in third
column
Apply R1 R1 2R2 and R3 R3 3R2 and R4 R4 R2
| | | |
Step 3: Now expanding the determinant by the third column
| | | |
4.14 DETERMINANTS AND VOLUME:
Let A is any square matrix
| |
Let
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 129
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Then the determinant are related to the notions of area and volume
Let U be the parallelepiped determined by
{ }
When then U is parallelogram
Let V denote the volume of U then
Absolute volume of determinant of A
Example 23: Let
Then find the volume of the parallelepiped in three dimension space
Solution:
So the volume is the absolute volume of
| | | |
Hence volume | |
Example 24: Find the value of | | where
| | Where w is the cube root of unity.
Solution: Cube root of unity in complex number system is solution of the
equation , then the values of z satisfied the above equation is
called cube root of unity.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 130
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Now
So
So
⁄
( )
[cos i sin e i , (cos i sin ) n e in or e in cos n i sin n ]
Put
2 2
k 1 then z cos i sin
3 3
k 2 then z cos
2
2
i sin
2
2
2
3 3
Hence cube root of unity are and 2 .
And also 1 2 0
Now the given determinant applying c1 c1 c2 c3
Then we get
1 2 2 0 2
A 1 2 2 1 or A 0 2 1
1 2 1 0 1
| |
Example 25: Evaluate | |
Solution: Let us denote the given determinant by
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 131
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
| |
Applying row transformation by using R2 R2 R1 and R3 R3 R1
Then we get
| |
Taking are common from first, second, third columns respectively
Then we get
| |
Now applying R2 R2 R1 and R3 R3 R1
Then | |
Taking common from first, second and third row respectively
Then | |
Expanding along first row
4.15 SUMMARY
In this unit we learned to find the value of determinant of any matrix,
which will help us in solving the linear equation, it will also be helpful to
understand the concept of eigen value and rank of matrix.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 132
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
4.16 GLOSSARY
1. Identical row or column: Any two row or column are same
2. Parallelepiped: A solid body of which each face is a
parallelogram,
3. Absolute: Free from imperfection.
4.17 SELF ASSESMENT QUESTIONS
2.17.1 Multiple choice question:
1. The values of where | |
(a) l.m (b) l.t
(c) l.m.n.p (d) l.t.v.s
2. The value of t show that | |
(a) 3, 10 (b) 5, 7
(c) 8, 9 (d) 1, 2
3. If ( ) such that and if otherwise
zero then det of A is
(a) 3 (b) 9
(c) (d) 27
4. Determinant of Nilpotent matrix will be
(a) A prime number (b) Multiple of
2
(c) Always 1 (d) None
5. Determinant of Skew symmetric matrix of order 3 is
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 133
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
(a) 3 (b) 5
(c) 1 (d) 0
6. If A is any non singular square matrix f order 3, then determinant
of is
(a) | | (b) | |
(c) | | (d) None
7. If [ ] then cofactor of element is
(a) | | (b) | |
(c) | | (d) None
8. If A is any Square matrix of order n and determinant of is
(a) 1 (b) 0
(c) 4 (d) None
9. If [ ] then determinant of A is
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
10. If | | then the value of U
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
ANSWERS:
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 134
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (d)
6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (a)
4.17.2 Fill in the blanks:
Fill in the blanks „…….‟ So that the following statements are complete
and correct
1. A is square matrix of order n and | |
2. The value of determinant …………. When rows and columns are
interchanged
3. | | then is……….and are…………
4. If A and B be two Square matrix of same order then | |
5. Determinant of hermition matrix is always………….
6. If
7. A is idempotent matrix of order n and its determinant is
……..or…….
8. If A is non zero and| | | | is also……
ANSWERS:
1. ̅̅̅̅
| | 2. Does not 3. Non zero, 4. | | | |
change distinct
5. Real 6. 3, 1 7. 1, 0 8. Non zero
4.18 REFERENCES
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 135
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
1. Linear Algebra, [Link] & Vikas Bist :Narosa publishing
House
2. Matrices .[Link] &[Link] :Krishna Parakashan
Media
3. Schaum‟s out line ( Linear Algebra)
4.19 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Matrices .[Link] &[Link] :Krishna Parakashan
Media
2. Schaum‟s out line ( Linear Algebra)
4.20 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
4.20.1 Short answer type questions:
1. Show that if | | then determinant of
A is
2. Evaluate | |
3. Show that | |
4. Show that | | | | where n is a order of matrix A
5. Evaluate | |
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 136
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
6. Evaluate | |
7. If | | and | | then show that
ANWERS:2. 0
4.20.2 Long answer type questions:
1. Show that at least one real number , show that is zero where
( )
2. Solve the following system of linear equation by Cramer‟s rule
3. Solve the following system of linear equation by Cramer‟s rule
4. Solve the following system of linear equation by Cramer‟s rule
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 137
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
5. Find the adjoint of the matrix [ ]
6. Show that the determinant of any matrix A, whose first row is the
sum of other row is zero.
7. Show that | |
8. Prove that | | (
ANSWERS:
2. 3.
4. ⁄
5. [ ]
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 138
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
UNIT 5: APPLICATION OF MATRICES
CONTENTS:
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Rank of matrix
5.4 Elementary transformation
5.5 Echelon form of a matrix
5.6 Reduction to normal form
5.7 Vector space of n-tuples
5.8 System of linear equation
5.9 Summary
5.10 Glossary
5.11 Self assessment questions
5.11.1 Multiple choice question
5.11.2 Fill in the blanks
5.12 Reference
5.13 Suggested readings
5.14 Self assesment questions
5.14.1 Short answer type questions
5.14.2 Long answer type questions
5.2 INTRODUCTION
System of linear Equations (Homogeneous and Non
Homogeneous) plays a very important role in subject of mathematics.
Many problems in mathematics reduce to finding the solution of linear
Equation, all our system of linear Equation involve scalar may come from
the number system
In this unit we will focus on the solution of system of linear
equation, but the rank of matrix plays an important role to solve system of
linear equation. So first of all we will discuss Rank of matrix.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 139
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
5.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to
Understand rank of a matrix.
Use elementary transformation of matrices.
Transform of matrix in Echelon form.
Reduce a matrix in normal form.
Understand linear dependence and linear independence of vectors.
Solve homogenous linear equations.
Solve non homogeneous linear equation.
5.3 RANK OF A MATRIX
If A is any arbitrary matrix of order m n then the determinant of
Square sub matrix of the matrix is known as a minor of the matrix A, if the
Sub matrix of order k is taken then its determinant is known as k-rowed
minor of a matrix of order m n , and the number of different option we
have
And rank of A is non-negative integer r if there exist at least one non
singular sub matrix of the given matrix of order r and all the (r + 1) rowed
minor are Zero “0”.
i.e. the rank of matrix is the order of highest order non singular Sub square
matrix of the given matrix, and Rank of A is denoted by ( A)
Note: (1) A is any matrix of order m n then the Rank of A is less than or
equal to minimum of m and n i.e. if A aij mn then ( A) min{ m, n}
(2) Rank of every non singular matrix of order n is equal to n, because
every matrix is itself a sub matrix of given matrix that is
If A aij mn
and det( A) 0 then ( A) n
(3) If A is Singular matrix then Rank of A is less than order of matrix A
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 140
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
i.e., if A aij nn and det( A) 0 then ( A) n
(4) If A is Null matrix then Rank of A is Zero.
Example 1: Find the Rank of matrix [ ]
Solution: [ ]
Highest possible order of Sub matrix is 3 and total number of sub matrix
of order 3 is . So it is A itself
Now | |
So Rank of A is not equal to 3
Now again total number of sub matrices of order 2 is
But we have a sub matrix of order 2 whose determinant is non zero
| |
So Rank of
2 1
Example 2: Find the Rank of matrix A 1 2 where is cube
1 2
root of unity
2
1
Solution: A 1 2
1 2
We have A 1( 2 3 ) ( 3 2 ) 2 ( 2 1)
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 141
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
2 3 4 3 4 2
=0 [ 3 1, 4 ]
1
But there is at least one minor of order 2 of the matrix A namely
1
which is not equal to zero
Hence Rank of A is 2
5.4 ELEMENTARY TRANSFORMATION
The transformation over a matrix which does not affect rank of a matrix is
called elementary transformation over the matrix. There are 3 elementary
row transformation and corresponding 3 elementary column
transformation.
If we denote row by and column by
Then elementary row transformations are
(1) Ri R j (The interchanging of any two rows)
(2) Ri Ri kR j where k is non zero constant
(3) Ri kRi where k is non zero constant
And elementary columns transformations are
(1) Ci C j
(2) C i C i kC j
(3) Ci kCi where k is any non zero constant
Elementary Matrix: A matrix obtained by performing a single
elementary transformation over identity matrix is called elementary
matrix.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 142
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
If [ ] interchange second and third row we get an Identity
matrix
So A is an example of elementary matrix.
5.5 ECHELON FORM OF A MATRIX
If A is any matrix then by applying elementary row transformation over
the matrix in such a way
(1) All zero row of the matrix are at the bottom
(2) Leading non- zero element in each row is 1
(3) Numbers of zero before first non-zero element in successive row is
more
Some authors do not require (2) condition
Note: (1) The Rank of matrix is equal to the Rank of matrix in Echelon
form.
(2) Total number of non-zero rows and total number of non-zero columns
decide the Rank of matrix in Echelon form
( A) min{ non zero rows, non zero columns}
Example 3: Find the Rank of matrix [ ]
Solution: Let [ ]
Applying R2 R2 4R1
R3 R3 5R1
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 143
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
1 2 3
A ~ 0 7 10
0 7 10
1 2 3
A ~ 0 7 10 by R3 R3 R2
0 0 0
Now E-transformation do not change the Rank of matrix and we
see that 2 2 sub matrix * + is non singular, therefore the rank of
this Echelon matrix is hence rank of A is .
In other words total number of non zero rows in Echelon matrix is
and total number of non zero columns is 3.
So { }
Example 4: Find the Rank of matrix [ ]
Solution: Given matrix
Performing the elementary operations
R2 R2 R1
R3 R3 2R1
R4 R4 3R1
[ ]
Again performing the operation R4 R4 R2
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 144
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
[ ]
The last equivalent matrix is in Echelon form and number of Non Zero
rows in this matrix is 3 and number of Non Zero columns in this matrix is
4.
So { }
Hence
Row Rank: If we apply elementary row transformation only on A, where
A is a matrix of order n n ,then maximum number of Non zero row r
which can be always obtain or number of linearly independent row is
called row rank of the matrix, and number of dependent row in the
matrix A is called row Nullity, and sum of row rank and row nullity is
equal to total number of rows in given matrix.
Column Rank: Number of independent columns in matrix is known as
column rank of the matrix and total number of dependent column are
known as column Nullity of matrix and sum of column rank and column
nullity is equal to total number of column in the matrix.
Example 5: Find the possible values of row rank, column rank, row
nullity and column nullity of the matrix
[ ]
Solution: The given matrix is already Echelon form, hence
Row rank is 3
So row nullity is equal to
Since there are 3 linearly independent columns so column rank is 3 and
column nullity is
Example 6: Find the row rank, column nullity, column rank and row
nullity of the matrix
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 145
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
[ ]
Solution: [ ]
Since
So is linearly dependent row and other rows are linearly independent,
Hence row rank is
And row nullity is
Similarly column rank is 2
And column nullity is
5.6. REDUCTION TO NORMAL FORM
Every matrix of order m n of rank can be reduced to normal form
( ) by finite elementary transformation, where is the unit matrix of
order
Proof: Let A aij
mn
matrix with rank then two cases are possible
0 0 ... 0
0 0 ... 0
Case 1. If A is Null matrix then A is of the form A so
0 0 0 mn
Rank of A is
Then we have nothing to prove.
Case 2. If A is not Null matrix so at least one element in A is non-zero.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 146
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Interchanging the row with first row and jth column with first column.
Then we obtain another matrix B, whose leading element is non zero
let a ij a ( a 0 )
1
Then multiplying by in first row of matrix B.
a
1 b b b
bij [1, 12 , 13 ,..., 1n ]
a a a a
1
Let C be any matrix whose first row is b1 so
a
bij
[ ] C ij
a
Now applying row and column transformation by suitable multipliers and
subtracting by suitable rows and column such that which all element of
first row and first column is zero except the leading element so new matrix
D is of the form
[ ]
Where T is a matrix of order (m 1) (n 1)
If T is Non-zero matrix then again apply the same process and if T is null
matrix then we get a required result.
If rank of then continuing this process we shall finally obtain a
matrix is of the form
* +
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 147
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Hence every matrix of order m n of rank r can be reduced into Normal
form
Example 7: If [ ] find the rank of matrix and reduce to
normal form
Solution: [ ]
Using R2 R2 R1 and R3 R3 2R1
[ ]
Again R3 R3 R2
[ ]
Now using Column transformation
C2 C2 C1 and C3 C3 2C1
1 0 0
A ~ 0 3 3
0 0 0
C3 C3 C 2
1 0 0
A ~ 0 3 0
0 0 0
C2
Now C 2
3
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 148
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
[ ] * +
Hence Rank of A is 2.
Theorem 1: The rank of a product of two matrices cannot exceed the rank
of matrix.
Proof: let A and B be two matrix of order m n and n p respectively
Let and be the rank of A and B respectively and let r be the Rank of
Then to prove
Since A aij mn
and Rank (A) = r1
I 0
A ~ r1
0
So
0
I r 0
B bij n p and Rank (B) = r2 so B ~ 2
0 0
Let AB Cij m p
I r1 0 I r2 0
AB
0 0 0
0
I r 0
Since matrix 1 non-zero rows and p r2 zero column
0
has only
0
So AB cannot have more than non-zero row
So
So
Again since
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 149
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Rank (AB) Rank of BT = Rank of B i.e. Rank (AB) r2
Hence Rank (AB) r1 and Rank (AB) r2
5.7 VECTOR SPACE OF N-TUPLES
Any ordered n-tuple of number is called vector of n-tuples. For example
be any n-number then the ordered n-tuple is
called a vector of n tuples.
(1) Equality of two Vectors:Let S (s1 , s 2 ,..., sn ) and
T (t1 , t 2 ,..., t m ) are said to be equal if and only if and
For example if { } { } l
X (1, 2, 4) and Y (1, 2, 4) then X and Y are equal vector.
(2) Addition and Subtraction of two vectors: If
{ } { }
Then S T (s1 t1 , s 2 t 2 ,..., s n t n )
For example S (1, 2, 3) and T (2, 3, 4)
Then S T (1 2, 2 3, 3 4) (3, 5, 7)
(3) Multiplication of a Vector by any Scalar:If K be any
scalar and S (s1 , s 2 ,..., sn ) be
n-vector then KS ( Ks1 , Ks2 ,..., Ksn )
(4) Linear dependence and linear independence of
vectors:
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 150
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
(i) Linearly dependent set of vectors:
Definition: Let { }be any set of vector and are
any scalar and if are non zero then
we can say X is linearly dependent set of vector.
For example: -
Let { }
Then
Where
Since all are non zero so X is the set of linearly dependent vectors.
(ii) Linearly independent set of vectors:
Definition: Let { } be the set of n vector is said to be
linearly independent
If where are Scalar then
For example:
{ }
Let are Scalar and
Hence X is linearly independent set of vectors.
Example 8: Show that the set containing a zero vector is linearly
dependent.
Solution: Let S {x1 , x2 ,..., xn } be an n-vector whose term is zero.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 151
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Let are any Scalar and c1 x1 c2 x2 ... cn xn 0 for any
value of
So is not necessarily zero
Hence a set containing zero vector is linearly dependent.
5.8 SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATION
There are two types of linear equations. One is Homogeneous linear
equation and other is Non Homogeneous linear Equation, we shall first
discuss the Homogeneous system of equation and its solution.
(1) Homogeneous linear equation: A linear equation in
unknowns is an equation that can be put in the
standard form
A system of linear Homogeneous Equation is a list of linear equation with
same unknown. Put into standard form
}…………… (1)
The coefficient matrix is
a11 a2 ... a1n
a a 22 ... a 2 n
A 21
a m1 am2 ... a mn mn
And the vector of unknowns is [ ]
[ ]
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 152
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Where A, X, O are m n, n 1, m 1 matrices respectively. So the general
form of system of Homogeneous equation is
Since if then are the
solution of Equation (1) and it is called trivial solution.
If and are two solutions of equation (1) then their linear
combination
is also solution of equation (1) where are any
arbitrary constant
We have
Put then
Hence is also a solution of equation (1)
Some important conclusion about the behavior of the solution of System
of Homogeneous linear Equation
Let }…………… (1)
Are the systems of Homogeneous Equation, where the coefficient matrix
is:
a11 a2 ... a1n
a a 22 ... a 2 n
A 21
a m1 am2 ... a mn mn
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 153
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
And [ ]
Since Rank of A is less than or equal to minimum of m and n
i.e. ( A) min{ m, n}
Let rank of then two possibilities are there either
Case 1: If then number of linearly independent solution is
So in this case only Zero solution is a solution of equation (1)
i.e.
Case 2: If
Then linearly independent solution and the linear combination of
any two solution is again a solution, so in this case Equation (1) has
infinite many solutions.
System of Homogeneous linear Equation
Infinite Solution Unique Solution
If If
Rank of A Number of Rank of A Number of
Unknowns Unknowns
Example 9: Solve the following System of Equation
ffhh
Solution: The given System of Equation can be written in the general
form
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 154
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Where [ ] [ ]
Now we are interested to find out the Rank of matrix
[ ]
Applying R2 R2 R1
R3 R3 R1
Then [ ]
Again R3 R3 R2
[ ]
Above is the Echelon form of the coefficient matrix A, we have rank of A
is equal to minimum of number of non zero row and column.
So Rank of A is 3 and it is equal to Number of unknown
Hence, there is only one solution.
, which is trivial
solution.
Example 10: Solve completely the System of Equation
Solution: The given System of Equation can be written as the general
form
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 155
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Where [ ] [ ] [ ]
We shall reduce the matrix A into Echelon form by using Elementary row
transformation
Now using R2 R2 R1
R3 R3 3R1
We have reduced into
[ ][ ] [ ]
Performing R3 R3 R2 , we have
[ ][ ] [ ]
The coefficient matrix being of rank 2, which is less than number of
unknowns. Hence the given System of linear Equation has infinite solution
And solution is
Thus
Hence where c is any arbitrary constant.
Example 11: Solve the System of linear Equation
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 156
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Solution: The System of linear Equation can be written as where
[ ] [ ] [ ]
We shall interested first to find the Rank of Coefficient matrix A, by using
E-row transformation
R2 R2 R1
R3 R2 2R1
R4 R4 2R1
We have [ ]
Again R3 R3 R2
R4 R4 R2
[ ]
Above is the Echelon form of the Coefficient matrix A, we have Rank f A
is 2 which is less than Number of unknown. Hence given System is of
Equation has infinite many solutions.
Therefore,
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 157
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
[ ][ ] [ ]
x y z 0 and y 0
Put
Hence solution is
Example 12: Find the solution of System of linear Equation
Solution: The given System of Equation can be written as where
[ ], [ ] [ ]
Now first to find out the rank of matrix by using elementary row
transformation.
Applying
[ ]
Again by R2 R2 2R1
R3 R3 2R1
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 158
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
R4 R4 3R1 3
1 3 13 3
0 3 24 9
Then A~
2 5 40 15
0 5 40 15
1 1 1
Again R2 R1 , R3 R3 , R4 R4
3 5 5
Then [ ]
Again
Then [ ]
In the above Echelon form of the coefficient matrix, we have rank of A is
2 which is less than number of unknowns, hence the given system of
equation has infinite solution. And the solution is:
}………….. (1)
Solve the equation (1) by second equation,
Put
From first Equation of (1)
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 159
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
( )
Hence solution is
Where are any arbitrary constant.
Note:The System of Equation AX O where A is coefficient matrix, If
A is square matrix of order „n‟ then the solution of AX O depend on the
determinant of A. If determinant of A is zero then AX O has infinite
solutions and if determinant of A is non zero then AX O has trivial
solution (Zero solution).
Example 13: Find the condition of two equations:
has infinite solution or zero solution.
Solution: Given equations are
The system of linear homogeneous equations can be written as AX O
Where * + [ ] * +
Since A is Square matrix of order 2, so its values of determinant decide
the solution of system of given linear Equation
a b
A a.d b.c
c d
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 160
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
So if then the solution of System of linear Equation is
infinite, and if then the solution of system of linear equation
is unique (zero) solution,
(ii) System of linear Non Homogeneous Equation:A system
of linear equation is a list of linear equations of the form:
…. ….
These equation are non homogeneous equations if all coefficients on the
right hand side are not zero
i.e. bi 0 at least for one i.
(a) Linear Homogeneous equation in one unknown: Consider the
equation then
(1) If is a unique solution of
(2) If has no solution.
(3) If has infinite solution because
(b) Linear Homogeneous equation in two unknown: Consider a
System of two equations in two unknown x and y
where a, b, c, d are Non Zero, then we are interested to discuss following
three cases:
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 161
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
(1)
Case 1: If
Hence two lines intersect in one pair so the system of linear Equation has
unique solution
O X
L1
Unique Solution
a b c1
Case 2: If then two lines are parallel and not intersect in XY
c d c2
plane, so in this System of equation has no solution
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 162
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
O X
No Solution
a b c1
Case 3: If in this case two lines
c d c2
are coincide; hence we get a infinite solutions.
O X
Infinite Solution
(iii) Linear Homogeneous Equation in n-unknowns:Consider
the system of Equations:
…. ….
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 163
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Be a System of Non Homogeneous equation into n-unknown
The general form of the above equation is where
[ ], [ ] [ ]
Where A is called Coefficient matrix and
[ ] [ ] is called the augmented matrix
Theorem: The system of Non Homogeneous linear Equation has
solution if and only if the Rank of Coefficient matrix and augmented
matrix are same.
Proof: Let
…. ….
Be a System of Non Homogeneous Equation in n-unknowns
Let are the column vectors of the coefficient matrix A. Then
is equivalent to
x1 b1
x b
c1 , c2 ,..., cn 2 2 B
x3 b3
x 4 b4
i.e. ………………………… (1)
Let Rank of A r1 and rank of A B r2 . Since Rank of so
column are linearly independent and column are linear
combination of these columns. So, we can suppose without loss of
generality first columns are linearly independent.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 164
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
The condition of Necessary: If the system of equation has solution then
there must exist
n-scalar such that
………………. (2)
Since is a linear combination of first column vectors
from (2) B is also a linear combination of first columns.
So augmented matrix [ ] has column which are linearly
dependent, but Rank of [ ] so the augmented matrix has
linearly independent column, but B is linear combination of first
column
Hence Rank [ ] must be equal to i. e. Rank [ ]
[ ]
The condition of Sufficient: Let matrix A and augmented matrix [ ]
have same rank then maximum number of independent column of matrix
[ ] is equal to its rank say r
Therefore the column B should be also expressed as the linear
combination of the first r-column of matrix[ ] already from a linearly
independent set.
Thus there exist r scalar such that
………………. (3)
Or
…………………. (4)
From Equation (1) and (4)
….
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 165
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Hence has a solution.
System of Non Homogeneous linear equation
Rank A Rank [ ] Rank A Rank [ ]
Inconsistence Consistence
(No Solution) (There exist solution)
Rank A Rank [A: B] = Rank A Rank [ ]
ffhh
Number of unknown
Infinite many Solutions
Unique Non Zero
Solution
Example 14: Solve the Equation
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 166
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Solution: This given System of Non Homogeneous linear Equation can be
written as
Where [ ] [ ] [ ]
The augmented matrix [ ] [ ]
Now reduce the augmented matrix into Echelon form by applying E – row
transformation using
R2 R2 2R1
R3 R3 3R1
We have [ ] [ ]
Again using R3 R3 3R2
1 1 1 1
[ A : B] ~ 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 1
Above is the Echelon form of the matrix [ ] and rank of [ ] is 3
but Rank A is 2
Since Rank A Rank [ A : B] , therefore the given Equations are
inconsistence i.e. the given system of Equation has no solution.
Example 15: Solve the System of linear equation
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 167
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Solution: The given System of equation can be written as single matrix
equation
Where [ ] [ ] [ ]
The augmented matrix [ ] [ ]
Now reduce the augmented matrix into Echelon form by applying E-row
transformation only
R2 R2 R1
R3 R3 2R1
We have [ ] [ ]
Again applying R3 R3 R2
[ ] [ ]
Above augmented matrix [ ] is the Echelon form,
so Rank of
[ ]
by the same elementary E-row transformation we get
[ ]
Rank of
so, rank of A = 3
Here the number of unknowns is also 3 which is x, y, z
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 168
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Since Rank A Rank A : B Number of unknowns
Therefore the given Equations are consistence and have unique solution.
We see that the given System of Equation is equivalent to the matrix form
[ ][ ] [ ]
So the System of Equation which is Equivalent to matrix equation
y 2z 0
Hence are the solution of given system of
equation.
Example 16: Show that the Equation
are consistent and find the solution.
Solution: The given System of Equation can be written as
Where [ ] [ ] [ ]
The augmented matrix [ ] [ ]
Now reduce the augmented matrix into Echelon form by applying E-row
transformation only
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 169
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
applying
[ ] [ ]
Again applying R2 R2 2R1
R3 R3 3R1
Then [ ] [ ]
1 1 1 2
A : B ~ 0 1 1 3 by R3 R3 2R2
0 0 0 0
Above augmented matrix [ ] is in the Echelon form.
So [ ] total numbers of Non Zero rows in Echelon form
1 1 1
By same E – row transformation in A then we get A ~ 0 1 1
0 0 0
So total numbers of non zero rows in Echelon form A
Since [ ] therefore the given equation are consistent.
Since number of unknowns in given System of Equation is 3 which is
greater than Rank A, therefore the given System of Equation will have
infinite many solutions.
The matrix equation of given System of Equation is:
1 1 1 x 2
0 1 1 y 3
0 0 0 z 0
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 170
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
This matrix is equivalent to
Taking then we get
Hence the solution of the given System of Equation is:
Example 17: If A be a m n matrix of rank n with real entries then show
that if System has solution then it is unique.
Solution: Let has solution then it is possible only if Rank of A is
equal to rank of augmented matrix [ ]
We know that if A aij mn
then
Rank of { } and given Rank of A is equal to n so m must be
greater than n
Since [ ]
So solution is unique.
Example 18: Investigate for what condition of and µ the given System of
equation
2 x 2 y z
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 171
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
(1) No solution (2) An infinite solution (3) Unique solution
Solution: The matrix form of given System of linear Equation is
Where [ ] [ ] [ ]
The augmented matrix [ ] [ ]
We shall first to reduce the matrix [ ]into Echelon form by applying
elementary transformation only
applying R2 R2 R1
R3 R3 2R1
[ ] [ ]
Above is the Echelon form of the augmented matrix [ ]
Case 1: If 4 then Rank of [A:B] = Number of unknowns = 3= Rank A
So in this case the given System of Equation has unique solution.
Case 2: If
[ ]
So in this case System of Equation is Inconsistent hence no solution
Case 3: If
[ ]
Hence in this case System of equation have infinite solution.
3.9 SUMMARY
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 172
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
In this unit we learned to how to find rank of any matrix, after that we
learned to solve the linear equation with the help of rank of matrix, in
further classes we will be able to understand linearly dependent and
independent sets and solutions very well with the help of rank of matrix
3.10 GLOSSARY
1. Inconsistent solution:If a system has no solution
2. Augmented matrix: A matrix obtained by appending the columns
of given marix
3. Unknown: An unknown is variable in an equation which has to
solved for
3.11 SELF ASSESMENT QUESTIONS
3.11.1 Multiple choice questions:
1. The Rank of Null matrix of order n is
(a) 1 (b) 0
(c) (d) n
2. Which of the following matrix is elementary?
(a) [ ] (b) [ ]
(c ) [ ] (d) none of these
3. The rank of matrix [ ] is
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 0 (d) 3
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 173
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
4. If A is an Square matrix of order and Rank then Rank of
is
(a) 0 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5
5. If the Nullity of the matrix [ ] is then the value of
is
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) (d) 2
6. Let ( ) be a matrix such that then
Nullity of A is
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) (d) n
7. If then the System f Equation has unique
solution if
(a) (b) For all a but
(c) For all a and b (d) Always unique
solution
8. Let A be a matrix of rank n with real entries, choose the
correct statement
(a) (b) does not have a
solution
(c) If has a solution then it is unique (d) None of these
9. Let A and B are two matrix such that
identity matrix then
(a) (b) has
always zero solution
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 174
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
(c) Rank of (d) Rank of
10. Which of the following matrix has same row space at( )
(a) ( ) (b) ( )
( c) ( ) (d) ( )
ANSWERS:
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (c)
6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9.(a) 10. (a)
3.11.2 Fill in the Blanks:
1. No Skew Symmetric matrix of Rank …………..
2. …………
3. A is invertible idempotent matrix then Rank of A ………..
4. If A is any matrix of order and has
………. solution
5. If A is any invertible matrix of order n then has …………
solution
ANSWERS:
1. 1 2. Rank [Link] of matrix [Link] [Link]
3.12 REFERENCE
1. Linear Algebra, [Link] & Vikas Bist :Narosa publishing
House
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 175
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
2. Matrices .[Link] &[Link] :Krishna Parakashan
Media
3. Schaum‟s out line ( Linear Algebra)
3.13 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Matrices .[Link] &[Link] :Krishna Parakashan
Media
2. Schaum‟s out line ( Linear Algebra)
3.14 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
3.14.1 Short answer type questions:
1. Find the values of , the Equation
has unique solution
2. Show that the Equations
are not consistent
ANSWERS:[Link] values of such that the system of equation has unique
solution
3.14.1 Long answer type questions:
1. Find the Rank of matrix [ ]
2. Find the Rank of matrix [ ]
3. Examine if the System of Equations
is consistent?
Find the solution if it is consistent
ANSWERS: 3. 4. 3
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 176
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
UNIT 6: EIGEN VALUES AND EIGEN
VECTORS
CONTENTS:
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Spectrum of any matrix
6.4 Algebraic and Geometric multiplicity of Eigen root
6.5 The Cayley-Hamilton theorem
6.6 Characteristic polynomial of degree 2 and 3
6.7 Summary
6.8 Glossary
6.9 Self assessment questions
6.9.1 Multiple choice questions
6.9.2 Fill in the blanks
6.9.3 True and False
6.10 Reference
6.11 Suggested readings
6.12 Terminal questions
6.12.1 Short answer type questions
6.12.2 Long answer type question
6.1 INTRODUCTION
If A is Square matrix then we are interested to find out a non zero vector X
such that then is called eigenvalues of A corresponding
eigenvector X
Let [ ] and [ ]
Where X is non zero vector and
i.e.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 177
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Is the form of Homogenous System of equation and has non zero solution
if,
Rank
It is possible only when | |
| | is called characteristic equation of matrix A in variable ,
there roots or zeros or solutions of characteristic equation are called Eigen
values or Latent roots.
6.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
Find eigenvalues of a square matrix
Find eigenvector of a square matrix
Understand algebraic and geometric multiplicity of eigen root
(values)
Understand various properties of eigenvalues and eigen vectors
Know about Cayley Hamilton theorem and verify it.
6.3 SPECTRUM OF ANY MATRIX
A is any matrix of order n, then spectrum of A is the set of all eigen values
of A.
Example 1: Determine the eigen value of matrix [ ]
Solution: Let is eigen value of matrix A, then the characteristic equation
of A is | | | | [ ]
| | | | | |
( )
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 178
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
The root of | |
3 6 4 0 or 3 6 4 0
( ) √ √
Hence the Eigen values of the matrix A are
√ √
Theorem 1: Let X is a eigen vector of A, then X can‟t corresponding to
more than one eigen values of A.
Proof: Let X be an eigen vector of A, corresponding two eigen values are
Then ………………….. (1)
………………….. (2)
From (1) and (2)
But X is non zero vector
So
Hence cannot corresponding to more than one eigen value of A
Theorem 2: If X is eigen vector of a matrix A corresponding to the eigen
value , then is also an eigen vector of A corresponding to the same
eigen values where K is any non zero scalar
Proof: Let is eigen vector of a matrix A corresponding eigen values
Then
Since K is any non zero scalar
So,
Hence is also eigen vector of A corresponding same eigen value .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 179
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Note: [ ]
Then [ ]+ polynomial over
n 2
a33 a3n
Then ( A I ) ( a )( a ) + polynomial
11 22
an3 an4 a nn
over n 2
(1) n n (1) n 1 n 1 (a11 a 22 a33 ... a nn ) + polynomial of degree
n 2 … (1)
if are eigen values of square matrix A, then
| | …… (2)
Coefficient of
But coefficient of in equation (1) is
So
Put in equation (2) then we get
| |
| |
So,
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 180
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
6.4 ALGEBRAIC AND GEOMETRIC
MULTIPLICITY OF EIGEN ROOT OR
CHARACTERISTIC ROOT
Let A be any square matrix of order n, and is root of order K of the
characteristic polynomial | | . Then K is called algebraic
multiply of eigen value , total number of linearly independent eigen
vector corresponding eigen value is called geometric multiplicity of
i.e. total number of linearly independent solution | |
Theorem 3: The eigen vector corresponding distinct eigen value of a
matrix is linearly independent.
Proof: Let A be a Square matrix of order n, and are the eigen
vector of matrix A corresponding to distinct eigen value .
Then
And we have to prove the set of vector
S X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,...., X n is linearly independent.
If the set S X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,...., X n are linearly dependent then at least one
is a linear combination of remaining vector of S.
Then we choose the set is subset of S
S1 X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,...., X k is linearly independent.
But the set S 2 X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,...., X k , X k 1 are linearly dependent.
Then we can choose some Scalar
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 181
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Show that ……… (1)
Pre multiply both sides by A, then we get
Since
Then ………. (2)
Multiply equation (1) by
Then
………. (3)
Subtracting equation (3) from (2)
Since the set S1 X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,...., X k is linearly independent.
So all the coefficient of are zero
Put the values of in equation (1) then we get
but i k 1 i 1,2,3,..., k
therefore ai 0 i 1,2,3,..., k
Now put ai 0 i 1,2,3,..., k in equation (1) we get
a k 1 xk 1 0
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 182
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
a k 1 0 , since x k 1 0
This is not possible, since S 2 is linearly dependent. So, our assumption is
wrong hence the set of vector { } is linearly
independent,
Theorem 4: is eigen value of any square matrix A if and only if there
exist a non zero vector X such that
Proof: Suppose is Eigen value of matrix A, and then we can say is root
of the characteristic equation | |
Since | | so Rank A
Therefore the linear Homogeneous equation | |
So
Conversely, suppose there exist a non-zero vector X satisfied
where is a scalar
So
X is non zero if Rank of is less than order of matrix
| |
Hence is eigen value of matrix A.
Example 2: Determine the characteristic roots and corresponding
characteristic vector of the matrix
[ ]
Solution: The characteristic equation of the matrix A is | |
i.e. | | or
{ } { } { }
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 183
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
{ }
2 ( 6) 0
Hence the characteristic roots of A are 0, 0, 6
The eigen vector [ ] of A corresponding to the eigen value 0
are given by the non zero solution of the equation
[ ][ ] [ ]
[ ][ ] [ ] by R3 R3 3R1
Or [ ][ ] [ ] by R2 R2 2R1
The rank of coefficient matrix is 1, therefore these linear equation have
linearly independent solution. The equation can be written as:
X1 X 2 X 3 0
Put X 2 a and X 3 b then X 1 (a b)
Where a and b are any scalar, therefore [ ] is an eigen
vector of A corresponding to the eigen values 0
Let [ ]
[ ] are two linearly
independent eigen vector of A corresponding eigen value 0
If are scalar not both are equal to zero then gives all
the eigen vectors of A corresponding to eigen values 2
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 184
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
The eigen vector of A corresponding to the eigen value 6 are given by the
non zero solution of the equation
[ ][ ] [ ]
Or [ ][ ] [ ]
Or [ ][ ] [ ] by R2 5R2 2R1 ,
R3 5R3 3R1
Or [ ][ ] [ ] by R2 2R1 R2
The Rank of coefficient matrix of these equations is 2. Therefore these
equations have linearly independent solution. These equations
can be written as
From last equation we get
Put then ⁄ and first equation ⁄
So [ ⁄ ⁄ ] is eigen vector of A corresponding eigen value 6.
If P is any non zero scalar then is also eigen vector of A
corresponding to the eigen value 6.
Theorem 5: The eigen values of a Hermitian matrix are real.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 185
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Proof: Let A is a Hermitian matrix and is eigen value of A
corresponding eigen vector . Then
…………. (1)
………. (2)
Pre multiplying both sides of equation (2) by , then
…………. (3)
Taking conjugate and transpose of both side of equation (3), then we get
( ) ( )
̅ ( )
̅ ……………… (4)
From (3) and (4) we have
( ̅) , but is non zero vector so
̅ ̅
Let
̅ , ̅
Hence is real.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 186
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Theorem 6: The eigen values of a skew Hermitian matrix are either zero
or pure imaginary
Proof: Let A is skew Hermitian matrix then
Now ̅
is Hermitian matrix when A is Skew Hermitian and we know that
the eigen values of Hermitian matrix is real,
So the eigen values of is real.
Let is eigen value of A then is eigen value of
But i is real so
if is real
if is complex content and
(i ) y ix
̅ Because is real
is pure imaginary provided
Hence the eigen values of skew Hermitian matrix are either zero or purely
imaginary.
Theorem 7: Eigen values of a unitary matrix are of unit modules.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 187
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Proof: Let A is a unitary matrix and is Eigen value of A Corresponding
Eigen vector X, then
…………….. (1)
……………………. (2)
Taking conjugate and transpose both sides of equation (2) then
̅ …………………(3)
Multiplying equation (2) and (3)
( ) (̅ )
( ) ̅
( ) ̅
| | ̅ | |
| |
| |
But because X is non zero vector
So, | |
| |
Hence is at unit modules.
Example 3: If A is Square matrix of order 4 and spectrum of A is { }
and trace of A, determinant of A are 9 and 18 respectively then find the all
eigen values of A.
Solution: Let are eigen values A, then
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 188
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Given spectrum of A is { } so three eigen values of A are 1, 2, 3
So
So eigen values of A are .
Example 4: Show that matrix A and its transpose matrix have same
eigen values.
Solution: Let is Eigen values of A so is the root of characteristic
Equation
| | ………………… (1)
Now
And we know that determinant of any matrix and its transpose are equal,
therefore
| | | |
| | | |
| | So| |= 0
is root of | |
Hence is also Eigen value of .
Example 5: Show that the characteristic roots of are conjugates of the
characteristic roots of matrix A.
Solution: Let is Eigen value of matrix A
is the root of the equation | |
Now
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 189
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
( ̅ ) ………………. (1)
And | | |̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅| | | | ̅|
From equation (1)
| ̅| |̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅|
If | | |̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅| | ̅|
So ̅ is root at | ̅| hence ̅ is eigen value of .
Note:
1. 0 is the eigen value of matrix A if matrix has determinant zero.
2. Eigen value of upper /lower triangular matrix are just principal
diagonal element.
3. Eigen values of strict upper or strict lower triangular matrix are
zero.
4. Eigen values of Nilpotent matrix are always zero.
5. Eigen values of idempotent matrix are either 0 or 1.
6. Eigen values of involutory matrix are either 1 or -1.
Example 6: If is the eigen value of a non singular matrix A, then prove
| |
that ⁄ is a eigen value of adj A.
Solution: Let A be any n n non singular matrix and is eigen value of A
So must be non zero and there exist a non zero vector X such that
……………………. (1)
Pre multiplying both sides in equation (1) by
So,
[ ]
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 190
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
A I n X (adjA) | |
| |
| |
Hence is eigen value of matrix .
Example 7: If A is square matrix of order 3 with eigen values are 1, 2, 3
then what are the possible eigen values of .
Solution: A is Square matrix of order 3 with eigen values 1, 2, 3
So determinant of A is the product of its eigen value
| |
| |
| |
And are eigen values of A then are eigen values of
Say
Finally, eigen values of are
| | | | | | ( ) ( ) ( )
, which is ,
( ) ( )
are required eigen values of .
6.5 THE CAYLEY-HAMILTON THEOREM
Every square matrix satisfies its characteristic equation i.e. if for a square
matrix A of order n.
| | [ ] then the matrix equation is
is satisfied by A
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 191
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Proof: Let A is a square matrix of order n and is eigen value of A then
element of are at most of the first degree in , and the element of
are of degree or less in terms of .
So can be written as
Where are square matrices of order n
Now | | | |
Where I is the identity matrix of order n
[ ]
Comparing coefficients of like powers of on both sides, then we get
Pre multiplying these equations by respectively and adding
them
[ ]
Thus
Hence every Square matrix satisfies its characteristic equation.
Example 8: find the characteristic equation of the matrix [ ]
and verify that it is satisfied by A.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 192
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Solution: We have [ ] the characteristic matrix of A
[ ] [ ]
[ ]
The characteristic polynomial of A
| | [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ]
The characteristic equation of A is | |
i.e. ………………………… (1)
The roots of this equation are 1, 3, 6
Hence the Eigen values of A are 1, 3, 6
From equation (1) the characteristic equation of the matrix A is
Or
Or
Or
3 102 27 18 0
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 193
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
We are now to verify that
A 3 10 A 2 27 A 18I 0
We have
[ ] [ ]
[ ][ ] [ ]
[ ][ ] [ ]
Now we can verify that
[ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
Example 9: Obtain the characteristic equation and find the eigen value of
the matrix
[ ]
Solution: [ ]
The characteristic matrix of is
[ ] [ ]
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 194
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
[ ]
The characteristic equation of A is | |
[ ]
| | | | | |
Or
………… ……. (1)
Or
The root of this equation is 1, 2, 3
Hence is characteristic equation and 1, 2, 3 are
eigen values of A
Example 10: Show that 0 is a eigen value of matrix A if and only if
matrix is singular.
Solution: We know that product of eigen values is determinant of matrix
Let are eigen values of matrix A.
Then
| |
Since 0 eigen value is zero so | | is singular
Conversely, let A is singular | |
The characteristic equation of A is
[ ]
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 195
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Since | |
So ……………… (1)
0 is the root of equation (1), hence is eigen value of A.
Example 11: Show that matrix A and have the same eigen values.
Solution: Let then the characteristic matrix of B is
Since C is invertible so
So
Taking determinant both sides
| | | | | | | || |
| || || || | | |
| || | | |
| |
So
| | | |
Thus the matrix A and B have same characteristic equation. Hence A and
have same eigen value.
Example 12: Obtain the characteristic equation of matrix | |
and verify that it is satisfied by A and hence find its inverse.
Solution: We have | | | |
( )
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 196
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
The characteristic equation of A is
……………….. (1)
Or
Or
……………………... (2)
By Cayley – Hamilton theorem, every square matrix satisfies its
characteristic equation.
So
………………………. (3)
Verification of equation (3) we have
| |
| || | | |
| || | | |
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 197
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
| | | | | |
| |
[ ]=0
From equation (3)
Since all eigen values are non zero so determinant of hence
exist
Pre multiplying both sides by in equation (3)
Then
[ ]
{[ ] [ ] [ ]}
[ ]
6.6 CHARACTERISTIC POLYNOMIALS OF
DEGREE 2 AND 3
There are simple formulas for the characteristic polynomials of matrices of
order 2 and 3.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 198
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Suppose * + then simple characteristic equation of A
If B is of order 3 then [ ]
The characteristic equation of B is
If , , are the cofactor of element , , then
characteristic equation of B is
Example 13: If A is any matrix of order 3 and the Eigen values of A are
then find the characteristic equation of A.
Solution: The characteristic equation of A is
where, is eigen value of A
we know that if is eigen value of A then
A
is eigen value of (adjA)
So,
So trace of
Hence characteristic equation of A is
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 199
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Example 14: If A is a square matrix of order n and then find the
determinant and trace of matrix.
Solution: Let A aij nn
and A 2 I
And we know that if then possible Eigen value of A are
Let algebraic multiplicity of Eigen values of
So is equal to order of matrix and
Determinant of A is product of Eigen values so
| |
Example 15: Find the trace of matrix [ ]
Solution: Let [ ]
Eigen values of B are 2, 2, and 3
So, eigen values of
And we know that trace is equal to sum of its eigen values
So
Example 16: Let B be a real n 1 vector such that
then show that A is involuntary matrix with trace ( n 2) .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 200
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Solution: Let [ ]
[ ]
Since
Now [ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
So
Since
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
Trace of
Now
6.7 SUMMARY
In this unit ,we learned the concept of eigenvalue and eigenvector,
additionally learned about algebraic and geometric multiplicity of
eigenvalue , which helps us more to find the eigenvalue of any matrix ,the
concept of eigenvalue is very important to understand linear algebra very
well. To cheak your progress by solving all question given below,
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 201
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
6.8 GLOSSARY
Spectrum of matrix:Set of all eigenvalues
Geometric multiplicity of eigenvalue:The dimension of the eigen space
of eigenvalue
6.9 SELF ASSESMENT QUESTIONS
6.9.1 Multiple choice Questions:
1. If 0 is eigen value of matrix A then is.
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 0
2. If [ ] then if are eigen values of A then
is equal to
(a) 1 (b) 14
(c) 15 (d) 0
3. Eigen values of idempotent matrix are
(a) 1or -1 (b) 0 or -1
(c) 0 or 1 (d) 0 only
4. If P is Algebraic multiplicity and Q is geometric multiplicity then
the relation between P and Q is
(a) (b)
(c ) (d)
5. Eigen values of matrix [ ]is
(a) 1, 2, 3 (b) 3, 0
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 202
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
(c) 1, 3 (d) 4, 0
6. Trace of any idempotent matrix A of order n is
(a) Sum of its Eigen values (b) n
(c) Rank A (d) Product of Eigen
values
7. If is eigen value of A then eigen value of 3A is
(a) 3 (b) 2
(c) (d) 0
8. If is characteristic equation of matrix
[ ] then
is equal to
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5
9. If A and B are two square matrices of the same order then if
are the eigen values of then eigen values of is
(a) (b)
(c) (d) √ √ √
10. If A is any orthogonal matrix then eigen value of A is
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
ANSWERS:
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (b)
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 203
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (d)
6.9.2 Fill in the blanks:
1. Eigen values of upper triangular matrix is ………….
2. Trace of null matrix is ………….
3. Eigen value of skew Hermitian matrix are ……….. or ………..
4. If * +then | | is ………..
5. If A is idempotent matrix with rank 3 then trace of A is ………..
6. If ( ) if is non zero eigen value then
…………..
7. If A is involuntary matrix of order n and k is algebraic multiplicity
of then trace of A…….
8. If S is the set of all matrices and S is defined A {
[ ] } then cardinality of S is …………
9. If A be a n n matrix which is both Hermitian and Unitary than
trace of is ……….
10. If [ ]then characteristic polynomial is …………..
ANSWERS:
1. Principal diagonal 2. 0 3. Zero or 4. 54 5. 3
element purely
imaginary
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 204
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
6. n 7. 8. Null set 9. n 10.
6.9.3 True and False questions:
Write T for true and F for false statement
1. If are the eigen values of matrix A of order 3 then
T/F
2. If A is an idempotent matrix of order n then
T/F
3. Eigen values of identity matrix is 0
T/F
4. If A is invertible idempotent matrix then eigen values of A are both
0 and 1 T/F
5. The possible eigen values of nilpotent matrices are zero only
T/F
ANSWERS:
1. T 2. T 3. F 4. F 5. T
6.10 REFERENCE
1. Linear Algebra, [Link] & Vikas Bist :Narosa publishing
House
2. Matrices .[Link] &[Link] :Krishna Parakashan
Media
3. Schaum‟s out line ( Linear Algebra)
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 205
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
6.11 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Matrices .[Link] &[Link] :Krishna Parakashan
Media
2. Schaum‟s out line ( Linear Algebra)
6.12 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
6.12.1 Short answer type questions:
1. If * +then verify
2. Find the all eigen value of [ ]
3. Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix
[ ]hence or otherwise evaluate
4. Show that the characteristic roots of a triangular matrix are just the
principal diagonal element
5. Determine the eigen vector of the matrix [ ]
ANSWERS: 2. 3, 6, 2 3. [ ]
6.12.2 Long answer type questions:
1. If are the eigen values of the n-square matrix A and K
is a Scalar then prove that eigen values of are
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 206
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
2. Find the characteristic equation of the matrix
[ ]and verify that it is satisfied by A and hence
obtain
3. Verify the Cayley-Hamilton theorem for a matrix [ ]
4. Show that if all eigen values of idempotent matrix are zero then
matrix is invertible
5. Show that the matrix * +has at least one eigen value
is 0 for some real number x
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 207
You might also like
- Understanding Matrix Types and OperationsNo ratings yetUnderstanding Matrix Types and Operations18 pages
- Matrices and Calculus For Computer Sciece StudentsNo ratings yetMatrices and Calculus For Computer Sciece Students58 pages
- Matrix Similarity, Congruence, EquivalenceNo ratings yetMatrix Similarity, Congruence, Equivalence22 pages
- Understanding Matrix Types and OperationsNo ratings yetUnderstanding Matrix Types and Operations6 pages
- Understanding Matrix Types and OperationsNo ratings yetUnderstanding Matrix Types and Operations42 pages
- Chapter One Matrices: 1.1. Definition and Types of A Matrix Definition 3.1.1No ratings yetChapter One Matrices: 1.1. Definition and Types of A Matrix Definition 3.1.1120 pages
- Understanding Matrix Types and OperationsNo ratings yetUnderstanding Matrix Types and Operations13 pages
- Understanding Matrix Types and OperationsNo ratings yetUnderstanding Matrix Types and Operations27 pages
- Understanding Matrix Types and PropertiesNo ratings yetUnderstanding Matrix Types and Properties66 pages
- Understanding Matrices and Their PropertiesNo ratings yetUnderstanding Matrices and Their Properties5 pages
- Introduction to Linear Algebra ConceptsNo ratings yetIntroduction to Linear Algebra Concepts36 pages
- Mechanical Engineering Placement BrochureNo ratings yetMechanical Engineering Placement Brochure9 pages
- Eco-Friendly Corrosion Inhibitors in ConcreteNo ratings yetEco-Friendly Corrosion Inhibitors in Concrete12 pages
- Equilibrium and Support Reactions in StructuresNo ratings yetEquilibrium and Support Reactions in Structures24 pages
- Reinforced Concrete Pipe - Ar Full Catalog PDFNo ratings yetReinforced Concrete Pipe - Ar Full Catalog PDF155 pages
- Solution Manual For Business Communication Essentials 4th Canadian Edition by Courtland L BoveeNo ratings yetSolution Manual For Business Communication Essentials 4th Canadian Edition by Courtland L Bovee61 pages
- Women’s Political Participation in AksumNo ratings yetWomen’s Political Participation in Aksum17 pages
- Montreal 1999 Convention on Flight CompensationNo ratings yetMontreal 1999 Convention on Flight Compensation10 pages
- Chemical Principles 8th Edition Steven S. Zumdahl Ebook100% (1)Chemical Principles 8th Edition Steven S. Zumdahl Ebook193 pages
- 1643090115december 2021 - Special Reporting Proforma For Commercial WingNo ratings yet1643090115december 2021 - Special Reporting Proforma For Commercial Wing26 pages
- Antidiabetic Effects of Avocado Seed ExtractNo ratings yetAntidiabetic Effects of Avocado Seed Extract16 pages
- Combustion Theory and Applications CourseNo ratings yetCombustion Theory and Applications Course12 pages
- Crude Oil Types by API Gravity ExplainedNo ratings yetCrude Oil Types by API Gravity Explained2 pages
- IAESTE Exam Practice: English ProficiencyNo ratings yetIAESTE Exam Practice: English Proficiency6 pages