By

Wael Fikry Michael Gad

Professor of Solid State Electronics Assistant professor
Eng. Physics Dept. – Faculty of Eng. Eng. Physics Dept. – Faculty of Eng.
Ain Shams University Ain Shams University
waelfikry@[Link] - Room 223

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 1

 Contents
• Course Objectives

• Course Syllabus

• Score Breakdown

• References

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 2

 Course Objectives
• Understand the details of the scientific phenomena that could not be
explainable by classical mechanics (failure of Classical Mechanics):
– Photoelectric effect.
– Compton effect.

• Understand matter-wave duality for both matter and electromagnetic waves.

• Learn the principles of quantum mechanics and special relativity and how
they correctly model many scientific phenomena.

• Apply quantum mechanics to analyze metallic and semiconductor materials

(Band theory of solids).

• Understanding the thermal equilibrium and carrier transport phenomena in

semiconductors

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 3

 Course Syllabus
No Topics

1 Failure of classical physics.

2 Basic concepts of special theory of relativity

3 Wave properties of particles

4 Particle properties of waves

5 Principles of quantum mechanics and Schrodinger equation

Applications to quantum mechanics: Quantum well, potential
6
barrier and tunneling phenomena
7 Band theory of solids

8 Semiconductors under the thermal equilibrium condition

9 Carrier transport phenomena in semiconductors

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 4

 References
• Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern
Physics by Serway and Jewett, 9th edition, 2014.

• Concepts of Modern Physics, Arthur Beiser and Kent

A. Peterson, 6th edition, 2003.

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 5

 Part 1
Review and Failure of Classical physics
&
Concepts of Modern Physics

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 Classical Physics
In the CLASSICAL description of physics, an important distinction is
made between the concepts of PARTICLE and WAVE phenomena
Classical Particle Phenomena Classical Wave Phenomena
(Newtonian Mechanics)
• Ex: Motion of billiard ball - • Ex: Water waves - Sound waves-
Trajectory of a satellite Electromagnetic waves (light)

• Description of a particle: • Description of waves:

Mass (m), charge (q), position Amplitude, velocity, frequency,
(r(t)), velocity (v(t)) …….. wavelength,………..

• Newton’s 2nd law (Equation of • One Dimensional Wave Equation

motion):
ur uur ¶ 2 y ( x ,t ) 1 ¶ 2 y ( x ,t )
r d p d ( mv ) - 2 = 0
F= = ¶x 2
v ¶t 2
dt dt
displacement velocity

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 7

 Classical Physics
Classical Particle Phenomena Classical Wave Phenomena
• If force and initial position/velocity • A general simple solution of
are given, the position and velocity at the wave equation:
anytime in the future can be predicted
with complete certainty. y ( x ,t ) = A cos( wt ± kx )
l
y
• Physical observables of a particle,
such as energy, varies continuously. A

r r x
Momentum : p = mv
p2 l ‫ ؛‬Wavelength
Kinetic energy: KE =
2m w = 2p f ‫ ؛‬A ngular frequency
k = 2p l ‫ ؛‬Wavenumber
v p = l T = l f ‫ ؛‬phase velocity

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 Special Relativity
In 1905, Einstein introduced the theory of special relativity, in which,
the mass of a moving particle (𝑚) is related to the particle’s rest mass
(𝑚𝑜 ) through:
mo
m=
1 −v 2 c 2

where (𝑣) is the speed of the particle and (𝑐) is the speed of light.
This theory expects that in general a moving particle behaves
heavier than it is at rest.

Was this verified experimentally?

What does this mean?

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 9

 Mass – Velocity Relation
Bucherer – Wolz – Neumann Experiment (1914)
A small quantity of radium emits
energetic 𝛽 − particles (electrons).

The electric force (upward):

V
Fe = eE = e d
d B
The magnetic force (downward):
Fm = evB
The magnetic and electrostatic forces
are oppositely directed, and hence we
have a velocity selector
Any electron that traverses the selector must have a velocity (Point A)
V
Fe = Fm v= d ☺
Bd
mv2
With region of no electric field = evB m ☺☺
r
21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 10
The figure below shows the experimental results for the variation of the ratio (m/mo) for
many values of v from 0.3c to 0.9c, where mo is called the rest mass (the value of m
when v = 0) and c is the velocity of light (3×108 m/s)
m
mo

v
c

All results are all consistent with the expression

mo
Relativistic m=
Mass 1 −v 2 c 2
This expression also follows from the Einstein theory of relativity.

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 11

 Application to Relativistic Mass Relation
Cyclotron
It was invented and first operated in 1932 by Ernest Lawrence

Construction
•The "D" shaped electrodes (also called “dees")
are enclosed in a flat vacuum tank or chamber
•The chamber is installed in a narrow gap
between the two poles of a large magnet.
– The static magnetic field is applied uniformly
in perpendicular direction to the electrode plane

•Source of a heavy charged particle (protons – α

particles) located at the center of the two dees
•A high frequency alternating voltage which is
applied between the two Dees.

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Principle of operation
A charged particle released from the source (S)
gets a push due to the applied potential and moves
in a semicircular path (indicated by the dashed black
line in the drawing) and arrives back at the gap.
mv 2 v=
qB
= qvB r
r m
The frequency of the applied potential difference is adjusted so that the
polarity of the dees is reversed in the same time interval during which the ion
travels around one dee.
v qB 1 qB
 = 2 f = = f =
r m 2 m
The motion continues so that for each half-circle trip around one dee, the ion
gains additional kinetic energy equal to qV.

When the radius of its path is nearly equal to that of the dees, the energetic ion
leaves the system through the exit slit.
1 2 q2 B2 2
[Link] = mvmax = R where R is the radius
2 2m of the dee
21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 13
Relativistic Mass Effect

In the nonrelativistic approximation, the frequency 1 qB

does not depend upon the radius of the particle's f =
2 m
orbit, since the particle's mass is constant.

When the energy of the ions in a cyclotron exceeds about 20 MeV, Observations
show that the moving ions do not remain in phase with the applied potential
difference and the cyclotron failed to work.

As particles approach the speed of light, their relativistic mass increases,

requiring either modifications to the frequency, leading to the
synchrocyclotron, or modifications to the magnetic field during the
acceleration, which leads to the isochronous cyclotron. The relativistic
cyclotron frequency can be rewritten as
1 qB 1 − v c
2 2
f =
2 mo

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 14

 Mass – Energy Relation
Consider a particle being accelerated from rest with a force F in the + x-direction. The
force on the particle can be written as:

d (mv) d  mov  d  mov  dv mo dv

F= =   =   =
 dt (1 − v / c ) dt
2 2 3/2
dt dt  1 − v2 / c2  dv  1 − v2 / c2

If no other forces act on the object, all the work done on it

through distance x becomes kinetic energy Thus, for any change
in mass of a particle
x
 x
mo  dv v
mo vdv or a system, there is a
KE =  Fdx =   2 3/2 
dx =  change in kinetic
0 0  (1 − v 2
/ c )  dt 0
(1 − v 2
/ c 2 3/2
) energy.
mo c 2
= − m c 2
= mc 2
− m c 2
=  mc 2

(1 − v 2 / c 2 )1/2
o o Relativistic KE
Nonrelativistic
KE
KE = mc2 - moc2

We therefore have, mc2 = mc 2

+ KE E = Eo + KE

KE/moc2
o or
A particle of rest mass (mo) has a rest energy (Eo) equal to
moc2. If it is given a kinetic energy, its new total energy (E)
is mc2. An example of energy-mass equivalence is given in
Appendix II.

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 Energy - Momentum Relation
 mo 
m=  m2 (1−v 2 / c2 ) = mo2
 1− v / c 
2 2

m2 = m2v 2 / c2 +mo2
Multiply by c4 m2c 4 = m2v 2c 2 + mo2c 4
E = p c +E
2 2 2
o
2

Massless Particles (mo = 0)

Can a massless particle exist? To be more precise, can a particle exist which has no
rest mass but which nevertheless exhibits such particle-like properties as energy and
momentum?
In classical mechanics, a particle must have rest mass in order to have energy and
momentum, but in relativistic mechanics this requirement does not hold.

E = pc
21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 16
 Light and Gravity

• Starlight passing near the

sun is deflected by its strong
gravitational field.

• The deflection can be

measured during a solar
eclipse when the sun disk is
obscured by the moon.

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 Light and Gravity
A gravitational lens

Light and radio waves from a source such as a quasar are deviated by a
massive object such as a galaxy so that they seem to come from two or
more identical sources. A number of such gravitational lenses have been
identified.

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 18

 Summary of Relations
Special Relativity (Einstein 1905)

KE
E = KE +moc2 KE = (m −mo )c2

E = mc2
E m

mo
E = (pc) + (moc )
2 2 2 2 m=
1−v 2 / c 2

p v

mov
p=
1−v 2 / c 2

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 19

New observations and phenomena were not possible to be
understood, quantified, modeled, or predicted using classical
mechanics (Newtonian mechanics, wave nature of light) :
◼ Black body radiation
◼ Photoelectric effect
◼ X-rays
◼ Compton effect
◼ Discrete spectrum of gases
◼ Zeeman effect

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 20

 What is Light? Classical Picture
One great achievement of the 19th century was due to Maxwell who formulated a
famous set of equations that can be used to describe the propagation of
ELECTROMAGNETIC waves (EMW).

 q
 E .dA =
o

 B .dA = 0
 dE 
 B .dl = o

I + o 
dt 
d B E (x ,t ) = Eo cos(wt - kx )
 E .dl = −
dt
The intensity (L) of an EMW is the power B(x ,t ) = Bo cos(wt - kx )
per unit area normal to the propagation Eo: the amplitude of the electric field.
direction. According to Maxwell’s theory, Bo: the amplitude of the magnetic field.
the intensity is proportional to to Eo2

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 21

 Light as a Particle Phenomena
Photoelectric Effect (1902)
In a photoelectric experiment, optical radiation impinges upon a
metal (cathode) and electrons are knocked out due to interaction
of the light with the free electrons. Philipp Lenard
A German physicist and the winner of
the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1905
Observations:
➢ Some of the photoelectrons reach the anode when V = 0.
If positive battery terminal is connected to the anode:
Cathode Anode
➢ With small voltage, the current saturates.
➢ The saturation current is proportional to the incident light
intensity.
If negative battery terminal is connected to anode:
➢ Emitted electrons are repelled from reaching the anode and the I
current decreases monotonically. L1
➢ At a certain negative voltage, the most energetic electrons (with L2
KEmax) will be stopped by the opposing electric field. This is
f = constant
called the stopping potential (Vs).
L1 > L2
 The KEmax is independent of the intensity! {KEmax = eVs} V
Vs
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 I

 The stopping potential depends on the incident L= constant

frequency. The higher the incident light frequency,
f3 > f2 > f1
the higher the stopping potential.
V
Vs3 Vs2 Vs1
 There is a threshold frequency (fo) below which no
electron emits regardless of intensity!!
➢ The threshold frequency depends on the cathode
metal type.
 The initial electrons are emitted within a
nanosecond or so – almost instantaneously
(no delay)!!!

Failure of classical wave theory

• KEmax should be proportional to the intensity (L) . { L = ½ocE2 }
• The electron emission should occur at any frequency as long as the intensity
of the light is high enough.
• There should be a time interval between the switching on of the light and the
emission of electrons.

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 23

Einstein’s quantum theory
• Light is composed of particles (photons) with energy E = hf
where h is Planck’s constant and f is frequency of light.
• Each photon energy is so concentrated that it can transfer
its whole energy to one electron contained in a solid.
Metal Vacuum
Zero kinetic energy
• The incident energy per second (power) = Np hf of electrons in

Electron energy
Maximum kinetic vacuum
where Np is the number of incident photons per energy of electrons
inside metal
second
Surface
Work function (): the minimum energy required barrier

by an electron to be freed from the metal.

Conservation of energy: hf =  + KEmax Zero kinetic energy of

electrons inside metal

=  + eVs
KEmax = hf -
KE < KEmax
If hf =
ie (electron just liberated) hf
 hf
The threshold frequency f o = & KE = 0
h
If hf < (no emission of electrons)

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 24

 • Let N be the number of electrons emitted per second from the cathode of the
photocell.

• In fact the incident photons Np will collide not only with the free electrons of the
cathode but also with the ion cores (which leads to no electron emission) and
accordingly we have to anticipate that N is less than Np and the relation between
them is given by:
𝑁
Quantum yield (efficiency of cathode) =
𝑁𝑝

• The reason for the presence of current when V = 0 is that the emitted electrons N
involve some electrons whose number per second is n (where n <N) that have
enough kinetic energy such that they can reach and hit the anode of the photocell
creating an electric current given by (I = ne).

• As V increases in the positive direction then n will increase until a certain value
for V is reached where all the emitted electrons N arrived to the anode. Any
further increase in V will not change the value of the current which is then called
the "saturation current" (I = Ne).

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 25

 Light as a Particle Phenomena
Compton Scattering (1922)
Compton measured intensity of scattered X-rays from a solid
target, as function of the wavelength for different angles. Compton
lo is the incident monochromatic wavelength of the X-rays Nobel prize 1927
(source wavelength). The scattered radiation includes the
original wavelength (𝜆𝑜 ) and a new wavelength (𝜆′).

Result: the peak in the scattered radiation shifts toward a wavelength longer than (𝜆𝑜 ). The
shift (l′ − l𝑜) depends on θ (but not on the target material). Note that, at all angles there is
also an un-shifted peak.
21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 26
 Light as a Particle Phenomena
Classical picture: oscillating electromagnetic field causes oscillations in positions of
charged particles, which re-radiate in all directions at same frequency and wavelength as
the incident radiation (i.e. the radiation includes only 𝜆𝑜 ).
Change in wavelength of scattered light is completely unexpected classically

Incident light wave Oscillating electron Emitted light wave

Compton’s explanation: “billiard ball” collisions between particles of

light (X-ray photons) and electrons in the material
Scattered photon
Before collision After collision h
E \ = hf \
& p\ =
Incoming photon l\
E = hf o & p =
h θ
lo
Electron
𝜙
Recoil electron
v=0, p=0, Eeo Ee & pe

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 27

 Light as a Particle Phenomena
Conservation of energy:
hf o + E eo = hf '+ E e 𝑓𝑜 : the frequency of the incident photon.
𝑓′: the frequency of the scattered photon.
1
hf o + mo c = hf  + ( pe c + mo c
2 2 2
)
2 4 2
(1)
p
Conservation of momentum: 𝜙 
pe 2 = p 2 + p2 − 2 pp cos (2) pe p′
𝜃: the scattering angle of the photon.
𝜙: the recoil angle of the electron.
From (1) & (2) Compton derived the shift
𝑝 : the momentum of the incident photon
in the photon wavelength: 𝑝′: the momentum of the scattered photon.
𝑝𝑒 : the momentum of the recoil electron.
h
l  − lo = (1 − cos ) = lc (1 − cos )
mo c

h
lc = Compton wavelength = = 2.4 10−12 m
mo c

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 28

 Light as a Particle Phenomena
The un-shifted wavelength, λo, is caused by the x-rays scattered from the
electrons that are tightly bound to the target atoms.

Results of Compton work

• Reconfirmation of Einstein’s theory.
• Proof that photons (massless particles) posses linear momentum as a
normal mass particle, thus affirming the particle nature of
Electromagnetic waves.
• Interaction between Electromagnetic waves and matter can be well
explained in terms of classical mechanics laws (conservation of energy
and linear momentum) taking relativistic effects into account.

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 29

 Light and Gravity
Red shift
The frequency of a photon emitted from the surface of a star decreases
as it moves away from the star.
f f/
Suppose a photon of initial frequency f is
emitted and moving away from a star of
mass M and radius R.

GMm
The gravitational potential energy of mass m on the star surface is: PE = −
R
〖 and away from the star is 𝑃𝐸𝑟=∞ = −𝐺𝑀𝑚/𝑟 = 0

let a photon with energy (hf) exert work to escape the star gravitational field. From the
conservation of energy, the photon energy (hf ′) at (𝑟 = ∞) is:

GMm ph GMhf
hf  = hf − = hf −
R c2 R

f f − f  GM
Gravitational Red Shift: = = 2
f f c R

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 30

 Light and Gravity
The shift is called (red shift)since the frequency of the escape photon (𝑓′) is
smaller than the original photon’s (𝑓)
Black Holes
An interesting question is, what happens if a star is so dense that GM/c2R = 1?

 GM 
hf  = hf 1 − 2 
 c R

If this is the case, we see that no photon can ever leave the star, since to do so
requires more energy than its initial energy hf.
A star of this kind cannot radiate and so would be invisible-a black hole in
space

21-Sep-19 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics - Part 1 31