Unit II – Joining Processes

WELDING
Importance of welding:
 Welding is an alternative method for casting or forging and as a replacement for
bolted and riveted joints.
 It is also used as a repair medium, i.e., to reunite metal at a crack to build up a small
part that has broken off such as gear tooth or to repair a worn surfaces such as
bearing surfaces.
 The following are the main key features of welding:
1. The welding structures are normally lighter than riveted or bolted structures.
2. The welding joints provide maximum efficiency, which is not possible in other type
of joints.
3. The addition and alterations can be easily made in the existing structure.
4. A welded joint has a great strength.
5. The welding provides very rigid joints.
6. The process of welding takes less time than other type of joints.
 Basic concept of welding
 Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials, usually metals, by causing
coalescence.
 This is often done by melting the workpieces and adding a filler material to form a
pool of molten material (the weld puddle) that cools to become a strong joint, with
pressure sometimes used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld.
 Welding is a process of joining two similar or dissimilar metals with the help of
heat or pressure or by some other means.
 The cost of welding is very less as compared to other processes and forms a strong
joint. For this reason it is largely used in the following fields of engineering:
1. Manufacturing of machine tools, auto parts, cycle parts, etc.
2. Fabrication of farm machinery & equipment.
3. Fabrication of buildings, bridges & ships.
4. Construction of boilers, furnaces, railways, cars, aeroplanes, rockets and missiles.
5. Manufacturing of television sets, refrigerators, kitchen cabinets, etc.
Classification of welding processes
 Welding can be categorized into two broad types:
Plastic welding or pressure welding
Fusion welding or non-pressure welding
 Plastic welding: In plastic welding, the metal pieces are heated to plastic state. They
are then pressed together to make the joint.
 Inter-atomic bond may be established by bringing the atoms of the two surfaces into
close proximity.
 It is necessary that the surfaces to be joined should be absolutely free of
contaminants.
(a) Friction welding
(b) Electric resistance welding
(c) Blacksmiths forge welding
(d) Cold pressure welding
Classification of welding processes
 Fusion welding: The metal at the joining area is heated to molten state. It is then
allowed to solidify to make a joint.
 Inter-atomic bond is established by melting. Pressure is not applied in this process.
(a) Gas welding (Heat created by Gas)
(b) Electric arc welding (Heat created by electrically)
(c) Thermit welding (Heat created by chemical Reaction)
 Welding processes can also be classified based on the energy source:

Energy Source Example Process

Electrical Arc and resistance
Sound Ultrasonic welding
Chemical Gas and explosive
Mechanical Friction
Light Laser
Welding Terminology
 Root opening: Throat portion of the joint to be welded, where the metal pieces
approach close to each other.
 Effective Throat size: It is the depth of weld penetration. The effective throat is never
greater than the metal thickness.
 Crater: In arc welding, a crater is the depression in the weld metal pool at the point
where the arc strikes the base metal.
 Puddle: It is the portion of weld joint that is melted by the heat of welding.
 Root face: It is the portion of the groove adjacent to the root of joint.
Welding Terminology
 Toe: It is the junction point of base and weld metal.
 Weld face: The exposed surface of a weld on the side from
which the welding has been done.
 Weld metal: The metal that is solidified in the joint is
called weld metal. It may be only the base metal or the
mixture of base and filler metal.
 Depth of penetration: It is the depth up to which the metal
combines with parent metal.
 Base metal: The metal to be joined is termed as base
metal.
 Weld pass: A single movement of the welding torch or
electrode along the length of the joint, which results in a
bead, is a weld pass.
 Bead or weld bead: Bead is the metal added during the
single pass of welding. The bead appears as a separate
material from the base metal.
Welding Terminology
 Weldability: Weldability of a material may be defined as the capacity of material to
be welded into specific, suitably designed structure and to perform satisfactorily in
the intended service.
 Heat Affected Zone (HAZ): The zone within a base metal that undergoes structural
changes but does not melt during welding.
Weld joints
Welding Positions
INCREASING DIFFICULTY

FLAT

HORIZONTAL
OVERHEAD

VERTICAL
 Principle of Gas Welding
 Gas welding is a fusion welding process in which welding is done by heating the
workpieces with flames obtained from oxy-fuel gases.
 A mixture in proper proportion of fuel gas such as acetylene, LP, Methyl acetylene
propadiene(MAPP), natural gas and hydrogen with oxygen are burnt to get a flame.
 This flame can be used to melt metals. This is mainly used in repair of most of the
ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
Principle of Gas Welding
 Metals unsuited for gas welding are the refractory metals (Columbium, tantalum,
molybdenum and tungsten) and the reactive metals such as titanium and zirconium.
 Most common processes use acetylene (C2H2) as the fuel.
 Other fuels such as hydrogen, propane, butane and natural gas are not useful because
the heat is low and neutral flame cannot be obtained.
 The flame is directed by a welding torch.
 A filler metal is sometimes added, which is available as rod or wire with or without
flux.
 The following steps accomplish the burning of oxygen and acetylene:
 Cylinder pressure is released to a working line pressure by means of special regulators.
 These gases are taken to the mixing chamber through hoses and then mixed together.
 The mixture is ejected through a nozzle and then ignited.
 The three requirements for oxygen-acetylene flame are: An oxygen source, A fuel
source and Ignition temperature.
Gas welding equipment and supplies
 The basic equipment for oxy-acetylene gas welding consists of gas cylinders, pressure
regulators with pressure gauges, a hose system for carrying the gases and a welding
torch with needle valves.
Gas Supply
Oxygen Cylinders:
 Oxygen is a non-metallic chemical element, designated by the symbol “O” which can
be found in free state or in combination with the other elements in nature.
 The atmosphere is composed of about one-fifth (20.95%) oxygen by volume.
 Oxygen is now produced commercially in the almost pure state by two methods.
 Electrolysis
 Liquid-air process
 In electrolysis, water is broken down into hydrogen and oxygen by sending electrical
current through a solution of caustic soda and water.
 Oxygen is released in one terminal and hydrogen at the other.
 In liquid-air process, the air is first washed with caustic soda, then the temperature is
lowered to -193 ºC. This low temperature liquefies or vaporises all the material
within the chamber.
 Since oxygen has high vaporisation point, it vaporises last.
 When the liquid air is allowed to evaporate at a slower rate, the gases vaporises rapidly
and finally, oxygen remains in its pure state.
Oxygen Cylinders:
 This oxygen from the boiling liquid is then
compressed and stored in steel cylinders
specially designed to withstand a pressure of
15,000 kPa at a room temperature of 21 ºC.
 Oxygen used for welding is stored in cylinders of
various sizes, which are usually painted. There is
no standard code for painting.
 The storage pressure of oxygen is 13,790 –
18,202 kPa.
 The pressure varies depending upon the cylinder
material and size.
 The colour of a standard oxygen cylinder used for
industrial purposes is solid green or black.
Acetylene cylinder
 Acetylene gas is hydrocarbon with the chemical formula C2H2. It is not found in a free
state in nature.
 It is produce by carbide-to-water method. When the carbide is combined with water,
the carbon in carbide combines with the hydrogen in water.
 CaC2 + 2H2O C2H2 + Ca(OH)2
 Acetylene may be stored in cylinders specially designed for this purpose.
 The gas is first passed through filters and purifiers.
 The storage of acetylene in its gaseous form, under pressure, is not safe at pressure
above 100 kPa.
 In order to decrease the size of the open spaces in the cylinder, acetylene cylinders are
filled with porous materials such as balsa wood, charcoal, asbestos or Portland cement.
 Acetone, a colourless, flammable liquid is added to the cylinder until about 40% of the
porous material is saturated.
 The porous material acts as a large sponge and absorbs the acetone, which then absorbs
the acetylene with a capacity of 35 volumes of acetylene per atmospheric produced.
 This enables storage of 420 volumes of acetylene to be compressed at 1700 kPa.
 The acetylene comes out of the acetone solution at a slow constant rate.
Pressure regulator
 The functions of a pressure regulator are: To reduce the cylinder pressure to the
required working pressure and also to produce a steady flow of gas regardless of the
pressure variations at the source.
 Regulators may be classified into four main types:
 The single-stage nozzle type
 The single-stage stem type
 The two-stage type
 The high capacity high pressure line type
 Regulators for different gases are basically the same, except that the pressure that they
control differ vastly.
Pressure regulator
Regulator pressure for gas welding:
 The pressure required for gas welding depends on the thickness of the plate to be
welded.
 For plate of thickness of about 1 to 25 mm, the regulator pressure in oxygen and
acetylene varies from 15 to 70 kPa; and for plate thickness over 25 mm, the pressure
of each gas is about 98 kPa.
 This is for high-pressure welding, but in the case of low-pressure welding, the
oxygen pressure exceeds 98 kPa and goes up to about 200 kPa and acetylene
pressure is 15 kPa.
Pressure Gauge
 The pressure gauges (LP & HP) are mounted on the regulators.
 The gauges are built with springs and gears.
 The pressure gauges work on the bourdon principle.
 The gauge consists of a tube made up of phosphor bronze, which is flat in cross
section, one end is sealed and the other end is connected to the pressure line.
 As the pressure in the tube increases, it tends to straighten which in turn oscillates the
sector gear.
 This oscillation causes the pinion to rotate against the hair spring and thus moves
needle which shows the reading.
 Welding hose and hose fittings
 The hose for welding torches should be strong, durable, nonporous and light.
 The most common method of piping both oxygen and acetylene gas is the reinforced
rubber hose.
 Each hose is made up of three principle layers. The inner layer is composed of very good
grade gum rubber.
 Layers of rubber-impregnated fabric surround the inner layer. The outside cover is made
of a coloured plain or rubbed vulcanised rubber.
 Hoses are manufactured in three colours. Usually red is for acetylene and black or green
for oxygen.
 Special hose fittings or connections are provided for attachment to the torch and pressure
regulators.
Welding Torch
 This is a tool for mixing oxygen and acetylene in correct proportion and burning the
mixture at the end of a tip.
 These are available commercially in two general types: (1) Equal pressure and (2)
injector type.
 Common type of torch used is the medium or equal pressure welding torch.
 The mixing chamber in the equal pressure torch allows both of the gases to flow
together in equal amounts.
 In injector type, oxygen enters the mixing chamber through a jet which is surrounded
by acetylene passage.
 As the oxygen flows from the jet, it draws the acetylene along with it. The advantage
is that it operates on low acetylene pressure.
Welding Tip
 It is that portion of the welding apparatus through which the gases pass just prior to
their ignition and burning.
 There is a great variety of interchangeable welding tips differing in size, shape and
construction.
 The tip sizes are governed by the diameter of the opening.
 The diameter of the tip opening used for welding depends upon the type of metal to
be welded, such as whether it is stainless steel, iron or brass and the thickness of the
metal to be welded.
 There are two types of tips:
 Solid Tip
 Two piece
Goggles
 These are fitted with colored lenses and are used to protect the eyes from harmful
heat and ultraviolet and infrared rays.
Gloves
 These are required to protect the hands from any injury due to the heat of welding
process.
Spark-lighter
 It is used for frequent igniting the welding torch.
In addition the above all requirements, welding rods and fluxes are also employed.
Flame Characteristics
 Oxy-Acetylene Welding is typically used for structural metal fabrication and repair
work.
 OAW utilizes the heat generated by the combustion of acetylene gas (C2H2) in a
mixture with oxygen.
 The heat is generated in accordance with a pair of chemical reactions.
 The primary combustion process, which occurs in the inner core of the flame, involves
the following reaction:
 C2H2 + O2 ----> 2CO + H2 + Heat.
 This reaction dissociates the acetylene into carbon monoxide and hydrogen and
produces about one-third of the total heat generated in the flame.
 The secondary combustion process is
 2CO + H2 + 1.5O2 -----> 2CO2 + H2O + Heat.
 This reaction consists of the further burning of both the hydrogen and the carbon
monoxide and produces about two-thirds of the total heat. Note that the reaction also
produces water vapor. The temperatures developed in the flame can reach 3300°C.
Flame Characteristics
Temperature Range:
 The heat liberated by the combustion depends upon the type of mixture.
 The temperature can be varied to some extent by changing the mixture of gases and
causing an imbalance in the ration of oxy-fuel gases using needle valves.
 The approximate temperature range that can be obtained by oxy-acetylene flame is
2800-3500 ºC at the inner cone, around 2100 ºC in the middle of the envelope and
approximately 1260 ºC at the extreme end of the secondary combustion envelope.
Types of Welding Flames
 In oxy-acetylene welding, flame is the most important means to control the welding
joint and the welding process.
 The correct type of flame is essential for the production of satisfactory welds.
 The flame must be of the proper size, shape and condition in order to operate with
maximum efficiency.
 There are three basic types of oxy-acetylene flames.
1. Neutral flame (Acetylene and oxygen in equal proportions).
2. Carburizing flame or reducing (excess of acetylene).
3. Oxidizing flame (excess of oxygen).
Neutral Flame
 A neutral flame results when approximately equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene are
mixed in the welding torch and burnt at the torch tip.
 The temperature of the neutral flame is of the order of about 3260°C.
 It has a clear, well defined inner cone, indicating that the combustion is complete.
 The inner cone is light blue in color. It is surrounded by an outer flame envelope,
produced by the combination of oxygen in the air and superheated carbon monoxide and
hydrogen gases from the inner cone.
 This envelope is usually a much darker blue than the inner cone.
 A neutral flame is named so because it affects no chemical change on the molten metal
and, therefore will not oxidize or carburize the metal.
 The neutral flame is commonly used for the welding of mild steel, stainless steel, cast
Iron, copper, and aluminium.
Carburizing or Reducing Flame

 The carburizing or reducing flame has excess of acetylene and can be recognized by
acetylene feather, which exists between the inner cone and the outer envelope.
 The outer flame envelope is longer than that of the neutral flame and is usually much
brighter in color.
 With iron and steel, carburizing flame produces very hard, brittle substance known as
iron carbide.
 A reducing flame may be distinguished from carburizing flame by the fact that a
carburizing flame contains more acetylene than a reducing flame.
 A reducing flame has an approximate temperature of 3038°C.
 A carburizing-flame is used in the welding of lead and for carburizing (surface
hardening) purpose.
 A reducing flame, on the other hand, does not carburize the metal; rather it ensures the
absence of the oxidizing condition. It is used for welding with low alloy steel rods and
for welding those metals, (e.g., non-ferrous) that do not tend to absorb carbon. This
flame is very well used for welding high carbon steel.
Oxidizing Welding flame
 The oxidizing flame has an excess of oxygen over the acetylene. An oxidizing flame can
be recognized by the small cone, which is shorter, much bluer in color and more pointed
than that of the neutral flame.
 The outer flame envelope is much shorter and tends to fan out at the end. Such a flame
makes a loud roaring sound. It is the hottest flame (temperature as high as 3400°C)
produced by any oxy-fuel gas source.
 But the excess oxygen especially at high temperatures tends to combine with many
metals to form hard, brittle, low strength oxides.
 Moreover, an excess of oxygen causes the weld bead and the surrounding area to have a
dirty appearance.
 For these reasons, an oxidizing flame is of limited use in welding. It is not used in the
welding of steel.
 A slightly oxidizing flame is helpful when welding (i) Copper-base metals (ii) Zinc-base
metals and (iii) A few types of ferrous metals such as manganese steel and cast iron.
 The oxidizing atmosphere in these cases, create a base metal oxide that protects the base
metal.
Gas Welding Techniques
 There are two types of gas welding techniques:
1. Left ward welding
2. Right ward welding
Left ward welding
 In the leftward or forward welding, the weld is
made working from right to left.
 The blowpipe is held in the right hand and the
welding rod in the left hand.
 The blow pipe should be given a small sideways
movement and the rod should be moved steadily
without sideways movement.
 The head of the blowpipe is held at and angle of
between 60 to 70° to the plane of the weld and the
welding rod at 30 to 40° in opposite direction.
 In this method, the plate edges are heated
immediately after the molten metal.
 The leftward method is found most advantageous
on plates up to 3 mm and also for thicker plates.
Right ward welding
 Rightward or backward welding is carried out from left to
right, the rod following the blowpipe.
 It has no lateral movement.
 The blowpipe should make an angle of between 40 to 50°
with the plane of the plate, and welding rod should be at
an angle 30 to 40°.
 The edges in the rightward welding should be bevelled by
approximately 10 to 15º less than for leftward welding.
 Under the above conditions, the welding speed is 20 to 25
percent higher and the fuel consumption is 15 to 25
percent lower with rightward welding.
 It provides better shielding against atmospheric oxidation
of the weld metal and slows down its cooling, for which
reasons the weld metal is denser, stronger and tougher.
 Suitable for steel work over 12 mm thick, although it can
be used for lower thickness of sheets.
Types of gas welding
 Based on the fuel and supporter gas used
Oxy-acetylene welding
Oxy-hydrogen welding or water welding
 Hot pressure welding
Close joint welding
Single pressure welding
Double pressure welding
Open joint method
 Flame cutting
 Hard facing
Oxy-acetylene welding
 It is the common method of gas welding.
 The OAW process combines oxygen and acetylene gases to provide a high temperature
flame for welding.
 This temperature provides enough heat to melt most metals.
 This oxy-acetylene flame may also be used for all types of brazing.
 The main factors that govern the heat input are:
 Fuel gas flow rate.
 Position of inner cone relative to the weld pool surface.
 Travel speed.
 The type of joint determines whether a filler metal should be used to complete the
welding.
Oxy-acetylene welding
Advantages:
 Can be used in all weld positions.
 Filler metal can be properly controlled.
 Heat can be properly adjusted.
 The same equipment with a range of torches can be used for other processes like oxygen
cutting, brazing and braze welding.
Limitations:
 Slow process.
 Less efficiency, since the heat transfer rate is poor when compared to arc welding.
Oxy-hydrogen welding or Water welding
 In oxy-hydrogen process, the fuel gas used is hydrogen.
 Complete combustion of hydrogen requires oxygen to hydrogen ratio of 1:2. This
mixture produces a strong oxidizing flame.
 2H2 + O2 ---- 2H2O
 It is impossible to obtain a neutral flame. But oxidizing flame can be avoided by setting
the regulators for assured excess of hydrogen.
 The flame obtained will be reducing flame but not carburizing flame.
 The temperature will be several hundred degrees lesser than that of the neutral flame.
 Water welding is a micro oxy-hydrogen process, which is used for delicate work such as
joining of electronics leads and connections and in the manufacture of jewelry.
 Exact quantity of hydrogen and oxygen produced from water in a small electrolytic cell
are mixed and hence oxidizing flame is obtained.
 Reducing flame can be obtained by passing the gases over alcohol to enrich the flame.
 Oxy-hydrogen welding is commonly used for welding and brazing of aluminium alloys.
Hot Pressure Welding
 In this process, pressure is used in conjunction with the heat obtained from oxy-acetylene
flames to produce a solid weld.
 Used for most of the higher melting alloys including carbon and low alloy steels, stainless
steels and heat resisting alloys.
 Not suitable for aluminium and magnesium alloys.
 There are two types of hot pressure welding:
 Close joint method
 Open joint method

Close joint:
 In close joint or closed gap method, welding is accomplished by two techniques.
 One is called single pressure welding, in which workpieces to be welded are butted with
some initial pressure. It is heated until a required amount of upsetting takes place.
 In the double pressure technique, with initial pressure after it is heated to the required
temperature, a final pressure is applied to accomplish the upsetting.
Hot Pressure Welding
Open joint:
 A flat multiple type burner is used.
 In this method, between the workpieces and with the burner is important for uniform
heating and oxidation prevention.
 W/p ends are heated by placing the burner b/w the workpieces.
 Once the ends are heated to required temperature, burner is removed and workpieces are
rapidly brought together under a constant pressure to achieve the weld.
Hot Pressure Welding
Advantages:
 Faster than fusion type welding.
 No inclusion or porosity.
 No molten metal is squeezed out as flash.
 Susceptibility to cracking is minimized because the temperature gradient during welding
is not steep.
Limitations:
 Butting surfaces must be flat, clean and parallel, and thereby increases the cost of
preparation.
 Increases the size of w/p requires more time to transmit heat inward to metal farthest
from the surface.
Applications:
 Joining pipe sections, aircraft landing gear components, rails, roadrails and drill bits.
Flame cutting
 In oxy-acetylene gas cutting, an oxy-acetylene flame is used to heat the metal and an
oxygen jet is used to perform the cutting.
Equipment:
 The equipment is similar to OAW except the design of the torch.
 The cutting torch has a high-pressure valve that is activated by a lever. In addition to
the oxygen and acetylene adjustment valves, the high-pressure oxygen valve when
pressed, releases a jet of oxygen through the tip.
 The welding tip has one orifice but the cutting tip has multiple orifices.
 Flame cutting

Process:
 All metals oxidize when exposed to oxygen in the atmosphere. In this metallic oxidation,
particles of base metal combine to form a layer on metal.
 Sometimes it acts as a protective coating for the metal. But in most of the ferrous metals,
the oxide is a loose, porous coating.
 This allows more base metal to be exposed to the atmosphere, forming more and more of
the oxide.
 This is continued until the whole structure turns into ferrous oxide.
 In oxy-fuel gas cutting, the oxy-fuel gas flame requires the temperature of the metal to
cherry red colour of 800-1000 ºC.
 Then a high-pressure jet of oxygen from the cutting torch is directed at the metal.
 This causes the metal to burn(oxidize) and blow away rapidly.
 The common gases used are acetylene, hydrogen, propane and natural gas.
Hard Facing
 When the surface material applied to a part is hard like a rod or an electrode, the process
is called hard facing.
 Bearing surfaces, metal rock crusher surfaces and the surfaces of the earth moving
equipment are examples of surfaces which wear rapidly.
 These large and expensive parts would have to be replaced if they could not be repaired.
 These metal surfaces may be rebuilt by adding such items as metal ceramics, metalloids
or metal alloys.
 These materials may be added as powders or solids.
Hard Facing
 The methods used to apply the surfacing material are hard facing and thermal spraying.
 Hard facing is done using carburizing flame. This will add the carbon on the surface and
will reduce the oxides on the surfaces of the work.
 Before hard facing, the metal should be thoroughly cleaned and pre-heated to eliminate
warpage.
 The torch tip used is two times larger than the welding tip.
 The metal should be brought to approximately 1204 ºC before the rod is touched to the
work.
 The pre-heating temperature is important. Process is similar to brazing.
 Hard facing by manual oxy-acetylene welding requires a high degree of welder skill to
obtain smooth and high quality deposits.
 This is best suited for hard facing small surface area applications such as facing stem
valves, cutter blades, broken edges of gear teeth and mismatched surface of machinery
components.
Electric Arc Welding
Arc Welding Equipment
 A welding generator (DC) or Transformer (AC)
 Two cables – One for work and one for electrode
 Electrode holder
 Electrode
 Protective shield
 Gloves
 Apron
 Wire Brush
 Chipping hammer
 Goggles
Electric Arc Welding
Polarity: It is the direction of the current flow in a circuit.
DCSP or DCEN:
 Majority of the heat is directed towards the w/p
 Large, heavy deposits
DCRP or DCEP :
 Thin sections, non-ferrous metals
 Overhead welding
 Scour the oxide film from the surface.
 Straight Polarity Reverse Polarity
Under sufficient potential difference, electrons Here electrons liberate from base plate surface and
liberate from the tip of the electrode and strike strike the electrode tip.
the base plate surface.
2/3rd of the total arc heat is generated near base 2/3rd of the total arc heat is generated at electrode tip
plate and rest is generated at electrode tip. and rest is generated near base plate.
Proper fusion of the base metal can be achieved Due to less heat generation near base plate,
easily. So it eliminates the lack of fusion and lack incomplete fusion of the base plate may occur.
of penetration defects.
In case of consumable electrodes, filler metal Filler metal deposition rate is quite high as greater
deposition rate is quite low. portion of heat is generated at electrode tip.
Arc cleaning action (oxide cleaning) is poor. Arc cleaning action is good.
Inclusion defects may arise if base plate surfaces Due to good arc cleaning action, tendency of
are not cleaned properly prior to the welding. inclusion defects reduces.
DCSP may cause high distortion and broader Distortion is less with DCRP and also HAZ is
HAZ in the welded component. narrow.
DCSP is not suitable for welding thin plates. DCSP is suitable for welding thin plates.
Metals with high melting temperature (such as Metals with low melting temperature (such as
stainless steel, titanium) can be suitably joined by copper, aluminum) can be suitably joined by DCSP.
Arc Blow
 It is one of the limitation of DC welding.
 When current flows through electrical conductors, magnetic fields are setup
around them in planes perpendicular to the direction of flow of current.
 When the magnetic flux lines surrounding the electrode or the w/p become
unbalanced they tend to bend the arc away from its intended path resulting in
an arc blow.
 This effect is more at the two ends of the w/p or when welding corners.
 Backward arc blow, Forward arc blow.
Overcoming arc blow
 Switch to AC power. Welders generally prefer DC because it makes for
easier starting and there’s usually less arc wander. If you’re facing arc blow
though, AC is the obvious first step. (It might mean changing the electrode to
one optimized for AC.)
 Shorten the arc length. Not only does this reduce the distance over which the
arc can wander, but it usually means reducing current, which lessens the
magnetic field around the arc.
 Wrap the ground cable around the workpiece. The idea is that this cancels out
any magnetic effects being induced.
 Angle the torch. If the arc is moving a consistent direction – either lagging or
leading the electrode, try angling the torch to compensate.
 Tack Welds. Make tack welds rather than putting in one continuous bead.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
 Shielded metal arc welding is also known as
Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW) or
stick welding.
 This is the most widely used arc welding
method.
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
 The arc stream is formed when the electrode is brought
into contact with the work and withdrawn slightly.
 The current jumps across the gap creating light and heat
energy, which melts the tip of the electrode and a portion
of base metal directly under it.
 The temperature of the arc column is 2700 ºC – 3850 ºC.
The temperature of the molten metal pool is 1500 ºC.
Advantages:
 It can be carried out in any position with highest weld
quality.
 This welding process finds innumerable applications,
because of the availability of a wide variety of electrodes.
 Big range of metals and their alloys can be welded easily.
 The MMAW welding equipment is portable and the cost
is fairly low.
 Can be done with either AC or DC.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Limitations
1. Due to flux coated electrodes, the chances of slag
entrapment and other related defects are more as
compared to MIG and TIG welding.
2. Due to fumes and particles of slag, the arc and
metal transfer is not very clear and thus welding
control in this process is a bit difficult as compared
to MIG welding.
3. Due to limited length of each electrode and brittle
flux coating on it, mechanization is difficult.
Applications:
• Used for steels, stainless steels, cast irons, and
certain nonferrous alloys.
• Not used or rarely used for aluminum and its
alloys, copper alloys, and titanium.
Inert Gas Arc welding
 In this, coalescence is produced by heating with an electric arc between a suitable
electrode and the work.
 Shielding is obtained from an inert gas such as carbon dioxide, helium or argon.
 Pressure is not used, and the filler metal may or may not be used.
 Inert gas welding is done either with non consumable electrode or with the consumable
metal electrode.
 Gas Tungsten Arc welding
 Gas Metal Arc welding
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
 GTAW is also called as Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG). The arc is maintained
between the workpiece and a tungsten electrode provided by an inert gas.
 Because the tungsten electrode is not consumed in this operation, a constant and stable
arc gap is maintained at a constant current level. Melting point is about 3400 ºC.
 The filler metals are similar to the metals to be welded, and flux is not used.
 The shielding gas is usually argon or helium (or a mixture of the two).
 The filler metal is supplied from a filler wire. Welding with GTAW may be done
without filler metals-for example, in the welding of close-fit joints.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
 The welding head (gun or torch) consists of a lightweight handle, with provisions
for holding a stationary tungsten electrode.
 In the welding head, the shielding gas flows by or along the electrode nozzle at the
end of the gun into the arc region.
 This is done to keep the electrode cooler and permits higher currents to be used.
Most guns are also water cooled.
 Depending on the metals to be welded, the power supply is either DC at 200 A or
AC at 500 A.
 In general, AC is preferred for aluminum and magnesium, because the cleaning
action of AC removes oxides and improves weld quality.
 Thorium or zirconium may be used in the tungsten electrodes to improve their
electron emission characteristics. The power supply ranges from 8 to 20 kW.
 Contamination of the tungsten electrode by the molten metal can be a significant
problem, particularly in critical applications, because it can cause discontinuities in
the weld. Therefore, contact of the electrode with the molten-metal pool should be
avoided.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
Advantages:
 High quality welds for suitable applications.
 No spatter because no filler metal through arc.
 Little or no post-weld cleaning because no flux.
Disadvantages:
 Generally slower and more costly than consumable electrode AW processes.
Applications:
 The GTAW process is used for a wide variety of applications and metals,
particularly aluminum, magnesium, titanium, and the refractory metals.
 It is especially suitable for thin metals. The cost of the inert gas makes this process
more expensive than SMAW but provides welds of very high quality and surface
finish.
 GTAW is used in a variety of critical applications with a wide range of workpiece
thicknesses and shapes. The equipment is portable.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
 The method is also known as metal inert-gas
(MIG) welding, utilizes a consumable
electrode.
 The weld area is shielded by an effectively
inert atmosphere of argon, helium, carbon
dioxide, or various other gas mixtures.
 The consumable electrode is in the form of a
wire reel which is fed at a constant rate,
through the feed rollers.
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
 The welding torch is connected to the gas supply cylinder which provides the
necessary inert gas.
 The electrode and the work-piece are connected to the welding power supply.
 The power supplies are always of the constant voltage type only. The current from
the welding machine is changed by the rate of feeding of the electrode wire.
 Normally DC arc welding machines are used for GMAW with electrode positive
(DCRP). The DCRP increases the metal deposition rate and also provides for a
stable arc and smooth electrode metal transfer.
 With DCSP, the arc becomes highly unstable and also results in a large spatter. But
special electrodes having calcium and titanium oxide mixtures as coatings are
found to be good for welding steel with DCSP.
 Metal can be transferred by three methods in the GMAW process:
 In spray transfer, small, molten metal droplets from the electrode are transferred to
the weld area at a rate of several hundred droplets per second.
 The transfer is spatter free and very stable. The average current required in this
process can be reduced with the use of a pulsed arc, which superimposes high-
amplitude pulses onto a low, steady current.
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
 In globular transfer, carbon-dioxide-rich gases are utilized, and globules are
propelled by the forces of the electric-arc transfer of the metal, resulting in
considerable spatter.
 High Welding currents are used, making it possible for greater Weld penetration
and higher welding speed than are achieved in spray transfer.
 Heavier sections commonly are joined by this method.
 In short circuiting, the metal is transferred in individual droplets (more than 50
per second) as the electrode tip touches the molten weld metal and shortcircuits.
 Low currents and voltages are utilized with carbon-dioxide-rich gases and
electrodes made of small-diameter Wire. The power required is about 2 kW.
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
Advantages:
 The temperatures generated in
 All position capability.
GMAW are relatively low;
 Better arc time because of continuous wire
consequently, this method is suitable
electrode.
only for thin sheets and sections of
 Less operator skill required.
less than 6 mm; otherwise
 Long welds can be made without starts and
incomplete fusion may occur.
stops.
 The operation, which is easy to
 Minimal post weld cleaning is required.
perform, is commonly used for
Limitations:
welding ferrous metals in thin
 The surfaces to be welded must be clean.
sections.
 On site welding can be difficult because drafts
Uses
blow the shielding gas away from the weld
 Carbon steels, low alloy steels,
zone.
stainless steels, most aluminum
 Difficult to weld in small corners.
alloys, and zinc based copper alloys
 Welding equipment costly, more complex and
can be welded with the MIG Welder.
less portable.
Submerged-arc Welding
 In submerged-arc welding (SAW), the weld arc is
shielded by a granular flux consisting of lime,
silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride, and
other compounds.
 The flux is fed into the weld zone from a hopper
by gravity flow through a nozzle.
 The thick layer of flux completely covers the
molten metal. It prevents spatter and sparks and
suppresses the intense ultraviolet radiation and
fumes characteristic of the SMAW process.
 The flux also acts as a thermal insulator by
promoting deep penetration of heat into the
workpiece. The unused flux can be recovered
(using a recovery tube), treated, and reused.
 Submerged-arc Welding
 The consumable electrode is a coil of bare round wire 1.5 to 10 mm in diameter; it is
fed automatically through a tube.
 Because the flux is gravity fed, the SAW process is limited largely to welds in a flat or
horizontal position having a backup piece.
 Circular welds can be made on pipes and cylinders-provided that they are rotated
during welding.
 SAW is automated and is used to weld a variety of carbon and alloy steel and
stainless-steel sheets or plates at speeds as high as 5 m/min.
 The quality of the weld is very high-with good toughness, ductility, and uniformity of
properties.
 The SAW process provides very high welding productivity, depositing 4 to 10 times
the amount of weld metal per hour as the SMAW process.
 Typical applications include thick-plate welding for shipbuilding and for pressure
vessels.
Submerged-arc Welding
Advantages:
 Joints can be prepared with a shallow V-groove,
resulting in lesser electrode consumption.
 Wire electrodes are inexpensive.
 Weld spatters are eliminated.
 Nearly 100% deposition efficiency is achieved.
 Welding speed is more.
 Less skill is required.
Limitations:
 Arc starting is very difficult.
 It cannot be used for plates less than 5 mm thick.
 Slag has to be removed continuously after it has
melted in order to avoid entrapment between
passes.
 Only flat position welding is possible.
Electro-slag Welding
 In this process, electrode wire is fed into a
molten slag pool.
 An arc is drawn initially, but is then snuffed
out by the slag, and the heat of fusion is
provided by resistance heating in the slag.
 The components to be welded are set in a
vertical position with a distance of 15 to 30
mm between the butted edges depending
upon their thickness.
 The welding wire and the flux are fed
automatically into the clearance.
 Several electrode wires can be fed
simultaneously if the parts to be welded are
quite thick.
 Electro-slag Welding
 Water cooled copper shoes or slides travel upwards
along the joint.
 They close off the space between the parts to be
welded to prevent slag and molten metal from spilling
out of the pool.
 They also cool the pool of metal and form the weld.
 An arc is established between the steel backing plate
and the electrode wire only at the very beginning of
operation before a pool of molten metal and flux of
sufficient volume has accumulated.
 Further melting of the electrode and base metal is due
to the current flow between the electrode, pool and
slag.
 The molten base metal and the filler metal sink to the
bottom of the slag pool, cool and form a weld in the
joint between the components.
 Electro-slag Welding
Advantages:
 Welding energy density is much higher and
more concentrated.
 Solidification pattern is faster.
 High deposition rate.
 Relatively low cost.
Limitations:
 Under abnormal conditions, the weld may
contain defects like slag inclusions, porosity and
cracks.
 Improper fitting of copper shoes lead to
undercut in the weld.
 Cooling arrangement is required.
Applications:
 Low carbon steels, medium carbon steels and to
a lesser extent of high strength structural steel.
 High strength alloy steels such as stainless steel
and nickel alloys.
Resistance Welding
 Resistance Welding is a pressure welding technique using high current and low
voltage.
 The current passing through the two overlapping workpieces causes local heating
and temperature of the metallic pieces raises to the fusion point due to resistance
offered by the workpieces to flow of current.
 Subsequent application of pressure results in permanent joining of the workpieces
by the formation of weld without the use of filler material.
 Workpieces are placed between two rods or wheels(rolls), which serve as conductor
for producing welds.
 AC electric current is supplied through copper electrodes or rolls connected to the
secondary coil of a welding transformer.
 It is used for welding thin sheets of similar metallic materials.
 The heat generated in resistance welding is given by the general expression, H =
I2Rt.
 Where, H = Heat generated in joules (watt-seconds), I = Current (in amperes), R =
Resistance (in ohms), t = Time of current flow (in seconds).
 Resistance Welding
 The total resistance is the sum of the following properties:
a. Resistances of the electrodes;
b. Electrode-workpiece contact resistance;
c. Resistances of the individual parts to be welded;
d. Contact resistance between the two workpieces to be joined.
 The actual temperature rise at the joint depends on the specific heat and the thermal
conductivity of the metals to be joined.
 For example, metals such as aluminum and copper have high thermal conductivity,
so they require high heat concentrations.
 Similar or dissimilar metals can be joined by resistance welding.
Advantages of Resistance Welding:
 High welding rates; Low fumes; Cost effectiveness; Easy automation; No filler
materials are required; Low distortions.
Disadvantages of Resistance Welding:
 High equipment cost; Low strength in case of discontinuous welds; Thickness of
welded sheets is limited - up to 6 mm.
 Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
 Spot Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW)
process, in which two or more overlapped metal
sheets are joined by spot welds.
 The method uses pointed copper electrodes
providing passage of electric current. The
electrodes also transmit pressure required for
formation of strong weld.
 Diameter of the weld spot is in the range 3 - 12
mm.
 It consist of a transformer core having primary
and secondary winding. One end of secondary
winding is connected to upper electrode and
other electrode is connected to lower electrode.
 The workpieces to be weld are pressed between
tips of the electrodes and high current at low
voltages is passed through the workpieces.
 Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
Spot Welding Cycle
(1) parts inserted between electrodes, (2) electrodes close, force applied,
(3) current on, (4) current off, (5) electrodes opened.
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
 Due to resistance offered by the workpieces ( sheet metal ) to the flow of
current , the temperature at the contact surfaces rises to fusion point and the
weld is completed on freezing.
 The operation is repeated by changing the position of the workpiece plate to
get the weld at another point.
 Because of the widespread application of sheet metal parts, resistance spot
welding finds extensive application in the aircraft, automobile industries and
railway car building.
 Spot welding is primarily restricted to thin metals namely, steels, stainless
steels, aluminium, magnesium, nickel, nickel alloys, bronze and brass.
 Some dissimilar metals can be spot welded, but with difficulty.
 The diameter of the spot welds, d = 1.4t + 4 mm, for t <3 mm, 1.5t + 5 mm for
t >3 mm.
 t = thickness of the parts being welded.
 Spacing of spot welds = 3d.
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
Advantages:
 Fast welding rate.
 Dimensional Accuracy.
 Quick setup time.
 Economical. Low unit cost per unit weld.
 Energy waste is less since it has small heat affected zone.
 No skilled operators required.
Limitations:
 High power consumption.
 High initial investment.
 Hard alloys cannot be spot welded.
 Can only be used for metals having thickness of 1-5 mm.
 Low tensile and fatigue strength.
 Not portable.
Resistance Seam Welding
 It is a continuous type of spot welding wherein spot welds overlap each other
to the desired extent.
 In this process coalescence at the faying surfaces is produced by the heat
obtained from the resistance to electric current (flow) through the work pieces
held together under pressure by circular electrodes.
 The resulting weld is a series of overlapping resistance-spots welds made
progressively along a joint by rotating the circular electrodes.
 Resistance Seam Welding
 The seam welding is similar to spot welding, except that circular rolling
electrodes are used to produce a continuous air-tight seam of overlapping welds.
 Seam welding may be either intermittent or continuous seam. In the former case,
a current interrupter is employed.
 When the AC is left on, a spot weld is made every time the current reaches its
peak, and the welds are spaced close enough to give a gas and liquid-tight joint.
 The rollers are made of the same materials as the electrodes for spot welding.
 Rollers may vary in diameter from 40 to 350 mm. Welding speeds range is
commonly from 0.5 to 3.5 m/min.
 In most cases of seam welding, a stream of water is directed over the disc
electrodes and the area of the work pieces being welded to keep everything cool
except the joint interface.
 Seam welding is high speed and clean process, which is used when continuous
tight weld is required (fuel tanks, drums, domestic radiators, gasoline tanks,
automobile muffler).
Resistance Seam Welding
Advantages:
 Used to produce highly efficient water and gas tight joints.
 Same machines can be used for intermittent spot welding called roll welding.
Limitations:
 Restricted to metals that have low hardenability rating.
 Restricted to welding of thin materials.
 Possibility of shunting current.
 Excessive heat in welding requires cooling of electrodes.
 Resistance Butt welding
 It is of two types
1. Upset welding, 2. Flash welding
Upset welding:
 Upset Welding is used to join the pieces
end to end. The process is best suited to
rods, pipes and many other parts of
uniform cross section.
 In upset butt welding, the parts are
clamped and brought in solid contact and
current is applied so that the heat is
generated through the contact areas of the
parts.
 When the temperature of the interface
reaches to plastic state, the current is
switched off and the two parts are
pressed together firmly.
 Resistance Butt welding
 This results in lateral flow of the surfaces oxide
layers. This action of pressing together is called
upsetting.
 Butt welding is used for welding small parts. The
process is highly productive and clean.
 The welding voltage may vary from 5 to 15V
while the current densities range from 300 to 800
A/cm2.
 Because the contact resistance is inversely
proportional to the pressure, therefore, the
pressure is less at the start and is then increased
to whatever is necessary to affect the weld.
 It is extensively used in fabrication of tubular
sections, pipe and heavy steel rings.
 It is also used for joining small ferrous and non
ferrous strips.
 Resistance Butt welding
Flash Butt welding:
 Flash welding is similar to upset welding except that
the heat is obtained by means of an arc than the
simple resistance heating.
 The two parts are brought together and the power
supply is switched on.
 As the parts are moved closer, flashing or arcing
raises the temperature of the parts to a welding
temperature.
 Now power is switched off and two parts are rapidly
pressed (forced) together causing a small upset. This
squeezes out liquid metal and oxides, formed on the
joint surfaces and the two parts are welded together.
 Thick pipes, ends of band saws, frames, aircraft
landing gears are produced by Flash Welding.
Flash Butt welding:
 This process is used for joining thin-
walled tubes, rails, chain links, tools,
press manufactured parts.
 Also, dissimilar metals can readily be
welded including refractory metals such
as tungsten, molybdenum and tantalum.
 Used for joining the ends of wire and
sheet coils to allow the continuous
operation of processing lines.
 Percussion welding
 This process uses the heating effect of a high-
intensity electric arc produced by a rapid
discharge of electric energy, in combination
with a percussion blow to forge weld metal
pieces together.
 When the movable clamp is released, it moves
rapidly along with one of the workpiece.
 When the two parts are about 1.6 mm apart,
there is a sudden discharge of electric energy.
 This causes intense arcing over the surfaces and
brings them to high temperature.
 The arc is extinguished by the percussion blow
of the two parts coming together with sufficient
force to effect the weld.
• Percussion welding makes it possible to weld parts having considerable differences in
mass and in thermal and electrical conductivity, for example, welding of copper to
steels, steel to magnesium alloys and so on.
Percussion welding
 It is used for special joining situations, for example, joining dissimilar metals
that cannot be welded economically by flash welding.
 Used to weld pins, studs, bolts and so on, to other components as well as to
join sections of pipe, rod or tube to each other or to flat sections.
 Since control of the path of an arc is difficult and also because of the impact
required, the method is limited to small pieces (150 to 300 mm2).
Advantages:
 Faster in operation.
 Very small cross-sectional areas can be welded.
 Extremely shallow depth of heat can be obtained.
Limitations:
 Complex nature of the process.
 Ends of a continuous workpiece cannot be joined as in resistance butt seam
welding,
Plasma arc welding
Principle:
 The hot ionized gases are known as plasma. When a sufficient amount of
energy provided to any inert gas, some of its electrons breaks free from its
nucleus but travel with it.
 After the electrons leave, the atoms are converted into hot ionized state. It is
most common state of matter witch is known as fourth state of matter.
 These ionized atoms have high heat contain which is further used to join two
plates. This is basic principle of plasma arc welding.
 This welding is extended form of TIG welding in which, a non-consumable
tungsten electrode is used to produce arc.
 This arc heats up the inert gases which are provided from inner orifice around
tungsten electrode.
 The heating temperature is about 30000 ºC at which the gas converts into
ionized form. This hot ionized gas further used to create a welding joint by
fusion.
Plasma arc welding
Working:
 This welding works on same as TIG instead, plasma is used to heat up the
parent material. Its working can be summarized as follow.
 First the work pieces are properly cleaned. The power source supply power
which produces arc between tungsten electrode and nozzle, or tungsten
electrode and workpiece.
Plasma arc welding
 The tungsten electrode gives a high intense arc
which is used to ionization of gas particles and
converts orifice gases into plasma. This hot
ionized gas is supplied to the welding plates
from a small orifice.
 The shielding gases like argon etc. are supplied
through pressure valve and regulating valve to
the outer nozzle of welding torch. These gases
create a shield around the welding area which
protect it from atmospheric gases like oxygen,
nitrogen etc.
 The plasma strikes the welding plates and fuses
it into one piece. Next the welding torch is
moved in the direction of welding.
 If the welding required filler material, it is fed
by the welder manually.
Plasma arc welding
Types:
 Mainly plasma arc welding can be
classified into two types.
Non-transferred plasma arc
welding:
 In this welding process, straight
polarity DC current is used.
 In this process, the tungsten electrode
is connected to the negative and the
nozzle is connected to the positive
pole.
 The arc produces between tungsten
electrode and nozzle inside the torch.
This will increase the ionization of
gas inside the torch.
 The torch transfers this ionized gas
for further process. It is used to weld
thin sheets.
Plasma arc welding
Transferred plasma arc welding:
 This process also uses straight polarity DC current. In this process, the
tungsten electrode is connected to the negative terminal and the work piece is
connected to the positive terminal.
 The arc is produces between tungsten electrode and work piece.
 In this process both plasma and arc transferred to the work piece which
increases the heating capacity of process. It is used to weld thick sheets.
Advantages:
 High welding speed.
 High energy available for welding. It can be easily used to weld hard and thick
work pieces.
 The distance between tool and work piece does not effects the arc formation.
 Low power consumption for same size weld.
 More stable arc produced by PAW method.
 High intense arc or high penetration rate.
Plasma arc welding
Disadvantages:
 Higher equipment cost.
 Noisy operation.
 More radiation.
 High skill labor required.
 High maintenance cost.
Applications:
 This welding is used in marine and aerospace industries.
 It is used to weld pipes and tubes of stainless steel or titanium.
 It is mostly used in electronic industries.
 It is used to repair tools, die and mold.
 It is used to welding or coating on turbine blade.
Thermit Welding
 Thermit welding is a fusion welding process that makes use of the
intense heat produced when a mixture containing iron oxide and
powdered aluminium is ignited. The reaction is based on the high
affinity of aluminium is ignited.
 It reduces iron oxide to thermit steel and slag, like this
 8Al + 3Fe3O4 ---- 9Fe + 4Al2O3 (Slag) + Heat
 The superheated molten metal is poured at the desired place which on
solidification forms the welded joint.
 The process is thus essentially a combination of casting and welding
processes.
 The Thermit mixture consists primarily of finely divided aluminium
and iron oxide in the ratio of about 1: 3 by weight.
Thermit Welding
 The mixture is filled in a specially designed refractory crucible and
the reaction is started by igniting the mixture with a highly
inflammable powder consisting of Barium Peroxide.
 When the mixture is ignited, an ignition temperature of 1150 ºC is
attained which initiates the main thermit reaction.
 The reaction is self sustaining and very rapid as it is exothermic.
 A temperature of the order of 3000 ºC is produced resulting in
super heated thermit steel.
 Slag being very light floats over the thermit steel thereby
protecting the metal from atmospheric gases.
Thermit Welding
There are two types of thermit welding
processes:
 Plastic or pressure welding process
 Fusion or non-pressure welding process
Pressure Thermit Welding:
 In this process two uniform lengths of material
having equal areas at the joint interface are
aligned axially; their ends are heated to the
desired temperature by the products of the
thermit reaction and are then thrust together
under controlled pressure to make a solid-
phase butt weld.
 Fig. shows pipe being pressure welded by
enclosing the joint with a permanent mould
thus allowing the superheated steel and slag to
flow in contact around the pipe to serve as the
source of welding heat.
Thermit Welding
 Pressure Thermit Welding:
 A suitably designed clamp mechanism is employed to force the pipe ends
together, after heating, to accomplish the weld.
 This arrangement of heating, however, is suitable only for workpieces with
small cross-sectional areas.
 The faces of larger joints can be spaced a small distance apart with a
removable mould held around them.
 The space between the faces and the rest of the mould is filled with thermit
and the reaction initiated.
 The reaction products are allowed to stay in position till sufficient heat is
transferred to the faces to be joined.
 The mould and the reaction products arc then removed and the two faces are
thrust together to accomplish a solid-state weld.
Thermit Welding
Non pressure thermit welding:
 In making a thermit weld a mould is built around the
sections to be welded and is preheated before use.
 This is done by first cutting the ends of the pieces to
be welded to provide a gap with parallel faces.
 The gap is filled with wax which serves as a pattern
for the weld.
 The ends of the work pieces are enclosed in a suitable
flask and moulding sand rammed around the joint
taking care to provide openings for the runner, riser
and a heating gate.
 Heat is applied through the melting gate to melt out
the wax and to preheat the ends of the pieces to be
welded.
 The heating gate is then plugged with an iron plug or
sand core to prevent flow of thermit metal.
Thermit Welding
 Thermit reaction is started in the thermit crucible and the resulting
superheated steel is let in, from the bottom of the crucible.
 The slag being lighter floats over the molten metal in the crucible. It flows
last and remains at the top of the mould where it solidifies.
 Clean metal enters the mould around the sections to be welded.
 The temperature of the molten steel entering the mould is around 2500 ºC.
 The heat of the superheated metal fuses and amalgamates the sections
together forming joint on solidification.
 After the joint has solidified the mould is broken open and discarded.
Thermit Welding
Advantages:
 1. Thermit welding is a simple and fast process of joining similar or dissimilar metals.
 2. This process is cheap, as no costly power supply is required.
 3. This process can be used at the places where power supply is not available.
Disadvantages:
 1. Thermit welding is essentially used for ferrous metal parts of heavy sections.
 2. It is uneconomical for welding cheap metals and light parts.
Applications:
 (i) Thermit welding is traditionally used for the welding of very thick and heavy
plates.
 (ii) Thermit welding is used in joining rail roads, pipes and thick steel sections.
 (iii) Thermit welding is also used in repairing heavy castings and gears.
 (iv) Thermit welding is suitable to weld large sections such as locomotive rails, ship
hulls etc.
 (v) Thermit welding is used for welding cables made of copper.
Electron Beam Welding
 In EBW process, the heat is generated when the electron
beam impinges on work piece.
 As the high velocity electron beam strikes the surfaces
to be welded, their kinetic energy changes to thermal
energy and hence causes the workpiece metal to melt
and fuse.
 This process employs an electron gun in which the
cathode in form of hot filament of tungsten or tantalum
is the source of a stream of electrons.
 The electrons emitted from filament by thermionic
emission are accelerated to a high velocity to the anode
because of the large potential difference that exists
between them.
 The potential differences that are used are of the order
of 30 kV to 175 kV.
 The higher the potential difference, higher would be the
acceleration. The current levels are low ranging
between 50 mA to 1000 mA.
Electron Beam Welding
 The electron beam is focused by a magnetic lens system
on the workpieces to be welded.
 The depth of penetration of the weld depends on the
electron speed which in turn is dependent upon the
accelerating voltage.
 When the high velocity electron beam strikes the work-
piece all the kinetic energy is converted to heat.
 As these electrons penetrate the metal, the material that is
directly in the path is melted which when solidifies form
the joint.
 Electron beam welding has several advantages which may
not be found in other welding processes.
 The penetration of the beam is high.
 It is also possible to closely control this penetration by
controlling the accelerating voltage, beam current, and
beam focus.
 No filler metal or flux needs to be used in this process.
Electron Beam Welding
Advantages:
 Ability to make welds that are deeper, narrower and less tapered than arc
welds with a total heat input much lower than in arc welding.
 Superior control over penetration and other weld dimensions and properties.
 Higher welding speeds.
 Clean and sound welds.
Limitations:
 High precision of seam preparation.
 Beam may be deflected by magnetism.
 Size of workpiece limited by chamber size.
 High investment.
Appliactions:
 Used in applications involving high precision and high production rate such as
aerospace, nuclear and electronic industries.
Laser Beam Welding
 Laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
 Laser Beam Welding (LBW) is a fusion joining process that produces coalescence of
materials with the heat obtained from a concentrated beam of coherent, monochromatic
light impinging on the joint to be welded.
 In the LBM process, the laser beam is directed by flat optical elements, such as mirrors and
then focused to a small spot (for high power density) at the workpiece using either reflective
focusing elements or lenses.
• It is a non-contact process, requiring no
pressure to be applied. Inert gas
shielding is generally employed to
prevent oxidation of the molten puddle
and filler metals may be occasionally
used.
• There are two types of lasers in use: solid
state lasers, for example, ruby (an Al2O3
crystal with Cr ions) and Gas lasers. Here
we shall consider solid laser.
Laser Beam Welding
 The laser crystal (Ruby) is in the form of a cylinder, the
ends being flat and parallel to a high degree of accuracy
and silvered to give mirror reflecting surfaces.
 There is a small aperture on the axis of the crystal,
through the mirror at the output end.
 When the crystal is pumped with high intensity white
light from a xenon or krypton lamp, the Cr ions in the
crystal get excited.
 The excited ions possess more energy and some of it is
given as red fluorescent light.
 This light is reflected back and forward in the crystal
between the two ends, striking more Cr ions on the path.
 These ions affected by the collisions are each caused to
emit their quota of red light.
Laser Beam Welding
 There is a cumulative effect of the increasing red light exciting more and more Cr ions,
until the number of collisions is high enough to cause a burst of red light through the
small aperture in the mirror at the output end of the crystal.
 The beam produced is extremely narrow and can be focused to a pin point area by an
optical lens.
Advantages:
 Does nor require vacuum.
 Better quality of weld.
 Beam can be easily shaped, directed and focused.
 No direct contact is necessary to produce a weld.
 Produce maximum penetration and minimum distortion in the material.
Laser Beam Welding
Limitations:
 Very high investment.
 Process limits to thin sheets and plates.
 High power consumptions.
 High safety precautions.

Applications:

 Laser beam welding can be used for welding of corrosion resistant steels and
titanium alloys requiring high quality welds. Currently it is finding wide use in
communication engineering application where very fine wires are required to be
welded and on micro circuit boards etc. The process is also useful for welding of
different combinations of metal as well for welding of transparent materials.
 Ultrasonic Welding
 In ultrasonic welding (USW), the faying surfaces of the
two components are subjected to a static normal force and
oscillating shearing (tangential) stresses.
 The shearing stresses are applied by the tip of a
transducer, which is similar to that used for ultrasonic
machining.
 The frequency of oscillation is generally in the range from
10 to 75 kHz, although a lower or higher frequency can be
employed.
 Proper coupling between the transducer and the tip
(called-by analogy with electrode-a sonotrode, from the
word sonic) is important for efficient operation.
 The shearing stresses cause plastic deformation at the
interface of the two components, breaking up oxide films
and contaminants and thus allowing good contact and
producing a strong solid-state bond.
Ultrasonic Welding
 The temperature generated in the weld zone is usually in the range from one-third to
one-half of the melting point of the metals joined. Consequently, neither melting nor
fusion takes place.
 In certain situations, however, the temperature generated can be sufficiently high to
cause metallurgical changes in the weld zone.
 Also, the mechanism responsible for the joining of thermoplastics by ultrasonic welding
is different from that for metals, and melting does take place at the interface, because
plastics have much lower melting temperatures.
 The ultrasonic-welding process is versatile and reliable. It can be used with a wide
variety of metallic and nonmetallic materials, including dissimilar metals.
 The welding tip can be replaced with rotating disks for the seam welding of structures in
which one component is sheet, foil, or polymer-woven material.
 The method is also employed for welding parts made of organic glass, PVC plastic,
polyethylene, vinyl chloride and polystyrene, with maximum thickness of welded
components being 10 mm.
Ultrasonic Welding
Advantages:
 Welds are strong and free from foreign inclusions.
 Very little preparation is needed for the weld; usually it involves degreasing.
 Thin pieces can be welded to thicker pieces.
 Potential manpower savings.
 Melting point not reached.
Limitations:
 Can be used only for thin metals and thermoplastics.
 Only limited joint configurations can be welded.
Applications:
 Air-craft constructions, for the building of transistors, for fine-wire assemblies, bimetal
electrical contacts, light-gauge metal for the production of containers and for the
welding of aluminium foil for packaging requirements.
Friction Welding
Friction Stir welding
 In conventional friction welding, heating of
an interface " is achieved through friction by
rubbing two contacting surfaces.
 In the friction-stir-welding (FSW) process, a
third body is rubbed against the two surfaces
to be joined.
 A rotating non- consumable probe, typically
5 to 6 mm in diameter and 5 mm high, is
plunged into the joint.
 The contact pressure causes frictional
heating, raising the temperature to between
230° and 260°C.
 The probe at the tip of the rotating tool forces
mixing (or stirring) of the material in the
joint.
Friction Stir welding
 Materials such as aluminum, copper, steel, and titanium have been welded successfully,
and developments are taking place to extend FSW applications to polymers and
composite materials.
 The process is now being applied to aerospace, automotive, shipbuilding, and military
vehicles, using sheet or plates.
 With developments in rotating-tool design, other possible applications include inducing
microstructural changes, refining grain in materials, and improving localized toughness
in castings.
Advantages: Limitations:
 Brazing:
• Brazing is when a filler
metal or alloy is heated
to its melting
temperature above
450 °C.

• In this case only filler

metal melts, there is no
melting of workpiece
metal.
 Brazing Process:

1. In a brazing operation, you

apply heat broadly to the
base metals.

2. The filler metal is drawn

through the joint to create
this bond is capillary
action.
 Brazing Methods:
• Torch Brazing:-
flux is applied to the
part surfaces and a
torch is used to focus
flame against the work
at the joint. A reducing
flame is used to
prevent the oxidation.
• Furnace Brazing :
Furnace Brazing used to heat the workpieces to be joined
by brazing operation. The component parts and brazing
metal are loaded into a furnace, heated to brazing
temperature, and then cooled and removed.
 Induction Brazing:-

A process that uses electrical

resistance of workpiece and high frequency current
induced into the same as a source of heat generation.
The parts are pre-loaded with filler metal and placed in
a high frequency AC field.

Power
supply
 Dip Brazing:

Assembled parts are typically dipped in a

heated chemical bath which serve as both fluxing agent and
heat source to melt pre-applied filler material.
Brazing Welds:
 Advantages of Brazing:
1. Any metals can be joined including dissimilar
metals.

2. Certain brazing methods can be performed quickly.

3. Brazing can be applied to join thin-walled parts that

can’t be welded.

4. In general, less heat and power are required than in

fusion welding.
 Disadvantages of Brazing:
1. Joint strenght is generally less than that of a welded
joint.

2. Although strenght of a good brazed joint is greater

than that of the filler metal it is likely to be less than
that of the base metals.

3. High service temperatures may weaken a brazed

joint

4. The colour of the metal in brazed joint may not

match the colour of the base metal parts
Soldering:
Definition:-

• The joining of metals using a filler material of a lower

melting point than that of the parent metals to be
joined.
 Soldering Process:
1. Heat both items by applying the
soldering iron to the copper pad and the
component lead.
1

2. Continue heating and apply a few

millimeters of solder. Remove the iron and
allow the solder joint to cool naturally.
2

3. It only takes a second or two to make the

perfect joint, which should appear shiny.

3 5
 Solder:
• Solder is an alloy of Tin and Lead.

• The solder used for electronics is frequently called

60/40 solder because it is made of 63% tin and 37%
lead.

• 60/40 solder melts at 361 F.

• Multi-core solder is the usual form for electrical

work.

9
 Soldering Iron:
Typically 25-30 watts
Tip Temperature 750°F (400 °C)

10
 What is Flux?

 Flux is a chemical compound.

 Is applied and shields the joint surface from air

and prevents oxide formation.

 Although flux will dissolve and

absorb oxides.
 Applications:
• Soldering is use in
electronics and in
jewelry metalwork.

• Some refrigeration
components are often
assumbled and repaired
by the higher
temperature silver
soldering process.
 Applications:
• It can also be used as a
semi-permanent patch
for a leak in a container
or cooking vessel.

• Electronic soldering
connects electrical
wiring and electronic
components to printed
circuit boards (PCBs)
 Advantages of Soldering:
1. Low power is required.

2. Low process temperature.

3. Microstructure is not affected by heat.

4. Easily automated process.

5. Dissimilar materials may be joined.

6. High variety of materials may be joined.

7. Thin wall parts may be joined.

 Disadvantages of soldering:
1. Large sections cannot be joined.

2. Fluxes may contain toxic components.

3. Soldering joints can not be used in high

temperature applications.

4. Low strength of joints.

5. Careful removal of the flux residuals is required in

order to prevent corrosion.