MOBILE COMPUTING CHAPTER-2

Elementary Knowledge on Medium Access Control

1. Motivation for a specialized MAC: In wireless networks, multiple devices share the same
medium for communication. To avoid collisions and ensure efficient use of the medium, a
specialized Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol is necessary. The MAC protocol governs
how devices access and transmit data over the shared medium.

2. Hidden and Exposed Terminals: Hidden terminals refer to situations where two devices are
within the range of a common receiver but are unable to detect each other. This can lead to
collisions when both devices transmit simultaneously. Exposed terminals, on the other hand,
occur when a device refrains from transmitting due to interference from another device,
even though it may not cause any actual collision.

3. Near and Far Terminals: Near terminals are devices that are physically close to each other,
resulting in a strong signal strength. Far terminals, on the other hand, are devices located far
apart, leading to weaker signal strength. The presence of near and far terminals can affect
the overall network performance and the choice of MAC protocols.

4. Introduction to SDMA, FDMA, TDMA: Fixed TDM:

• Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA): SDMA is a technique that allows multiple devices to
simultaneously access the same frequency band by utilizing spatial separation. It requires
multiple antennas to distinguish between different users.

• Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): FDMA divides the available frequency spectrum
into multiple non-overlapping channels and assigns each channel to a specific user. Each user
has exclusive access to their assigned frequency channel.

• Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): TDMA divides the transmission time into fixed time
slots, and each user is allocated a specific time slot. Users take turns transmitting during their
allocated time slot. Fixed TDM is a specific form of TDMA where time slots are allocated
equally to users without any dynamic assignment.

5. Classical Aloha and Slotted Aloha:

• Classical Aloha: Classical Aloha is an early random access MAC protocol where devices
transmit data whenever they have data to send. Collisions may occur, and retransmissions
are required in case of collisions.

• Slotted Aloha: Slotted Aloha improves the efficiency of Aloha by dividing time into fixed slots.
Devices are allowed to transmit only at the beginning of a time slot, reducing the chances of
collisions.

6. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA): CSMA is a contention-based MAC protocol where
devices listen to the medium before transmitting. If the medium is busy, they wait until it
becomes idle before transmitting. CSMA reduces the chances of collisions but does not
completely eliminate them.

7. Demand Assigned Multiple Access (DAMA): DAMA is a reservation-based MAC protocol

where devices request and reserve a time slot or frequency channel in advance for their
transmission. This ensures dedicated and interference-free access to the medium during the
reserved time slots.
 8. PRMA (Packet Reservation Multiple Access): PRMA is a reservation-based MAC protocol
where devices reserve slots in advance for packet transmission. The reservation is made for
both packet headers and payloads, allowing efficient utilization of the medium.

9. Reservation TDMA: Reservation TDMA is a time division multiple access (TDMA) variant
where devices reserve specific time slots for their transmissions. This ensures dedicated
access to the medium during the reserved time slots.

10. Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance: Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA) is
a MAC protocol that uses explicit communication between devices to avoid collisions. It
includes mechanisms for devices to exchange control messages before transmitting, ensuring
collision-free transmission.

11. Polling: Polling is a centralized MAC protocol where a central device, called the poller or
controller, controls the access to the medium. The poller sequentially grants permission to
devices to transmit data, eliminating collisions.

12. Inhibit Sense Multiple Access (ISMA): ISMA is a MAC protocol where devices sense the
medium and inhibit their transmissions if they detect other ongoing transmissions. This helps
in avoiding collisions and maintaining efficient access to the medium.

13. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access): CDMA is a spread spectrum-based MAC protocol
where multiple devices share the same frequency band by using unique codes to
differentiate their signals. CDMA allows simultaneous transmission and reception by multiple
devices, enabling efficient utilization of the frequency spectrum.

14. Spread Aloha Multiple Access: Spread Aloha is a multiple access scheme that combines
spread spectrum techniques with the Aloha protocol. It spreads the transmitted signal across
a wider bandwidth, improving resistance to interference and collisions.

15. Mobile Communications: Mobile communications refer to wireless communication systems

that allow users to communicate while on the move. These systems use various wireless
technologies and MAC protocols to enable seamless and reliable communication.

16. Comparison of S/T/F/CDMA: S/T/F/CDMA refers to the different multiple access schemes:
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA), Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), Frequency
Division Multiple Access (FDMA), and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA). Each scheme
has its advantages and is suitable for different scenarios. SDMA allows spatial separation,
TDMA divides time slots, FDMA divides frequency bands, and CDMA uses unique codes for
differentiating signals.

These elementary concepts provide an overview of various MAC protocols and multiple access
schemes used in wireless communication systems. Understanding these concepts is essential for
designing efficient and reliable wireless networks.

Elementary Knowledge on Telecommunications Systems

1. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications): GSM is a widely used telecommunications
system for mobile communication. It provides voice and data services to mobile devices.
Here are some key aspects of GSM:
• Mobile Services: GSM supports various mobile services such as voice calls, short messaging
service (SMS), multimedia messaging service (MMS), and data services like General Packet
Radio Service (GPRS) and Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE).

• System Architecture: GSM consists of several components, including Mobile Stations (MS),
Base Transceiver Stations (BTS), Base Station Controllers (BSC), Mobile Switching Centers
(MSC), and Home Location Registers (HLR). These components work together to provide
seamless communication between mobile devices.

• Radio Interface: The radio interface in GSM involves the exchange of information between
the mobile device and the base station. It utilizes a combination of time division multiple
access (TDMA) and frequency division multiple access (FDMA) techniques to allocate
channels for communication.

• Protocols: GSM uses various protocols for different functionalities, such as the Mobile
Application Part (MAP) for signaling between network entities, the Radio Resource Control
(RRC) protocol for managing radio resources, and the Global System for Mobile
Communications - Packet (GSM-GPRS) protocol for packet-switched data transmission.

• Localization and Calling: GSM employs various techniques for localization and calling,
including location area identification, cell identification, and the use of Mobile Subscriber
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) Numbers (MSISDN) for addressing mobile
subscribers. It also supports various call services like voice calls, call forwarding, call waiting,
and conference calls.

• Handover: Handover is the process of transferring an ongoing call or data session from one
cell to another as a mobile device moves. GSM supports different types of handovers,
including intra-cell handover, inter-cell handover, and inter-MSC handover, to ensure
seamless communication during mobility.

• Security: GSM provides security features to protect communication and user information. It
includes authentication mechanisms, encryption algorithms, and access control to prevent
unauthorized access and eavesdropping.

• New Data Services: GSM introduced new data services like GPRS and EDGE, enabling faster
data transmission rates and facilitating mobile internet access, email, and other data-
intensive applications.

2. DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications): DECT is a digital wireless

communication standard primarily used for cordless telephony. It offers improved voice
quality, security, and range compared to older analog cordless systems. Here are some key
aspects of DECT:

• System Architecture: DECT consists of several components, including DECT Base Stations
(BS), DECT Portable Parts (PP), and DECT Controllers. The DECT Base Station connects to the
telephone network, while DECT Portable Parts are the cordless handsets.

• Protocol Architecture: DECT uses a layered protocol architecture, including the Physical Layer,
Data Link Layer, Network Layer, and higher layers. Each layer performs specific functions
related to transmission, link establishment, network routing, and service provision.

• DECT protocols: DECT employs various protocols, such as the Medium Access Control (MAC)
protocol for managing access to the medium, the Link Control Protocol (LCP) for link
 establishment and management, and the DECT Network Protocol (DNP) for network-related
functions.

DECT offers secure and reliable voice communication, and it is commonly used in residential and
business environments for cordless telephony.

Understanding the elementary knowledge of telecommunications systems like GSM and DECT is
crucial for comprehending the underlying technology and functionalities of mobile communication
networks. These systems have played a significant role in enabling wireless communication, voice
services, and the evolution of data services in the telecommunications industry.

Elementary Knowledge on Satellite Systems

1. History of Satellite Systems: Satellite systems have a rich history that dates back to the mid-
20th century. The first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in
1957. Since then, satellites have become an integral part of modern telecommunications and
have been used for various applications, including communication, navigation, weather
monitoring, and scientific research.

2. Applications of Satellite Systems: Satellite systems have a wide range of applications across
different industries and sectors. Some common applications include:

• Communication: Satellites enable long-distance communication by relaying signals between

ground-based stations. They are used for telephone, television, internet, and other data
services, especially in remote areas without reliable terrestrial infrastructure.

• Navigation: Satellite-based navigation systems, such as GPS (Global Positioning System),

provide accurate positioning, navigation, and timing information for various applications,
including transportation, logistics, and outdoor activities.

• Remote Sensing: Satellites equipped with sensors and cameras capture images and data
about the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and oceans. This information is used for weather
forecasting, environmental monitoring, agriculture, and disaster management.

• Scientific Research: Satellites are essential for space exploration and scientific research. They
are used to study celestial objects, gather astronomical data, and conduct experiments in
microgravity environments.

3. Basics of Satellite Systems: Satellite systems operate by placing satellites in specific orbits
around the Earth. The three main types of satellite orbits are:

• Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO): Satellites in GEO orbits are positioned at approximately
35,786 kilometers above the Earth's equator. They have an orbital period equal to the Earth's
rotation period, allowing them to remain fixed relative to a specific location on the ground.
GEO satellites are commonly used for communication and broadcasting services.

• Low Earth Orbit (LEO): LEO satellites are positioned at altitudes ranging from a few hundred
to a few thousand kilometers. They have shorter orbital periods and move at higher speeds
compared to GEO satellites. LEO satellites are used for applications like remote sensing,
satellite-based internet, and global broadband connectivity.

• Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): MEO satellites are positioned at altitudes between GEO and LEO
orbits. They provide a compromise between coverage area and signal latency. MEO satellites
are commonly used for navigation systems like the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS).
 4. Routing in Satellite Systems: Routing in satellite systems involves the selection of optimal
paths for data transmission between ground-based stations via satellites. Routing algorithms
consider factors such as signal strength, link quality, available bandwidth, and latency to
determine the most efficient path for data transmission.

5. Localization in Satellite Systems: Localization in satellite systems refers to the process of

determining the geographical position of a user or device on the Earth's surface. Satellite-
based navigation systems, such as GPS, use signals from multiple satellites to triangulate the
user's position accurately. Localization is crucial for various applications, including navigation,
tracking, and emergency services.

6. Handover in Satellite Systems: Handover is the process of transferring an ongoing

communication session from one satellite or ground station to another as the user or device
moves. Handover ensures continuous connectivity and seamless communication during
satellite transitions. Handover techniques consider factors such as signal strength, link
quality, and coverage area to facilitate uninterrupted communication.

Satellite systems have revolutionized global communication, navigation, and remote sensing
capabilities. Understanding the basics of satellite systems helps us comprehend the significance of
satellite technology and its applications in various domains.