Chapter One

The Nature of Light

1
 Outline

▪ Introduction
▪ A brief history
▪ Particles and photons
▪ The Electromagnetic Spectrum

2
 Introduction

Physics (Fundamental Science) can be divided into six

major areas:
❑ Classical Mechanics
❑ Relativity

❑ Thermodynamics

❑ Electromagnetism

❑ Optics

❑ Quantum Mechanics

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 Introduction

What is Optics?
▪ Optics is the study of the behavior and properties of
light, including its interactions with matter and the
construction of instruments that use for detect it.

▪ Optics usually describes the behavior of visible,

ultraviolet, and infrared light.

▪ Because light is an electromagnetic wave, other forms of

electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, microwaves,
and radio waves exhibit similar properties. 4
 Introduction

▪ Light allows us to see, but it also transmits sound, cuts

things, and controls electrical circuits.
▪ Photonics is the science and technology of generating and
using the light.
▪ This includes the emission, transmission, amplification,
detection, modulation, and switching of light
▪ Example of photonics-based technologies:
✓ Barcode scanners, printers, remote control devices;
✓ Laser surgery, drilling, and surface modification;
✓ CDs, DVDs; and – Digital cameras.
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 Introduction

▪ Traditional optics is divided into two main branches:

geometrical optics and physical optics.
▪ The most common of these, Geometric optics, treats
light as a collection of rays that travel in straight lines
and bend when they pass through or reflect from
surfaces.
▪ Physical optics is a more comprehensive model of
light, which includes wave effects such as Diffraction ,
Interference and Polarization that cannot be accounted
for in geometric optics.

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 Introduction

▪ Light is electromagnetic radiation, particularly radiation

of a wavelength that is visible to the human eye (about
400–700 nm, or perhaps 380–750 nm).
– In physics, the term light sometimes refers to
electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether
visible or not.

▪ Four primary properties of light are:

– Intensity
– Frequency or wavelength
– Polarization
– Phase
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 Brief History of Optics

Ancient Greeks (~5-3 century BC)

– Pythagoras (rays emerge from the eyes)
– Democritus (bodies emit “magic” substance, simulacra)
– Plato ‫( افالطون‬combination of both of the above)
– Aristotle (motion transfer between object & eye)

• Middle Ages
– Alkindi, Alhazen defeat emission hypothesis (~9-10 century AD)
– Lens is invented by accident (northern Italy, ~12thcentury AD)
– Della Porta, daVinci, Descartes ‫ديكارت‬, Gallileo, Kepler formulate
geometrical optics, explain lens behavior, construct optical
instruments (~15thcentury AD)

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 Brief History of Optics

Beyond the middle ages:

– Newton (1642-1726) and Huygens (1629-1695) fight over nature
of light
– Before the beginning of the nineteenth century, light was
considered to be a stream of particles.

▪ The particles were either emitted by the object being viewed or

emanated from the eyes of the viewer.

– Newton was the chief architect of the particle theory of light.

▪ He believed the particles left the object and stimulated the sense of
sight upon entering the eyes.

Alternative View
▪ Christian Huygens argued that light might be some sort of a
wave motion. 9
 The Nature of Light

18th–19th centuries
– Thomas Young (in 1801) provided the first clear demonstration of
the wave nature of light.
▪ He showed that light rays interfere with each other.

– Such behavior could not be explained by particles.

– Maxwell formulates electro-magnetic equations, Hertz verifies

antenna emission principle (1899)

20th century
– Quantum theory explains wave-particle duality
– Invention of holography (1948)
– Invention of laser (1956)
– Optical applications proliferate: computing, communications,
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fundamental science, medicine, manufacturing, entertainment.
 The theories were put to explain the nature
of light:
I. Huygen’s wave theory
➢Light is a form of longitudinal waves.
➢This theory explain the phenomenon of reflection, and
refraction, interference, and diffraction. But not able to
explain the phenomenon of rectilinear propagation, and
polarization.

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 The Nature of Light

Confirmation of Wave Nature

• Thomas Young provided evidence that light rays interfere
with one another according to the principle of
superposition.
• This behavior could not be explained by a particle theory.
• During the nineteenth century, other developments led to
the general acceptance of the wave theory of light.
• Maxwell asserted ‫ أكد‬that light was a form of high-
frequency electromagnetic wave.
• Hertz confirmed Maxwell’s predictions.
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 The Nature of Light

ii. Particle theory (Newton’s corpuscular theory ):

➢ Light consists of very small particles called
corpuscles which are emitted from the light source
with very large velocities.
➢ This theory explain the phenomenon of rectilinear
propagation, reflection, and refraction. But not able to
explain the phenomenon of interference, diffraction,
and polarization.

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 The Nature of Light

Particle Nature
• Some experiments could not be
explained by the wave model of light.
• The photoelectric effect was a major
phenomenon not explained by waves. C05-04C-828378-08

– When light strikes a metal surface,

electrons are sometimes ejected from the
surface.

– The kinetic energy of the ejected electron is

independent of the frequency of the light.

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 The Nature of Light

• Einstein (in 1905) proposed an explanation of the

photoelectric effect that used the idea of quantization.
– The quantization model assumes that the energy of a light is
present in particles called photons.
❖the energy of a photon is proportional to the frequency of the
electromagnetic wave:

E = hƒ

E=hv

– h is Planck’s Constant = 6.63 x 10-34J.s

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 Wave Nature of Light

properties of light waves

• Wavelength (λ) - is the length that one cycle OR
Distance between 2 peaks. (Unit: meter, m)
• Frequency (v) - How often cycle of wave repeats in one
second OR number of cycles per sec. (Unit: Hertz, Hz)
• Velocity (c) – the distance covered by the wave in one
second. (Unit: m/s)

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 The Nature of Light

Wavelength
• Wavelength is the distance between successive crests (or troughs)
in an electromagnetic wave.
• The colors we see are determined by the wavelength of light.
• This is very similar in concept to the distance between the crests in
ocean waves!
• We denote the wavelength of light by the symbol λ.

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 The Nature of Light

Frequency
• The frequency (v) is the number of waves that pass a
given point per second.
• Wavelength and frequency are inversely related
– the shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency.

• Frequency and wavelength are related by:

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 The Nature of Light

▪ according to quantum theory, a photon has an energy, E

given by;
(unit: joule,j)

– c = velocity of light = 3 x 108 m/s

– λ = wavelength of light (in meter)
– h = planck’s constant = 6.625 x 10-34 j/s

▪ a photon also carry momentum, P. the momentum is

related to the energy by;
P = E/c = h/ λ (unit: js/m)

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 The Nature of Light

Question 1

• Photon in a pale blue light have a wavelength of 500nm. What is the

energy of this photon? Then, calculate the momentum of photon.
(answ: E = 3.97 x 10-19 J , p = 1.32 x 10-27 Js/m)

Question 2

• Find the energy of a photon travelling with 200 THz frequency and
its momentum. (answ: E = 1.325 x 10-19 J , p = 4.42 x 10-28 Js/m)

Question 3

• Given the momentum of photon is 6.84 x 10-28. Find the frequency

of photon. (answ: f = 309.7 THz)

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 The Nature of Light

Dual Nature of Light

• In view of these developments,
light must be regarded as
having a dual nature.
• Light exhibits the characteristics
of a wave in some situations
and the characteristics of a
particle in other situations.

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 The Nature of Light

Dual Nature of Light

• Light behaves like waves in its propagation and in the
phenomena of interference and diffraction; however, it
exhibits particle-like behavior when exchanging energy
with matter, as in the Compton and photoelectric effects.

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 Wave Nature of Light

properties of light waves

▪ The velocity of light wave is not constant. It depends on
type of medium the wave travels through.
▪ Velocity/speed of light wave in vacuum is denoted by c.
▪ c = 3 x 108 m/s

▪ The relationship among frequency(v), light velocity (c),

and wavelength (λ) is expressed mathematically as:

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 Wave Nature of Light

properties of light waves

• it can be seen that wavelength (λ) is inversely
proportional to the frequency (v).
• high frequency = short wavelength

• low frequency = long wavelength

• Light wave have different colors of dispersion depends

on the frequency (v) or wavelength (λ).

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Maxwell’s theory
▪ Maxwell showed that E and B fields could sustain ‫يساند‬
themselves (free from charges or currents) if they took the
form of an electromagnetic (EM) wave.

▪ Maxwell’s theory predicted that an EM wave would travel

with speed c ( speed of light , c = 3x108 m/s)

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 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Maxwell’s theory ( cont.)

▪ EM waves can travel through empty space (vacuum); no

medium is necessary!
▪ EM waves carry energy and momentum
▪ It is possible to change either the speed or wavelength of
an electromagnetic wave, but not the frequency

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 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

▪ Quantum mechanics reconciles ‫انهى خالف‬the two points of

view, through the “wave/particle duality” assertion
▪ An electromagnetic disturbance that propagates through
space as a wave may be:
– Monochromatic : consists of light of a single color, that is light of
a single wavelength or frequency

– polychromatic, in which case it is represented by many

frequencies, either discrete or in a continuum

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 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

▪ “light” is identified as an electromagnetic wave having a

frequency in the range that human eyes can detect and
interpret

▪ it is a form of electromagnetic energy

– detected through its effects, e.g. heating of illuminated

objects, conversion of light to current, mechanical pressure
(“Maxwell force”) etc.

▪ Light energy is conveyed through particles: “photons” –

ballistic behavior, e.g. shadows. 29
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

▪ The range of frequencies or wavelengths of

electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is called the
electromagnetic spectrum and is related to what we
perceive as the color of light.

▪ The Spectrum is a conceptual tool used to organize and

map the physical phenomena of electromagnetic waves.

▪ These waves propagate through space at different

frequencies, and the set of all possible frequencies is
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called the electromagnetic spectrum.
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

▪ Distribution of the continuum

of all radiant energies can
be plotted either as a
function of wavelength or of
frequency in a chart known
as the electromagnetic
spectrum.

▪ It ranges from shorter

wavelengths (including X-
rays and gamma rays) to
longer wavelengths
(microwaves and radio
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waves)
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum
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 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

▪ The electromagnetic waves: are grouped into types that

have similar wavelengths and so have similar properties.

▪ smaller wavelength higher frequency, energy and

hazard.

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 Wavelength, Frequency, Energy

▪ Electromagnetic wave characteristics:

– short wavelengths have a high frequency
– long wavelengths have a low frequency

▪ Electromagnetic waves & Energy:

– high frequency waves have high energy
– low frequency waves have low energy

The Electromagnetic Spectrum 35

 Radio waves

▪ Low energy waves with longest wavelengths

▪ Includes FM, AM, radar and TV waves
▪ Wavelengths of 1 m (10 -1 m) and longer
▪ Low frequency
▪ Used in many devices such as remote control items, cell
phones, wireless devices, etc.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum 36

 Microwaves

▪ Wavelength 1 x 10-1 m to 1
x 10 - 4 m (1 m to 0.001 m)

▪ used for communication,

medicine and consumer use
(microwave ovens)

The Electromagnetic Spectrum 37

 Infrared waves

▪ Invisible electromagnetic waves that

are detected as heat

▪ Can be detected with special devices

such as night goggles

▪ Used in heat lamps

▪ Higher energy than microwaves but

lower than visible light

The Electromagnetic Spectrum 38

 Visible Light

▪ The portion of the

electromagnetic spectrum that
human eyes can detect

▪ ROY G BIV (red, orange, yellow,

green, blue, indigo, violet)

▪ Which color has the lowest

frequency?
▪ red has the lowest frequency – violet the
highest

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 Visible Light

▪ EMR in the range of 0.4 µm to 0.7 µm is known

as the visible region.
▪ white light contains a mix of all wavelengths in the
visible region

Among these blue, green and red are the

primary colors
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 Ultraviolet waves

▪ Higher energy than light waves

▪ Can cause skin cancer and blindness in humans

▪ Used in tanning beds and sterilizing equipment

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 X-Rays

▪ High energy waves

▪ Used in medicine, industry

and astronomy

▪ Can cause cancer

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 Gamma rays

• Highest energy

• Blocked from Earth ’ s

surface by atmosphere

• Uses include sterilizing ‫تعقيم‬

medical equipment and
cancer treatment.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum 43

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

[Link]
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 Problems

1. Ocean waves follow each other at distance of 40m, a wave crest

passing a given point every 5s.
a) What is the velocity of the waves?
b) What is their frequency?

2. yellow sodium light has an average wavelength of 589.3 nm.

a) how many waves are there in 1 mm?
b) what is the frequency of the light?

3. What is the frequency and the period of the electromagnetic wave

which has a wavelength of 625 nm? What region of the
electromagnetic spectrum is it found? calculate the energy of the is
wave?

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