Chapter 6
The Particle Nature Of Photons
The particle Character of Light
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6.1 Introduction.
• Isaac Newton was an advocate of a
“Corpuscular” or particle theory of light.
• But the Wave nature of light was overwhelming
until to the beginning of the 20-th century.
• *** The Phenomena as : Interference
• Diffraction
• Polarization
are characteristics to the Wave nature of tight.
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• Two light beams will pass through each other
(Interference). →→ Wave Character.
• But if light beams were particles, one would expect
them to collide each other:
• → Collision → Scattering → Particle character
• *** The particle Nature of light can be explained
by means of two very important effects:
• 1) The Photoelectric Effect.
• 2) The Compton Effect.
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6.2 The Photoelectric Effect.
• ***When light is incident upon a clean metal
surface it can under certain conditions, eject
electrons from the metal. Such electrons are called
Photoelectrons.
• * The valence electrons of a metal are called “Free”
Electrons because they are not localized to a
particular atom of the metal. They can move freely
within the metal, but they are not free to leave its
surface because there is an electrostatic binding
force. ( Binding Energy = W = Work function ) 4
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• There are a number of ways to overcome this
binding force. (Binding Energy = W = Work function)
• 1) Field emission:
The Electrons are wrested ( )تنتزعfrom the surface by
a strong electric field
• 2) Thermoionic emission:
The electrons are thermally exited until they achieve
a velocity sufficient to escape from the surface.
• 3) Secondary emission:
The electrons are ejected ( )تنطلقas a result of an
energy transfer from high-speed particles striking
the surface from the outside.
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• 4) Photoelectric emission:
The electrons acquires ( )يكتسبsufficient energy to
escape by means of an interaction with incident
light.
We will be concerned with the Photoelectric effect.
A typical experimental setup for observing the
Photoelectric effect is:
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• The plate of the tube is positive with respect to the
cathode.
• Photoelectrons that are emitted will strike the plate
and contribute to the plate current.
• A Graph of plate current versus plate voltage for
two different light intensities, but the
same frequency.
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• There are several interesting facts about these
curves:
• 1) they saturate early, meaning that a small voltage
is sufficient to collect all of the electrons that are
emitted at the light intensity being used.
• 2) The Photocurrent is not zero when the plate
voltage is zero.
• 3) A current exists even if the plate is negative with
respect to the cathode.
• →→ This tells that photoelectrons are ejected with
sufficient kinetic energy to overcome an opposing
electric field and still reach the plate.
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• The maximum kinetic energy Tmax , given to
photoelectrons can be expressed as:
• Tmax = e VC .
where VC is the value of the reversed voltage that
reduces the current to Zero.
4) The same value for Tmax is obtained,
independent of the intensity of the light.
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• Experimental facts that can be explained by the theory
of the photoelectric effect is as follows:
• 1) there is a Threshold Frequency
• = minimum Frequency
• = cut-off Frequency = νc
for the emission of photoelectrons. If the light
beam contains no photons having frequencies higher
than this Threshold Frequency , then there will be no
photocurrent, regardless of the intensity of the light
source.
• 2) the threshold frequency varies with different
metals.
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• 3) if the threshold frequency is exceeded,
photoelectrons are emitted, regardless of how low the
intensity of the light source.
• 4) when there is a current, its magnitude is
independent of the frequency of the light, but it is
directly proportional to the intensity of the light.
• 5) The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
is independent of the intensity of the light and depends
only upon its frequency.
• ***It is impossible to explain these
phenomena by means of classical
electromagnetic theory.
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• It was recognized that work must be done in order
to remove an electron from the metal.
• This work (work function ) should vary for different
metals.
• Einstein proposed that the photon can deliver all of
its energy as a unit to a single electron in the metal.
• Then from energy conservation we can write:
• hν = W + Tmax … (1)
Where: hν is the energy of the photon.
W is the work function of the metal.
Tmax is the maximum kinetic energy of
the electron. 13
• hν = W + Tmax … ( 1 )
• The concept of the threshold frequency νc can be
explained from eq. ( 1 )
• If the kinetic energy of the electron is Zero:
• →→ hνc = W
• Or νc = W/h
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• From eq. ( 1 ) it follows that:
• Tmax = hν - W … (1)
The maximum kinetic energy of the electron
is directly proportional to the photon frequency
and independent of the light intensity.
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6.3 The Compton Effect.
• Compton made a systematic study of the
scattering of X – Rays and obtained the
wavelength λ̕ of X – Rays after scattering as
a function of the scattering angle θ.
• Compton succeeded in explaining this effect
by treating the X – Ray Photon as a Particle
that undergoes a collision with a rest mass
particle such as an electron.
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• This is shown
• schematically as:
The Mathematical analysis of the collision requires
only the:
Conservation of Energy & the
Conservation of Momentum
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• From momentum conservation we have:
• X-direction P0 = P̕cosθ + P cosφ
• Y-direction 0 = P̕sinθ - P sinφ
• The conservation of energy requires that:
• Eo = E̕ + T
• Eo - E̕ = T
• Or P0 - P̕ = T/c
• since the velocity of the particle after the collision would be
relativistic
• →→
• λ̕ - λ0 = h/m0c * ( 1- cos θ )
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• Where m0 is the rest mass of the electron.
• h/m0c = 0.0243 * 10-10m = 0.0243Å
• Which is called the Compton wave length.
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5.6Heisenberg uncertainty Principle
• ∆ν * ∆t ≥ 1 …(1)
• ∆ν h ∆t ≥ h …(2)
• ∆E ∆t ≥ h … (3)
• Under ideal circumstances in which there are
no experimental or instrumental errors, the
product of the uncertainties in the
measurement of the Energy and the time must
be at least equals to h .
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• This principle is called Heisenberg’s uncertainty
Principle.
P = h/λ →→
∆P = h/∆λ
But ν λ = c →→
∆ν = c/∆λ
From eq. ∆ν h ∆t ≥ h …(2)
c/ ∆λ h ∆t ≥ h
h/ ∆λ c ∆t ≥ h
∆Px * ∆x ≥ h …(4)
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• ∆Px * ∆x ≥ h …(4)
• Under ideal circumstances in which there are no
experimental or instrumental errors, the product
of the uncertainties in the measurement of the
momentum and the position must be at least
equals to h .
• This principle is called also Heisenberg’s
uncertainty Principle
• Home work: 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 16 ,17 ,21 , 23.
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