A.
Utilitarianism
The Principle of Utility says: a person should choose that
action which produce the greatest good for the greatest
number of people affected by the alternatives open to him
it is a moral theory that suggest the best action is the one
that maximize the overall happiness or well-being
Utilitarianism is sometimes called “the greatest happiness
principle”
The key criticism of Utilitarianism in bioethics is that it
neglects individual rights and justice
B. Deontology
is derived from the Greek word for “duty” or “obligation
It emphasizes the importance of following moral rules or
principles, regardless of the consequences
is often associated with the principle of autonomy
According to Kant, we have an obligation to perform an action if
it satisfies what he called “the categorical imperative.
Categorical Imperatives = It is a way of evaluating moral actions
and determining what is right, and it is a principle that must be
followed no matter the situation or personal desire
Kants three categorical imperative
1. Universal Law- the rule Only do something if you’re okay with
everyone doing it
2. Humanity as an end- treat people as valuable in themselves,
not just as tools to achieve your own goals.
3. Kingdom of Ends: Rule: Act as if everyone’s actions are guided
by the same moral laws, and we’re all creating a society
based on those laws.
It is theory emphasizes respecting the rights and dignity of
individuals
C. Rawls’s theory of justice
The theory of justice formulated by the philosopher John Rawls
can be understood as attempting to combine the strengths of
utilitarianism and deontology while avoiding the weaknesses of
each view.
For Rawls, the central task of government is to preserve and
promote the liberty and welfare of individuals. Thus, principles of
justice are needed
Rawls argues that there are two fundamental principles of
justice:
1. Equal Basic Rights/ Equal basic liberties for all
2. Fair Equality of Opportunity and the Difference Principle
Difference Principle- is defined as Benefiting the least
advantaged in society according to Rawls.
According to Rawls, Social and economic inequalities are
allowed, but they must meet two conditions:
[Link] Equality of Opportunity: Everyone should have an
equal chance to succeed, no matter their background.
[Link] Principle: Inequalities (like wealth) are only
acceptable if they benefit the least advantaged in society.
The main criticism of Rawls' theory of justice, is that It relies
too heavily on hypothetical scenarios that may not reflect
real-world complexities
D. W. D. Ross Ethics
W.D. Ross's ethical theory is called pluralistic deontology, which
means there are multiple moral duties that we must follow.
Ross believed there are several basic moral obligations (he called
them prima facie duties) that guide us in deciding what is right.
the concept of a “prima facie duty” according to W.D. Ross is A
duty that appears to be binding but can be overridden by stronger
duties
These duties can sometimes conflict, and when they do, we must
weigh them to see which is the most important in that situation
The 7 prima facie duties:
1. Fidelity – keep your promise
2. Reparation – make up for the harm you’ve done
3. Gratitude - Show appreciation to those who help you.
4. Justice - Distribute benefits and burdens fairly.
5. Beneficence - Help others improve their well-being.
6. Self-improvement - Work on improving yourself.
7. Non-maleficence - Avoid harming others.
E. Natural law ethics
Natural law ethics is a theory asserting that moral principles are
inherent in nature and human reason, rather than being
determined by societal laws, customs, or personal preferences.
A. Principle of Double Effect in bioethics - It refers to the idea that
an action can have both good and bad consequences.
= The principle holds that such an action should be performed
only if the intention is to bring about the good effect and the bad
effect will be an unintended or indirect consequence.
Principle of Double Effect be applied in a medical context when a
treatment may have both therapeutic and harmful effects
In order for an action to be admissible 4 conditions must be met
1. The action itself must be morally indifferent or morally good.
2. The bad effect must not be the means by which the good
effect is achieved.
3. The motive must be the achievement of the good effect only.
4. The good effect must be at least equivalent in importance to
the bad effect.
In summary the four conditions must be met
1. The Nature of the Act,
2. The Intention,
3. The Proportionality of Effect,
4. The bad effect is not the means to the Good Effect
B. Principle of totality – This principle says that an individual has a
right to dispose of his or her organs or to destroy their capacity
to function, only to the extent that the general well-being of the
whole body demands it.
It focuses on considering the overall good of an individual
* The key difference between the Principle of Double Effect and the
Principle of Totality is that Double Effect focuses on individual
actions, while Principle of Totality focuses on overall well-being
F. Virtue Ethics
According to Virtue ethics, the key to moral behavior is
Cultivating good character traits
Virtue ethics is ethics based on character
focuses on the character and virtues of the person performing
the action, rather than strictly on the consequences or social
contracts. It is concerned with the moral agent's intentions,
habits, and disposition, and how these reflect their overall moral
character.
According to Virtue ethics, the ultimate goal of ethical behavior is
developing moral excellence
How does virtue ethics differ from deontology and
consequentialism? It prioritizes developing virtuous character
traits
G. Care ethics
the central principle of care of ethics in bioethics is compassion
According to care ethics, Relationships and interdependence is the
primary focus of moral consideration (Carol Gilligin)
According to care ethics, one approach ethical dilemmas By
considering individual relationships and responsibilities
It differs from other ethical theories like deontology and
consequentialism because it places a greater emphasis on
personal relationships and interdependence.
THE HEALTH CARE PROFESSION
o Is a special calling, a service characterized by a trusting and caring relationship
which cannot be measured in monetary terms
o The relationship is a covenant – a trusted caring service between a healthcare
giver who offers help and a dependent patient who needs and receives it.
A sick individual becomes a client if:
1. He admits that he is sick
2. That he can no longer take care of himself and
3. So, he asks for help or aid
Virtues of the Health Care Professional
Virtues
Are traits of character or habits of disposition to think and act in ways that
are good; to do what is morally right. •
The manner healthcare is delivered often depends on the kind of person the
healthcare professional is. To transcend mere duty, one must be virtuous.
1. Theological Virtues
Faith, hope and charity
1. Cardinal Virtues
Prudence, justice, temperance and fortitude
2. Moral Acquired Virtues
Fidelity, honesty, humility, compassion, justice, courage and
prayerfulness
Goodluck Everyone! God bless mga anak!