BLOCK 5

GROUP DYNAMICS
Group Dynamics
INTRODUCTION
The fourth block of this course consists of two units. In the first unit, you will
come to know about the concept of group and its various types. We will also
discuss the various stages of group formation. Further, the unit will also define
various elements of a group and how they affect behaviour in a group as well as
the various group processes. The unit will also explain decision making in a
group and describe cooperation, competition and conflict in a group.

The second unit discusses about the meaning, characteristics and nature of leaders.
It will also deal with the different types of leadership style and the role of leaders
in conflictual situation.

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 Group Processes
UNIT 11 GROUP PROCESSES*
Structure
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Groups: Definition and Concept
11.4 Types of Groups
11.4.1 Perceived Bond among Group Members
11.4.2 Entitativity
11.4.3 Primary versus Secondary Group
11.4.4 Formal versus Informal Group
11.5 Components of Group
11.5.1 Status
11.5.2 Roles
11.5.3 Norms
11.5.4 Cohesiveness
11.6 Stages of Group Formation
11.7 Group Effectiveness
11.8 Group Processes
11.8.1 Social Facilitation
11.8.2 Social Loafing
11.8.3 Deindividuation
11.9 Group Decision Making
11.9.1 Group Polarisation
11.9.2 Group Think
11.10 Cooperation and Competition in a Group
11.10.1 Determinants of Cooperation and Competition
11.11 Conflict in a Group
11.11.1 Causes of Conflict
11.11.2 Outcomes of Conflict
11.11.3 Conflict Resolution Strategies
11.12 Communication
11.12.1 Types of Communication
11.12.2 Communication Style
11.12.3 Barriers to Effective Communication
11.13 Let Us Sum Up
11.14 Unit End Questions
11.15 Glossary
11.16 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
11.17 Suggested Readings and References

* Dr. Ari Sudan Tiwari, Scientist ‘E’Defence Institute of Psychological Research, Ministry of Defence,
Lucknow Road, Timarpur, Delhi 205
Group Dynamics
11.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
Define Groups and its various types;
Describe various stages of group formation;
Define various elements of a group and how they affect behaviour in a group;
Define various group processes;
Explain decision making in a group; and
Discuss the concept and relevance of cooperation, competition and conflict
in a group.

11.2 INTRODUCTION
Living in a social world, we are rarely alone. At homes, we are surrounded by
our family members, in school we are surrounded by classmates/teachers, in
office we are surrounded by our colleagues,on the road we are surrounded by
our fellow travellers, in the park we are surrounded by our friends and strangers.
These people range from one whom we don’t know at all to those whom we
know very well. Few of them interact with us frequently, few of them sometimes
and few of them rarely. Whatsoever the level of interaction, they all influence
our behaviour. In this unit, we will be discussing about the persons whom we
know and with whom we have a considerable amount of interactions are somehow
connected to us and we are an intact part of group. Being intact suggests that we
are dependent on each other for fulfilment of some of our basic needs, like survival
needs, social needs, etc. Hence, these people are the ones who play a major role
in shaping our core personality and are the cause behind most of our actions.

11.3 GROUPS: DEFINITION AND CONCEPT

Groupscan be defined as a collection of people who perceive themselves to be
bonded together in a coherent unit to some degree (Brown, 2000; Dasgupta,
Banaji & Abelson, 1999). Characteristics of a group are:
A collection of two or more individuals who perceive themselves as the
members of group.
Members have common motives.
Members are interacting (either directly or indirectly) and interdependent.
Members influence each other.
Members’ behaviour governed by certain rules, roles assigned to them in
the group and their status in the group.
All the above mentioned characteristics differentiate a group from a crowd, which
is merely a collection of people, who happen to be at the same place at the same
time with or without any common purpose.

A group must be further differentiated from a team where the members have
complementary skills, affect each other’s activities, attain a positive synergy
by coordinated effort and are collectively responsible for the performance.
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 For example, ten students doing combined study is an example of group. Group Processes
Here each individual studies the syllabus separately. On the other hand, a
group formed in the company to complete a project is an example of team.
Here, the person analysing the data cannot do the job until the data has been
entered by the other person, who in turn is dependent on the person
responsible for collection of data. Moreover, in the second example whole
group is accountable for the completion of the project; whereas, in the first
Affinitive needs: Provided by the group through friendship between
individuals within it.

example, every student is responsible for her/his own performance in the

examination.

The groups can provide, with or without the conscious knowledge of their
members, a means of fulfilling many of the needs of the individuals in them,
such as:

Egoistic needs: Fulfilled through the development of self-esteem and status

as the result of membership in the group through opportunity for individual
contributions to group functioning.

Functional needs: Aid in daily activities help in adjustment to work routine

or even the avoidance of boredom can be met by the group.

Cognitive needs: Satisfied by establishing and testing reality through

developing consensus among group members, uncertain parts of social
environment can be made certain and parts of social environment can be
made “real” and “stable.” Each person can validate perceptions and feelings
best by checking them with others.

Thus, groups are instrumental in fulfilling the needs of individual members in

various ways. It is possible that these functions may not directly link to the group’s
primary goal; although, by fulfilling these secondary needs of members their
efforts toward achievement of group is facilitated.

11.4 TYPES OF GROUPS

Although various groups share the basic characteristics mentioned above, they
are categorised in different types based on some subtle criteria.

11.4.1 Perceived bond among Group Members

On the basis of Perceived bondamong group members, groups can be classified
into two types: common-bond and common-identity groups (Prentice, Miller
&Lightdale, 1994).

In a common-bond group, members have face to face interaction and also a strong
bond existsamong them. Players of a team constitute such a common-bond group.

In a common-identity group, members are associated with each other just by a

category with rare face to face interaction. Citizens of a country or students of a
University form such a group. In these groups, group members may not know
each other personally. However, their affiliation to a particular category designates
207
Group Dynamics them as the group member and all the members of such groups share the common
identity of the group.

11.4.2 Entitativity
Entitativity is the extent to which groups are perceived as a coherent whole
(Campbell, 1958). Low entitativity groups are a collection of people who happen
to be at same place at same time with a common purpose. Group of interviewees
for a particular job is an example of such group. A group which includes members
of a family is an example of high entitativity group. Groups high on entitativity
have following characteristics:
Frequent interaction among members (either face to face or virtually on
phones, internets, etc.).
Common goals.
Members are highly similar in some ways and are significantly different
from the non-members.
Group is a consequence of its members.
One thing that should be noted here is that, it is not the group size but the
behavioural features such as acceptance of authority, sharing of resources,
adherence to norms, etc. that affects the entitativity of a group (Lickel, Rutchick,
Hamilton & Sherman, 2006). High entitative groups are more stereotyped than
those low on entitative (Yzerbyt, Corneille & Estrade, 2001).

11.4.3 Primary versus Secondary Group

Primary groups are pre-existing formations whose memberships are conferred
to the individuals, such asfamily, caste, etc. These groups play a vital role in
developing a person’s values and ideals. A person does not have an option to
choose or relinquish the membership of a primary group. Whereas, an individual
joins a secondary groups by her/his choice in order to fulfil certain motives.
Here the membership is voluntary and the person has an option to relinquish the
group.

11.4.4 Formal versus Informal Group

A formal group has explicitly stated rules and functions,definite roles for its
members and clearly specified norms. These elements may be written or they
may be spoken but unanimously accepted by the members. In contrast, an informal
group does not have any explicitly stated rules and regulation. For example, a
school has specified rules for both students and teachers, has a definite purpose
of imparting quality education in the students and has clearly defined status and
norms. On the other hand,group of children of a colony gathered in a park is
anexample of informal group.

11.5 COMPONENTS OF GROUP

There are number of components in any group that facilitate smooth functioning
of the group. Although the groups may differ in terms of their size, types and
functions they share some common features, such as status, roles, norms and
cohesiveness, which affect behaviours of the group members.
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 Group Processes

Fig. 11.1: Components of Group

11.5.1 Status
When a teacher enters into the classroom, all students stand in the respect of the
teacher. No significant decision in the family is taken until the head of the family,
generally parents in the Indian families, approve the decision. These examples
characterise status of teachers and parents in their respective groups.

The status of a member may be defined by his/her physical attributes (Judge &
Cable, 2004), usefulness to the purpose of the group and behaviour in accordance
with the norms of group (Haslam, 2004). It may be an official position or rank in
a group or it may be an implicit feature such as elders and new entrants in a
group. Often, status is associated with many privileges in the group, such as
access to resources of the group, respect, salary, influencing other group
members,group responsibilities, making decisions in a group, etc. (Buss, 1999).
It has been found that people with low status are more conforming to the group
norms than those with high status (Jetten, Hornsey &Adarves-Yorno, 2006). By
being more susceptible to group influence, new members, having low status, of
the group attempt to increase their acceptability in the group.

11.5.2 Roles
Different members in a group are designated to perform different functions in
the group. For example, in a cricket team the captain is responsible to lead the
team on the ground, the coach arranges and manages smooth and strategic practice
to the team, the physiotherapist ensures physical fitness of the players and the
manager is assumed to be responsible for the issues pertaining to team travels
and its interaction with media. All these people actually play different roles for
the team or the group of players and officials representing a country at the national
or international level.

Roles define the expected set of behaviours from different members of a group
occupying specific positions in the group. Roles may be officially assigned to a
group member or they may be gradually acquired by a group member without
any formal assignment. A person may fulfil one role in a group while other role
209
Group Dynamics in some other group (Slater, 1955). Often the roles are internalised and gradually
become integral.

A clear recognition of one’s goals, or role clarity, helps to avoid chaos in the
group. Sometimes, however, members may be confused about the things that are
expected of them, such as their level of authority or their responsibility. This is
called role ambiguity and is typically experienced by new members. Some groups
that are pursuing very dynamic and uncertain tasks have very lower degree of
role differentiation and therefore, avoiding the situation of role ambiguity is
extremely challenging in such groups.

11.5.3 Norms
Norms are the implicit rules within a group, guiding how its members should or
should not behave. Norms are generally agreed-upon informal rules that guide
members’ behaviours. They represent shared ways of viewing the world. Norms
differ from formal rules in that they are not formal and written. However, norms
have powerful influence on group behaviour. If each individual in a group
separately decides how to behave in each interaction, no one would be able to
predict the behaviour of any group member and consequently, chaos would reign.
Therefore, norms function as a guide to members’ behaviours and reduce
ambiguity in groups. Groups do not establish norms about every possible situation
but only with respect to things that are significant to the group. Norms might
apply to every member of the group or to only some members. Norms that apply
to particular group members usually specify the role of those individuals. Norms
vary in the degree to which they are accepted by all members of the group: some
are accepted by almost everyone, others by some members and not others.

People are guided by the norms of a group only if they value being the member
of that particular group. In contrast, they may even act contrary to the norms ofa
group with which they do not identify themselves (Jetten, Spears & Manstead,
1997; Moreland & Levine, 2001).

In various cultures across the globe, a predominant norm which varies

considerably is collectivism versus individualism. A collectivistic group values
the maintenance of harmony among its members, even on personal costs. In
contrast, a group high on individualistic dimension values ‘standing out’ from
the [Link] such groups, dissenters of the groups are seen as courageous and
disagreement among the group members is not discouraged. For example, Indian
society is considered to be a collectivistic society; whereas western counties,
such as USA, are considered to be individualistic societies.

11.5.4 Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness is the force that keeps a group intact (Ellemers, de Gilder &Haslam,
2004). Cohesiveness refers to how strongly group members desire to remain in
their groups. Highly cohesive groups are ones in which the members like one
another, accept the group’s goals, and work towards meeting them. In very un-
cohesive groups, the members dislike one another and may even work at cross-
purposes. In essence, cohesiveness refers to a “we” feeling, a sense of
belongingness to the group. Group cohesion tends to get strengthened under
conditions of high external threat or competition. Cohesiveness generally tends
to be greater when group members spend more time together. Lesser sub-
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groupings are evident in high cohesive than in low cohesive groups.A group Group Processes
high on this dimension has following qualities (Hogg, 2007; Mullen & Cooper,
1994):
Perceived homogeneity.
More supportive and cooperative for in-groups than with the out-groups.
More oriented towards group goals than toward individual goals.
Have high morale.
Perform better that the groups low on cohesiveness dimension.
Highly adamant towards members of out-groups.
Display more intra-group attraction and commitment towards group goal in
presence of an out-group member.
Self Assessment Questions I
Fill in the blanks-
1) ………………… are the needprovided by the group through friendship
between individuals within it.

2) ………………… is the force that keeps a group intact.

3) Norms are the ……………….. within a group, guiding how its members
should or should not behave.

4) A ……………. group has explicitly stated rules and functions,definite roles

for its members and clearly specified norms.

5) A person does not have an option to choose or relinquish the membership of

a ………………. group.

11.6 STAGES OF GROUP FORMATION

As stated earlier that a crowd is different from a group in a sense that crowd is a
mere collection of people; whereas a group is a homogeneous collection of people,
with some specific and shared purpose, having some rules and regulation to
guide their behaviours in various social situations. However, in the starting a
group is also just a collection of people. The various phases through which the
collection of people passes, differentiate it from crowd (Tuckman, 1965).
According to TuckMan there are five phases of group Formation These phases
are explained below:

Forming: The members of the group might be unknown to one another when
they meet for the first [Link], initially the group is quite similar to a
crowd. This stage is marked by uncertainties regarding the group purpose, goals,
members, procedures, etc.

Storming: At this stage, there is a lot of conflict regarding various roles and
status of various members and the methods of achieving the group goals. By the
end of this stage some sort of hierarchy develops among the members and some
clarity is obtained regarding how the target has to be achieved.

211
Group Dynamics Norming: At this stage, group members finalise various norms which regulate
their behaviours and roles. Furthermore, division of responsibilities takes place
at this stage. Members devise some scale to measure their progress. Finally, by
the end of this stage the group gets a clear identity.

Performing: This is the execution stage of the group. Since the norms, status,
roles, etc. have been finalised, members fully devote their efforts to achieve the
group goals. For some groups with a single specific purpose this might be the
last stage.

Adjourning: Only few groups have this final stage. Here group is disbanded
after its purpose is achieved. For example,a committee of juries formed to
investigate any case of corruption gets disbanded after submitting its report.

The above mentioned stages are merely a general illustration for the sequential
functioning of a group and therefore, the sequence may be different for different
groups. In a political committee, norms and status of various members may be
pre-decided before the constitution of the group. Similarly, a group may undergo
two stages simultaneously or it may switch back and forth between various stages
or even it may skip any of the stages.

11.7 GROUP EFFECTIVENESS

The effectiveness of a group has to be viewed in terms of achievement of
productivity goals, ability to adapt to changes, satisfaction of personal needs of
the members, including a sense of status and socialized power and maintenance
of the required level of communication, co-operation and sense of
accomplishment, thereby sustaining the group as a team. Although these are the
broader criteria of group effectiveness, organizations and groups differ in their
specific criteria of effectiveness. Any group has its own particular environment
(socio-cultural and technological), group task and life-span. These specific given
circumstances interact with the internal dynamics of the group to produce a
particular degree of group effectiveness.

There is substantial agreement among psychologists working in the field of group

functioning about the classes of factors that influence group outcomes. Among
the most useful frameworks for thinking about groups and their effectiveness are
the input-process-output models summarized by McGrath (1984). The model
reflects that the success of a group (its outcomes) depends upon inputs or resources
which the group has to work with (e.g., the members and the task they have been
assigned) and the interaction among team members (e.g., communication, conflict,
conformity, socialization, leadership, status, in-group-out-group differentiation,
etc.).

By influencing the group process, inputs have both direct and indirect effects on
group effectiveness. Inputs include resources, such as personnel, task, tools and
time. Groups composed of more competent people, having appropriate knowledge,
skills, and motivation, will on average be more effective than groups with less
competent members. Work groups that are functionally diverse have a larger
stock of ideas to draw upon, and differences in assumptions that allow them to
generate more creative solutions. Members who have expertise in a wide variety
of disciplines have the potential to be highly creative, bringing together old ideas
212 in new ways (Hargadon & Sutton, 1997).
 Group Processes
11.8 GROUP PROCESSES
How a person acts in presence of someone else may be completely different
from what he would have been doing, had he been alone. This ‘someone’ may be
a co-worker of her/his group, an audience or a mere stranger. For instance, while
dining out in some restaurant, you may refrain from doing many things which
you would have done when dining at home. There are several influences of group
on an individual called as group processes. Some of them have been mentioned
in the sub headings below.

11.8.1 Social Facilitation

Social facilitation is defined as a tendencyof a person to perform differently in
presence of an audience or with a [Link] of audience increases our
arousal which affects our performance. Thus other’s presence will improve
performance if the performer iswell learned and his/her dominant responses are
the correct ones in the situation. Furthermore, it will impair performance if
performer’s dominant responses are the incorrect ones and the less practiced
responses are correct ones. This view is known as Drive Theory of Social
Facilitation(Zajonc, Heingartner & Herman, 1969). Social facilitation fails to
occur if the performer does not pay attention to the other persons present there.

According to Distraction-Conflict Theory, a person is distracted when performing

in front of others because he or she tries to divide attention between the task and
the co-actor/audience. This produces cognitive overload on the performer and
therefore, forcing the performer to pay attention only to the essential cues/stimuli.

11.8.2 Social Loafing

While working in a group, often motivation is reduced resulting into reduced
efforts to achieve the group goal. This phenomenon is known as social loafing
(Karau & Williams, 1993). When working in a group for a common task, a general
feeling arises among the individuals that even though they will contribute a little
less, the group goal will be achieved. Hence they have lower motivation and
exert less effort to achieve the group goal. Instead, the individuals rely more on
the efforts of their co-members. This might have grim implications. In situations,
where each or most of the group members become victim of social loafing, the
group performance suffers seriously. Social loafing is observed in variety of
group tasks, such as cognitive, physical, verbal, etc. (Weldon & Mustari, 1988;
Williams & Karau, 1991).

Price, Harrison and Gavin (2006) observed that there are two factors which
contribute to social loafing: feeling of being dispensable to the group and feeling
of unfairness in the group. When a member feels that the contributions made by
her/him are not essential to the group, then she/he is more likely to loaf.
Conversely, if a member has skills and knowledge relevant to the performance
of group task, she/he is more likely to actively participate in the group activities.
Similarly, if a member feels that she/he may be treated unfairly, even after making
significant contribution, then she/he is more likely to loaf. Also, if a member is
dissimilar from the other members on factors such as age, sex, ethnicity, etc. she/
he is more likely to feel unfairly treated and thus more likely to loaf.

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Group Dynamics Following techniques may be implied to reduce social loafing:

Reduced feeling of being dispensable in the group by making individual

efforts readily identifiable (Williams, Harkins &Latane, 1981).

Increasing individual member’s commitment to the successful task

performance (Brickner, Harkins &Ostrom, 1986).
Increasing the importance of the task (Karau& Williams, 1993).
Providing each member with some kind of standard performance, such as
their past performance or how others are doing (Williams & Karau, 1991).

11.8.3 Deindividuation
Deindividuation is a psychological state characterized by reduced self-awareness
and personal identity, brought on by external conditions such as being an
anonymous member of a large crowd. This leads the members of a crowd to
perform behaviours which they would have never performed when they were
[Link] leads to greater obedience of the norms of the crowd
(Postmes & Spears, 1998).

Previously in one of the above section, you were informed about the differences
between group and crowd, where, crowd is merely a collection of people, who
happen to be at the same place at the same time with or without any common
purpose. But this does not mean that crowd cannot have a norm. Consider a
crowd gathered to watch a cricket match. Here the crowd norm is to cheer their
team. Being in a crowd makes a person anonymous and hence they feel less
responsible for their acts. Thus, they are more likely to resort to wild, unrestrained
and anti-social actions (Zimbardo, 1970). Hooliganismis a special case of
deindividuation, where the fans of English soccer team displayed extremely wild
and unsocial behaviour in the matches involving English team.

Deindividuation does not always lead to negative and anti-social behaviour. It

just increases the likelihood of obedience of crowd norms. In instances involving
some mishaps like stampede, road accident or fires in buildings, deindividuation
may elicit helping behaviour, too.

Self Assessment Questions II

State whether the following are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1) Storming is the stage of group formation in which the members of the group
meet for the first time. ( )

2) Deindividuation is a psychological state characterised by reduced self-

awareness and personal identity. ( )

3) Hooliganism is defined as a tendencyof a person to perform differently in

presence of an audience or with a co-actor. ( )

4) Social loafing is a process in which often motivation of an individual is

reduced resulting into reduced efforts to achieve the group goal. ( )

5) Any group has its own particular environment (socio-cultural and

214 technological), group task and life-span. ( )
 Group Processes
11.9 GROUP DECISION MAKING
Group decision making is also known as collaborative decision making which
refers to the process of taking collective decisions by the members of the group.
The decision is taken as well as accepted by all the members of that group.
Basically there can be two processes involved in taking group decisions.

11.9.1 Group Polarisation

It is a general conception that decisions made by groups are better than those
made by individuals. However, it is not always true. Sometimes, decisions taken
by groups are more extreme than those taken by the individuals. This tendency
of a group to shift towards more extreme decisions than those initially held by its
members is known as group polarisation (Burnstein, 1983). More precisely,
during a discussion among group members the initial preference of the group is
strengthened leading to the final outcome beingamore extreme decision. Hence
group shows a phenomenon of risky shift, (if the initial preference of the group
members is towards a riskier decision) to ashift towards increased caution (if
initial preference of the group is towards a cautious approach).

There are two factors which contribute to this phenomenon of group polarisation.
First, in order to prove themselves a worthy and loyal, the members of group
hold a view which is in line with the group’s overall image and simultaneously
extreme than others. For example, in a terrorist group extreme ideas to create
chaos will be considered more worthy. Hence members will tryto hold views
which are more extreme than others. Second, due to persuasion, a group’s initial
preference gets strengthenedleading to extreme decisions.

11.9.2 Group Think

Another phenomenon observed in highly cohesive groups is group think.
Members of a highly cohesive group think that their decisions cannot be wrong
and all the members must support the decision taken by the group. Moreover,
they are also under pressure to reject any information which is in contrary to the
group’s decision. Once this tendency develops, group is highly resistant to change
its decision. It is the high cohesiveness among group members which is
responsible for developing such tendency among them. Members are so well
connected to each other that they think that any member of the group cannot be
wrong and even if any member of the group is wrong, it is their moral
responsibility to support him/her. Secondly, the norms of highly cohesive group
suggest that the group is superior and [Link] group sometimes may also
fail to share the information relevant to the issue held by their members. This
may affect the quality of the decisions taken by the group. This is even more
problematic if the unshared information is critical to the decision.

11.10 COOPERATION AND COMPETITION IN A

GROUP
A group often works on tasks which are common for all members and a
coordinated group effort is needed to complete this task. However, sometimes
individual performance is also credited along with the contributions to the shared
215
Group Dynamics tasks. Suppose a cricket team is chasing a huge total and to achieve this total the
whole team needs to bat with a fast run rate. But here also, man of the match
award is given to only one player for individual performance. So an individual
may bat with slow run rate in order to complete his/her century.

Cooperation can be defined as a behaviour, in which, whole group works together

to attain the shared goal. Whereas, competition can be defined as behaviour in
which individual tries to excel his/her own performance and simultaneously
hindering others in completing their tasks. Cooperative goals of a group are such
that the group achieves them only if the other members of the groups achieve
their goal. While competitive goals of a group are such that an individual can get
them only if others fail to achieve their respective goals. A group can
simultaneously have competitive and cooperative goals, as seen in the example
mentioned above. Also, competition within group may lead to conflict and
disharmony among group members; whereas, cooperation between groups
increase cohesion and solidarity within group members.

11.10.1 Determinants of Cooperation and Competition

Group performance largely depends on the cooperation and competition among
group members. Social psychologists have studied various factors that determine
the level of cooperation and competition.

Reward Structure: A reward structure that considers only group effort, promotes
cooperation in the group. Such a reward structure endorses interdependence
among the members. Contrarily, if the reward structure considers only individual
efforts, it will promote competition among the members of the group. Suppose
in the above example of cricket match, if the condition is set in such a way that
the Man of the Match award will be given to the player of winning team only
then players will first try to achieve the team target instead of focussing on their
individual performance.

Interpersonal Communication: Healthy and ample communication among the

group members enhances cooperation among them. Due to healthy
communication among themselves, the members develop liking for each other
and they tend to cooperate rather than compete. Such a communication also
facilitates discussion and interchange of ideas. This leads the members to
understand each other’s stance and act in a more coordinated way.

Reciprocity: It is a tendency to return favours. If a member of the group has

shown initial cooperation towards other member(s) then the other member(s)
are also likely to respond in a similar manner. Same is applied for competition
also. Thus cooperation or competition among group members looks like a chain
reaction. If the group leader somehow manages initial cooperation among the
members then it will keep on going.

11.11 CONFLICT IN A GROUP

Conflict is a situation in which individual or a group of individuals perceive that
the others have taken or might take an action that is incompatible with their own
interest. Conflict is the recognition of incompatible interest between the members
which may or may not be true (DeDreu & Van Lange, 1995). Conflict is different
216 from competition in a way that conflict is just a perception; whereas, competition
includes a behavioural component as well. A conflict may lead to competition Group Processes
but not all competitive behaviours are result of conflict.

11.11.1 Causes of Conflict

In many cases a faulty attribution can lead to conflict (Baron, 1990). After a
failure to achieve one’s own interest people try to attribute this failure to
someone else. If somehow, they attribute this failure to other’s interference
then they are likely to develop conflict with the suspect interferer.

Faulty communication may also cause conflict among members. If someone

is criticised for his/her action then he/she may feel agitated and thus may
develop conflict with the person who has criticised (Cropanzano, 1993).
Faulty and improper communication may sometimes develop suspicion about
others’ interest which also consequently leads to conflict.

A tendency to consider our views as objective and closest to the reality

while that of others as biased and selfish leads to conflict (Keltner &
Robinson, 1996).

Initially the poor performance of the group followed by the negative feedback
may force the members to blame each other for the group failure. This
ultimately generates conflict among them. Studies have been reported
showing that more the amount of negative feedback received by the group,
higher the level of conflict reported (Peterson & Behfar, 2003).

A feeling of deprivation and discontentment is developed when any member

feels that he/she is not equally useful as the other members of the group are.
This may trigger conflict in them.

Perceived inequity with respect to work share and reward distribution also
leads to conflict among the group members.

Feeling that the other group does not respect norms of our group may also
lead to conflict.

11.11.2 Outcomes of Conflict

Just like competition and cooperation, conflict is also a chain reaction. Once it
seeds in the thoughts of one party, it becomes visible in their actions and thus
generating even more conflict in the mind of one or both the parties. Following
may be the possible outcomes of the conflict:
Poor communication, mistrust and suspicion among the group members.
Magnification and escalation of even the trivial differences.
An effort to increase own power and legitimacy over the other.
Formation of sub groups and factions leading to separation in the group.

11.11.3 Strategies of Conflict Resolution

Introduction of super-ordinate goal: The organization may introduce super
ordinate goals for reducing the conflict among members as well as groups.
Super-ordinate goals are those goals that both the parties having conflict,
217
Group Dynamics needs to achieve. These goals can be achieved only by the combined efforts
of both the parties. In real life, the super-ordinate goals are usually superior
to the conflict interest and are necessary for survival (Sherif, 1958).

Altering perceptions: Persuasions, education, media appeals etc. change the

perception about each other and thus can reduce the conflict.

Increasing intergroup contacts: Bringing together both the parties involved

in a conflict on a neutral ground (task other than conflict interest) may reduce
conflict. This gives them a chance to understand each other’s stand. Best
example of this type of conflict resolution strategy is frequent organisation
of friendly cricket matches between India and Pakistan. However, for this
technique to be successful the contact needs to be maintained.

Redrawing group boundaries: Creating conditions in which conflicting

parties perceive themselves as a part of common group can redraw the group
boundary and thus reduce the conflict.

Negotiations: Both parties undergoing conflict can be convinced to achieve

a mutually acceptable solution. Such negotiation can help in reducing the
conflict significantly. This strategy requires a mediator who allows them to
focus on the discussion on relevant issues.

Structural solutions: Redistribution of the resources according to various

principles of justice, viz. principle of equality (equal distribution), principle
of need (distribution according to need) and principle of equity (distribution
according to contribution) may reduce the feeling of injustice and therefore,
can ease the conflict.

Respect for other group’s norms:Manytimes conflict among various groups

arises from the feeling that the other group does not respect norms of our
group. If, somehow, we are able to instil respect for other groups this conflict
may be resolved.

11.12 COMMUNICATION
Communication is a process of interpersonal interaction in which thoughts, ideas,
emotions and understanding between sender(s) and receiver(s) are exchanged
(Guo and Sanchez, 2005). This simple definition of communication directs
attention to three important issues:
Communication involves transmission and reception of messages.
Communication involves people, at least two: one to transmit the message
(sender) and another to receive the message (receiver).

Communication is best described as a process because it is active, continuous,

reciprocal and dynamic.

11.12.1 Types of Communication

There are several forms of communication, the most important being verbal
communication. Verbal communication can further be divided into two forms:
oral and written. Most basic to the oral form of communication involves the
218
spoken word; as it is the quickest and most accurate because messages can be Group Processes
clarified through ongoing dialogue. Written form of communication involves
exchange of ideas, thoughts, understanding, etc. with the help of letters, memos,
office orders, e-mail, instant messaging, blogs, etc.

Another form of communication is non-verbal which consists of unspoken clues

that a communicator sends in conjunction with spoken or written messages.
Examples may include a person’s tone of voice, facial expressions, eye contact,
head nodding, posture, way of walking, etc.

Though verbal and non verbal communications are separate, both operate at the
same time. The verbal part of a message conveys content or information. The
non verbal component indicates how the verbal message should be interpreted
and thus it is meta-communication. Whenever verbal and non verbal messages
contradict each other, people are more likely to believe the non verbal.

11.12.2 Communication Style

Every individual has his or her own predominant communication style. People
with different communications styles use different verbal and non verbal
communication patterns. The communication styles can be broadly divided into
four types: passive, aggressive, passive-aggressive and assertive. Each
communication style conveys certain messages to listeners and leads to a specific
outcomes.

Passive communication: People with passive communication style are

considered as people pleasers, shy and they usually go along with others to
avoid conflict. They generally exhibit confused body language and avoid
eye contact, place their hands at or over mouth, often play with pen, pencil,
clips, paper, etc. during conversation and chew pen or pencil while listening.
Because of their body language they are perceived as individual with low
self-esteem weak, timid and indecisive.

Aggressive communication: Those who use this style of communication

often disregard the rights of others and force their own needs and opinions
onto other people. This form of communication can lead to shouting and in
some cases, physical aggression. Such people often use aggressive tone and
gestures to emphasis their point of view.

Passive-aggressive communication: In this style of communicating, a person

may use passive means of communicating that have an aggressive result,
because they often find it difficult to direct their thoughts and feelings. They
sometimes use manipulation to get what they want which apparently does
not look like manipulation.

Assertive communication: People with an assertive style of communicating

are able to respectfully express their thoughts and feelings clearly. They
consider and value their own needs, but also the needs of others. This form
of communicating can help to build strong, balanced, and respectful
relationships with others.

219
Group Dynamics 11.12.3 Barriers to Effective Communication
Anything that filters, blocks or distorts the message or the information during
the process of “encoding-sending-decoding” between the sender and the receiver
is considered as barriers of communication. Barriers of communication can be
broadly classified into two types (Longest, Rakich, & Darr, 2000):

Physical-environmental barriers: Environmental and physical barriers of

communication pertain to the physical-environmental components of the
communication process. These may include noise in the communication
channel, an improper time of communication, significant distance between
sender and receiver.

Psychological barriers: Psychological barriers are created due to poor

listening skills, biases, prejudices, mistrust, negative attitude, fear of failure,
evaluation anxiety, public embarrassment, obsessive thoughts of being judged
negatively by others, inferiority complex, etc.

Self Assessment Questions III

State whether the statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1) People with an aggressive style of communicating are able to respectfully
express their thoughts and feelings clearly. ( )

2) In negotiation, both the parties undergoing conflict can be convinced to

achieve a mutually acceptable solution. ( )

3) Cooperationcan be defined as behaviour in which individual tries to excel

his/her own performance and simultaneously hindering others. ( )

4) The tendency of a group to shift towards more extreme decisions than those
initially held by its members is known as group polarisation. ( )

5) A group can simultaneously have competitive and cooperative goals. ( )

11.13 LET US SUM UP

It can be summed up from the above discussions that, group is a collection of
people with common motives, who interact and influence each other. Groups are
distinguished from a crowd where people may not have a common motive and
also they do not interact. We, living in a social world, are part of many groups.
These groups may be of many types: common bond and common identity groups;
cohesive groups, formal and informal groups; primary and secondary groups,
etc. Whatever type of group we belong to, they all have a certain structure. They
have certain norms and statuses. Group members have some definite roles to
fulfil and also, they have a degree of cohesion among them.

A group passes through various phases of development which turn it into a full-
fledged functional entity. These phases are forming, storming, norming,
performing. Few groups are disbanded after the purpose of their formation is
solved. Such groups have an additional phase of [Link] effectiveness
of a group has to be viewed in terms of achievement of productivity goals, ability
to adapt to changes, satisfaction of personal needs of the members, including a
220
sense of status and socialized power and maintenance of the required level of Group Processes
communication, co-operation and sense of accomplishment.

Since, members of a group frequently interact with other members of the group;
their behaviour is quite different from what it would have been in isolation.
According to drive theory of social facilitation, presence of others when we
perform increases our arousal level which may either improve or impair our
performance. Similarly, distraction conflict theory of social facilitation states
that others’ presence leads to cognitive overload resulting into altered
performance. When group is involved in some task, a tendency among the
members is to rely on others’ efforts and contribute less. This propensity is known
as social loafing. This reduces the groups’ overall productivity.

Since groups are formed for some specific motives, they are frequently involved
in various decision-making processes. However, often we mistakenly consider
that the decisions taken by groups are always better than those taken by an
individual. Sometimes group may be victim of group polarization and thus they
may take highly extreme decisions. In this condition, the group members lean
towards group’s initial position so intensely that the final decision is an extreme
one. Another tendency of a highly cohesive group is to consider their group to be
always correct and hence they display a tendency of group think where they
think that the group’s decision can never be wrong. Other vulnerabilities in group’s
decision can be improper sharing of information.

Recurrent interaction among the group members may cultivate tendencies like
cooperation, competition and conflicts. Cooperation occurs when group works
in unison to achieve the common goal of the group. Competition in the group is
observed when members give priority to their individual interests over the group
goals. In the case of competition, one member can achieve the target only if the
other members fail to attain that. Conflict is a realisation of fact that others’
interests are incompatible to that of ours which may or may not be true.
Communication is a relevant process and affects the group interactions and
processes.

11.14 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Define Groups and explain its various components.
2) Present an account of various types of groups.
3) Taking reference of various stages of group formation, differentiate between
crowd and group.

4) Describe the process of decision making in a group. How decisions taken

by a group can be different from that of an individual?

5) Describe cooperationand competition in a group. What factors are responsible

for cooperationandcompetition in the group? Explain them with example.

6) Explain various causes and outcomes of conflict in a group. How can conflict
be resolved?

7) Justify that cooperation, competition and conflict are chain processes in a

group.
221
Group Dynamics
11.15 GLOSSARY
Groups: Collection of people who perceive themselves as the members of the
group, have common motives, are interacting and interdependent, influence each
other and are governed by certain rules, roles assigned to them in the group and
their status in the group.

Common-bond groups: Members of the group having face to face interaction

and a strong bond among them.

Common-identitygroups: Members of the group associated with each other

just by a category with rare face to face interaction.

Entitativity: The extent to which groups are perceived as a coherent whole.

Primary and secondary groups: Primary groups are pre-existing formations

whose memberships are conferred to the individuals. Whereas, an individual
voluntarily joins a secondary groups in order to fulfil certain motives.

Formal and informal groups: A formal group has explicitly stated rules and
functions,definite roles for its members and clearly specified norms. In contrast,
an informal group does not have any explicitly stated rules and regulation.

Status: An official position or rank of an individual member in a group.

Roles: The expected set of behaviours from different members of a group

occupying specific positions in the group.

Norms: The implicit rules within a group guiding how its members should or
should not behave.
Cohesiveness: The force that keeps a group intact.
Group effectiveness: Viewed in terms of achievement of productivity goals,
ability to adapt to changes and satisfaction of personal needs of the members in
order to sustain the group as a team.

Social facilitation: A tendencyof a person to perform differently in presence of

an audience or with a co-actor.

Social loafing: Reduced motivation of group members resulting into reduced

individual efforts to achieve the group goal.

Deindividuation: A psychological state characterized by reduced self-awareness

and personal identity, brought on by external conditions such as being an
anonymous member of a large crowd.

Group polarisation: Tendency of a group to shift towards more extreme decisions

than those initially held by its members.

Group think: Assumption of the embers of a highly cohesive group think that
their decisions cannot be wrong and all the members must support the decision
taken by the group.

Cooperation: Behaviour in which whole group works together to attain the shared
222 goal.
Competition: Behaviour in which individual tries to excel his/her own Group Processes
performance and simultaneously hindering others in completing their tasks.

Conflict: A situation in which individual or a group of individuals perceive that

the others have taken or might take an action that is incompatible with their own
interest.

Super-ordinate goals: The goals, usually superior to the conflict interest, which
both sides in a conflict need to achieve.

11.16 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Self Assessment Questions I
1) Affinitive needs
2) Cohesiveness
3) implicit rules
4) formal
5) primary
Self Assessment Questions II
1) False
2) True
3) False
4) True
5) True
Self Assessment Questions III
1) False
2) True
3) False
4) True
5) True

11.17 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2017). Social Psychology (10thed.).
Cengage Learning.

Baron, R. A., &Branscombe, N. R. (2016). Social Psychology (14th ed.). Boston:

Pearson/Allyn& Bacon.

References
Baron, R. A. (1990). Attributions and organizational conflict. In S. Graha& V.
Folkes (Eds.), Attribution theory: Applications to achievement, mental health,
and interpersonal conflict (pp. 185–204). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
223
Group Dynamics Brickner, M., Harkins, S., & Ostrom, T. (1986). Personal involvement: Thought
provoking implications for social loafing. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 51, 763-769.

Brown, R. (2000). Group Processes: Dynamics Within and Between Groups(2nd

Ed.). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

Burnstein, E. (1983). Persuasion as argument processing. In M. Brandstatter, J.

H. Davis, & G. Stocker-Kriechgauer (Eds.), Group Decision Processes. London:
Academic Press.

Buss, D. M. (1999). Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind.

Needham Heights, MA: Allyn& Bacon.

Buss, D.M. (1999). Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind.
Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Campbell, D. T. (1958). Common fate, similarity, and other indices of the status
of aggregates of persons as social entities. Behavioral Science, 4, 14-25.

Cropanzano, R. (Ed.). (1993). Justice in the Workplace (pp. 79–103). Hillsdale,

NJ: Erlbaum.

Dasgupta, N., Banji, M. R. & Abelson, R. P. (1999). Group entiativity and group
perception: Association between physical features and psychological judgment.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 991-1005.

DeDreu, C. K. W., & Van Lange, P. A. M. (1995). Impact of social value orientation
on negotiator cognition and behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,
21, 1178-1188.

Ellemers, N., de Gilder, D., & Haslam, S. A. (2004). Motivating individuals and
groups at work: A social identity perspective on leadership and group performance.
Academy of Management Review, 29, 459-478.

Guo, L. C. & Sanchez, Y. (2005). Workplace Communication. In Borkowski, N.

(Ed.), Organizational Behavior in Health Care (pp. 77-110). Jones and Bartlett
Publications.

Hargadon, A., & Sutton, R. I. (1997). Technology brokering and innovation in a

product development firm. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42(4), 716-749.

Haslam, S. A. (2004). Psychology in Organisations: The Social Identity Approach

(2nd ed.). London: Sage.

Hogg, M. A. (2007). Organizational orthodoxy and corporate autocrats: Some

nasty consequences of organizational identification in uncertain times. In C.
Bartel, S. Blader& A. Wrzesniewski (Eds.), Identity and the Modern Organization
(pp. 35–59). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Jetten, J., Hornsey, M. A., &Adarves-Yorno, I. (2006).When group members

admit to being conformist: The role of relative intragroup status in conformity
self-reports. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 162-173.

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Jetten, J., Spears, R., &Manstead, A. S. R. (1997). Strength of identification and Group Processes
intergroup differentiation: The influence of group norms. European Journal of
Social Psychology, 27, 603-609.

Judge, T. A., & Cable, T. A. (2004). The effect of physical height on workplace
success and income: Preliminary test of a theoretical model. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 89, 428-441.

Karau, S. J., & Williams, K. D. (1993). Social loafing: A meta-analytic review

and theoretical integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65,
681-706.

Keltner, D., & Robinson, R. J. (1996). Extremism, power, and the imagined basis
of social conflict. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 5,101-105.

Lickel, B., Rutchick, A. M., Hamilton, D. L., & Sherman, S. J. (2006). Intuitive
theories of group types and relational principles. Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 42, 28-39.

Longest, B. B., Rakich, J. S. &Darr, K. (2000). Managing Health Services

Organizations and Systems (4th ed.) (pp. 808-810). Baltimore, MD: Health
Professions Press.

McGrath, J. (1984). Groups: Interaction and Performance. Englewood Cliffs,

NJ: Prentice Hall.

Moreland, R. L., & Levine, J. M. (2001). Socialization in organizations and work

groups. In M. Turner (Ed.), Groups at Work: Theory and Research (pp. 69–112).
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Mullen, B., & Cooper, C. (1994). The relation between group cohesiveness and
performance: An integration. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 210-227.

Peterson, R., &Behfar, K. J. (2003). The dynamic relationship

betweenperformance feedback, trust, and conflict in groups: A
[Link] Behavior and Human Decision Processes,
92,102-112.

Postmes, T., & Spears, R. (1998). Deindividuation and antinormative behavior:

A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 123, 238-259.

Prentice, D. A., Miller, D. T., &Lightdale, J. R. (1994). Asymmetries in

attachments to groups and to their members: Distinguishing between common-
identity and common-bond groups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,
20, 484-493.

Price, K. H., Harrison, D. A., & Gavin, J. H. (2006). Withholding inputs in team
contexts: Member composition, interaction processes, evaluation structure, and
social loafing. journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 1375-1384.

Sherif, M. (1958). Superordinate goals in the reduction of intergroup conflict.

American journal of Sociology, 349-356.

Slater, P.E. (1955), Role Differentiation in Small [Link] Sociology

Journal, 20,300-310.
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Group Dynamics Tuckman, B. W. (1965). Developmental Sequence in Small Groups. Psychological
Bulletin. 63, 384-399.

Weldon, E., &Mustari, L. (1988). Felt dispensability in groups of coactors: The

effects of shared responsibility and explicit anonymity on cognitive effort.
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 41, 330-351.

Williams, K. D., & Karau, S. J. (1991). Social loafing and social compensation:
The effects of expectations of co-worker performance. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 61, 570-581.

Williams, K. D., Harkins, S., & Latane, B. (1981). Identifiability as a deterrent

to social loafing: Two cheering experiments. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 40, 303-311.

Yzerbyt, V. Y., Corneille, O., & Estrada, C. (2001). The interplay of subjective
essentialism and entitativity in the formation of stereotypes. Personality and
Social Psychology Review, 5, 141-155.

Zajonc, R. B., Heingartner, A., & Herman, E. M. (1969). Social enhancement

and impairment of performance in the cockroach. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 13, 83-92.

Zimbardo, P.G. (1970). The human choice: Individuation, reason, and order versus
deindividuation, impulse, and chaos. In W.J. Arnold & D. Levine (Eds.), Nebraska
Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 17, pp. 237–307). Lincoln, NE: University of
Nebraska Press.

226
 Group Processes
UNIT 12 LEADER AND LEADERSHIP*
Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Concept and Role of Leader
12.3 Characteristics of leader,
12.4 Styles of leadership,
12.5 Social categorization,
12.6 Role of a Leader in Conflict Resolution
12.7 Let Us Sum Up
12.8 Unit End Questions
12.9 Glossary
12.10 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
12.11 Suggested Readings and References

12.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, the learner will be able to :
Describe the Characteristics of leader;
Explain types of leadership;
Summarize the social categorization; and
Explain role of a leader in conflict resolution.

12.1 INTRODUCTION
Imagine that you were living in the 18th century, when social issues such as the
Sati system troubled the entire India, then how would you have enacted to stop
the system? That was the time when Raja Ram Mohan Roy retired from the East
India Company and was always interested in reforming the society. He worked
very hard to improve people’s conditions and did a great job in the field of social,
religious and educational work. His active contribution and leadership skills
towards prohibiting the Sati system is best recalled.
Who do you consider are really great leaders? The names that always come to
your mind are all political leaders: Nelson Mandela, Mahatma Gandhi, Indira
Gandhi and Narendra Modi. Some names such as Adof Hitler and Kim Jong-un
also come to our mind.
Many leaders are visionaries, some use their power of authority and others force
us to do as they want. It is not difficult to see the burden in all of this for making
enormous changes in our lives. It is interesting fact that the study of leader and
leadership has held a central role for over 75 years in social [Link] unit
11 you have learned about Group Dynamics. In this unit, you will learn about the
characteristics of leader, types of leadership, social categorization and role of a
leader in conflict resolution.
* Dr. Mohsin Uddin, Consultant, Discipline of Psychology, IGNOU, Delhi 227
Group Dynamics
12.2 CONCEPT AND ROLE OF LEADER
The leader is the person who has the greatest impact on the group actions and
beliefs. She or he is the individual who initiates action, gives orders, makes
decisions, addresses conflicts between group members, provides inspiration,
serves as a model, and is at the heart of any of the operational activities.

Formal or Informal Groups differ in whether they have formal/informal leaders.

Large organisations have uniform organisational charts showing the official chain
of command and providing instructions on decision-making, problem solving
and supervisory patterns, such as companies, cooperative societies, schools,
colleges or universities. In small groups, such as Housing society, Rotary clubs
etc. there may be elected leader with special duties.

On the other hand, within certain groups, there is no formal leader at all.
Friendship/ Board or Commotions groups show a trend of informal leadership.
In group discussions, one member may be more fluent and convincing than others
and may therefore have more effect on decisions making and conflicts resolution.

Many tasks in the group are handled by a leader. The fundamental roles of the
leader differ from the form of formal or informal group being headed. If we go
through the different opinions expressed by the various social and organizational
psychologists, we will certainly infer that leaders typically perform any or all of
the following roles in group decision making and during conflicts resolution.
To encourage the members for better communication.
To inspire the members of the group to obey the law.
Acting as a bridge between the group and other formal and informal
institutions.
Monitoring and enhancing the efficiency of the group.
To cultivate interpersonal relationships between group.
To settle disputes between members of the group.
To give the group strategic direction.
In different locations and places to represent the groups.
Expressing and engaging with the group goal.
Secure productivity of group effort.
Recruit new members and trained the members in core competencies.
Developing team spirit.

12.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADER

When you think about some of the leaders in society, whether it is your supervisor,
boss at workplace or the politicians for whom you vote, you might find yourself
wondering exactly what makes them fit for a leadership position. Social scientists
and psychologist have attempted to identify some of the characteristics of a leader.
The attributes required to be a leader vary from group to group, place to place,
time to time, and situation to situation. The key psychological characteristics of
a leader are as follows:
228
i) Integrity and Honesty Leader and Leadership

A leader must possess the characteristic of honesty. The importance of honesty

should be obvious. Although it may not necessarily be an assessment in member
reviews, integrity is essential for the leader and the group. It is incredibly necessary
for leader who plan the group’s direction and make countless other useful
decisions.

ii) Communication
Leadership and successful communication are intertwined. Leader need to be
able to communicate in a variety of ways, from transmitting information to
coaching the group members. In addition, through occupations, social identities,
and more, a wide range of member must be able to listen to, and communicate
with others. The quality and efficacy of communication within group directly
affects the effectiveness of group cohesiveness, groupthink and plan, too.

iii) Drive and Motivation

This involves desire, enthusiasm, high energy and strategies for achievement.
Many leaders have a strong sense of mission, aim, concentration and dedication.

iv) Self-esteem
To the degree to which a person is at peace with himself and has a good overall
assessment of her or his self-worth and skill, any individual is considered
appropriate to be a leader. Leaders with high self-esteem respect their followers
[Link] levels of self-confidence can affect those with high self-esteem and
this affects their image in the eyes of their followers. Self-esteem can also explain
the correlation between certain physical attributes and the emergence of leaders.

v) Intelligence
Either aleader is appointed or elected, intelligence is one of the important attribute
of leadership.

vi) Empathy
A leader has enough open-mindedness to understand their followers’ motives,
dreams, expectations, and challenges so that they can build a profound emotional
touch with them.

vii) Maturity
A leader should have a high degree of emotional quotient. She or He needs to
maintain her/his temper of calmness. She or He must be highly tolerant. She or
He should be open minded to explore fresh ideas. She/ He should be able to look
at situations logically.

viii) Physical Features

A leader must have an image that is pleasing. For a good leader, physique and
fitness are very important.

ix) Sense of responsibility

To bring a sense of power, responsibility and accountability for the work of a
person is very important. A leader must have a sense of accountability for group
objectives and only then, in a real sense, will he get full potential exploited. She
229
Group Dynamics or He has to motivate himself and arouse and urge herself or himself to give the
best of her or his skills for this. Only then can the members motivate the best.

x) Vision and foresight

If leader shows that she or he is forward thinking, a leader can not retain power.
Leader needs to imagine scenarios and so logical programmes have to be framed.

xi) Passion
Leaders should feel a passion for their work and show it. The buy-in of members
would be stronger if their leader indicates that they care for the job they do.

xii) Influence
Great leaders will positively affect their workers. Earn the organisation ‘s
confidence and appreciation so that you can inspire them to work hard, stay
optimistic and show ingenuity.

Self Assessment Questions I

State whether the following are True or False
1) Self-esteem can also explain the correlation between certain physical
attributes and the emergence of leaders.
2) Leaders with low self-esteem respect their followers more.
3) A leader has enough open-mindedness to understand their followers’ motives.
4) For a good leader, physique and fitness are not important.

12.4 STYLES OF LEADERSHIP

1) Autocratic Style
“Do as I say” is the most illustrative expression of an autocratic leadership style.
An autocratic leader usually assumes that she or he is the best individual at any
context and better than anyone. With no input from group members, they make
all the decisions.

2) Participative Style
Participative leadership is a form of leadership in which all group members
working together for taking decisions. Participative leadership is also known as
democratic leadership, where everyone is supposed to participate.

3) Laissez -fair Style

A laissez-faire leader does not directly apply power over its members under this
model of leadership. Since members are highly experienced and require minimal
guidance, under her or his supervision, a laissez-faire leader fails to provide
members with continuous input. This style of leadership is also related to leaders
who do not track their group members, who have not given ongoing input resulting
in high costs , poor service, failure to meet deadlines, loss of control and
production.

4) Narcissistic leadership Style

Narcissistic leadership is a form of leadership in which the leader only thinks for
230 herself/ himself. At the detriment of their people / group participants, their focus
is themselves. This leader displays the characteristics of a narcissist: arrogance, Leader and Leadership
superiority and aggression.

5) Toxic leadership Style

A toxic leader is a person who is responsible for a member of or a federation and
exploits the relationship between the leader and member by leaving the group or
foundation in a worse position than when they first found them.

6) Charismatic leadership Style

In this type of leadership, The charismatic leader shows her or his revolutionary
authority. Charisma does not mean sheer change in actions. Currently, it requires
a transformation of the ideals and convictions of members.

Charismatic leaders appear to have positive personalities and to attract enormous

followers. Mahatma Gandhi, Indira Gandhi, Narendra Modi, Medha Patkar are
examples of such leaders.

7) Transformational leadership
Transformational leadership, unlike other leadership types, is more about
facilitating change in organisations, groups, oneself and others. Transformational
leaders inspire others to do more than they initially expected and sometimes
much more than they considered feasible. They set more difficult goal and
generally achieve a higher result. Statistically, transformational leadership tends
to have more committed and satisfied followers. This is mostly so because
followers are motivated by representatives of change.

8) Transactional Leadership
Transactional Leadership is a theory or style first explored by sociologist Max
Weber in 1947 and subsequently extended by Bernard M. Bass, who also played
a leading role in the growth of Transformational [Link] is leadership that
requires an exchange process in which members receive immediate, benefits
for carrying out the instructions of the leader.

9) Bureaucratic Leadership
Bureaucratic leadership refers to organisational leadership through a highly
formalised set of procedures, protocols, and systems. Laws , policies and
hierarchies here set up a straightforward set of objectives as well as an explicit
chain of command. At each level of a bureaucracy, organisational members are
obliged both to their immediate subordinates and to a wider ecosystem of rules
and procedures. Through channelling defined laws, implementing current systems,
and ruling over particular parts of the hierarchy, bureaucratic leaders lead.

10) Consultative Leadership

Consultative leaders regularly ask members for input and take members
complaints seriously. They also have an open-door policy that allows members
to share in the group what is and is not working. Although leader consult with
members, they inevitably maintain supreme decision-making authority.

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Group Dynamics 11) Socio-emotional Leadership
A socio-emotional leadership style involves a leader, who, by driving away fears,
reducing tension, resolving conflicts, and settling arguments and disagreements,
is concerned with raising the morale of his or her group at a high level.

12) Paternalistic Leadership

Paternalistic leadership is a management strategy involving a dominant
authoritative personality that acts as a matriarch or patriarch and treats partners
and staff just as they are members of large extended families. The leaders, in
turn, expect the staff to have confidence, obedience, and loyalty.

13) Sociocratic Leadership

The sociocratic leader tries to run the group, like a Social Club. Leader gives
less significance to development and more significance to friendship. Leader
wants to make her or his members really satisfied, in other words. Therefore,
leader provides a warm and good social atmosphere.

14) Situational Leadership

In different situations, the situational form of leader uses different types. That is,
according to the case, leader alters his or his style. Leader may be autocratic, or
consultative, or participative often, etc. Most leaders now-a-days use this form
of leadership.

15) Neurocratic Leadership

This style involves a task-oriented leader who is highly neurocratic. At any
expense, they needs to get the job done. If there is some loss, they becomes very
agitated. Leader is really emotional, sensitive and eccentric. In decision-making,
leader does not consult her or his members. Leader take her/his own decisions.

Self Assessment Questions II

State whether the following are True or False
1) An autocratic leader usually assumes that leader is the best individual at the
situation.
2) Laissez -fair style of leadership is related to leaders who track their group
members.
3) The charismatic leader does not shows her or his revolutionary authority.
4) Consultative leaders regularly ask members for input.

12.5 SOCIAL CATEGORIZATION

Social categorization such as gender, race and social category, influences our
perceptions as well.

For instance, when we meet a new teacher, we could classify his as men, a middle-
aged man, an Asian, an academic, and so on. Social categorization is a natural
feature of social cognition; it provides a mental shortcut in that it helps us to
infer an individual’s properties based on the properties of others in the same
community.
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Social categorization is the distinction between oneself and others and between Leader and Leadership
one’s own group and other groups, and it is such a natural and spontaneous
phenomenon that we are not aware of it often.

A third perspective on the origins of stereotyping and prejudice begins with this
basic fact that people generally divide the social world into two distinct categories
Us and Them–social categorization Ingroup is US and the Outgroup is THEM
(Charles Sumner, 1906, Page 12). Persons in the Ingroupare perceived favorably
while those in the latter are perceived more negatively. This tendency to make
more favorable and flattering attributions about members of one’s group than
members about the other group is known as the ultimate attribution error.

Evidence from research suggests that by identifying with certain special classes,
people seek to boost their self-esteem. And so the final outcome is inevitable, as
each group seeks to see itself better than the rivals. Thus, dividing our group into
two opposing groups is one of the significant causes of stereotyping and
discrimination.

12.6 ROLE OF A LEADER IN CONFLICT

RESOLUTION
Leaders who use conflict management skills can provide support and direction
towards conflict resolution. A common trait of leaders is they are able to build
groups that work well together and help to set the tone for the group.

The resolution of conflicts is conceptualised as the techniques and procedures

involved in facilitating the peaceful end of conflict. Committed group members
or Leader also strive to overcome group conflict by openly sharing information
to the rest of the group members (e.g. intentions; reasons for maintaining those
beliefs) about their contradictory motives or agendas and by participating in
collective bargaining.

At work and in groups, nobody likes conflict. It can fester and affect group morale,
interpersonal relationships , and work efficiency if not addressed properly and in
due time. A lot of research has been done to identify measures for better dispute
resolution that are time-efficient and impactful.

Researcher Kenneth Thomas and Ralph Kilmann developed a model for conflict
resolution in the 1970s. Following them, it was called the Thomas-Kilmann model.
The word ‘conflict’ is defined as the situation under this model in which the
concerns of people can not be contrasted with others. If two or more individuals
or groups care about items that are conflicting with each other, then conflict is
the result.

When selecting a mode of behaviour in a situation of confilict, this model defines

the two main dimensions:’ assertiveness’ and ‘cooperativeness.’ The degree to
which you strive to resolve and resolve your desired results is assertiveness.

Thomas-Kilmann’s five modes for resolving conflicts.

Thomas-Kilmann gave us the following five ways to deal with the conflicts posed,
based on the similarity of these two and the degree of implementation:

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Group Dynamics 1) Competing
The first Thomas-Kilmann conflict mode, which is competing, is assertive and
non-cooperative. It refers to answering only one’s own issues at the detriment of
the other’s concerns. It is a power-oriented mode that uses whatever dynamic of
power seems necessary to achieve a desirable outcome for itself.

The willingness of a person to argue, their place in the hierarchy, or their financial
power matter the most. It strictly means standing up for your own convictions
and actually striving to win. Competing is defensive.

2) Accommodating
According to the Thomas-Kilmann model, the Accommodating Mode is both
accepting and cooperative. That’s the opposite of being competing. While
welcoming, the individual in question neglects their own interests or values to
tackle the issues of the other party. The self-sacrifice element is emphasised in
this mode. Usually, accommodating requires selfless comprehension, generosity,
or charity. At times, accommodating would require you to obey the instructions
of the other person if you would not like to do so, or adhere to the opinion or
decisions of the other person.

3) Avoiding
Avoiding is both unassertive and uncooperative in the Thomas-Kilmann model.
The person does not want to tackle his or her own problems or others’ problems.
This essentially suggests that they do not want to participate in the dispute at all.
At times, avoidance may be seen as a diplomatic move involving bypassing or
ignoring the issue. It may also mean putting the problem away until the time is
right, or simply standing back from an unpleasant or unsafe situation.

4) Collaborating
In the Thomas-Kilmann conflict model, working together is the most
advantageous outcome. It is assertive as well as cooperative. The complete
opposite of avoiding is this mode. Collaborating requires a voluntary attempt to
work together with the opposition to find a perfect solution that solves the
collective issue entirely. Collaborating requires deep-diving into a dilemma to
define the critical criteria of the members or group involved. A desire to understand
the ‘why’ of the dispute could take the form of collaborating between two or
more individuals. It means trying to look for interesting solutions to interpersonal
problems and enriching yourself from the experiences of the other members.

5) Compromising
In the Thomas-Kilmann conflict model, the last outcome falls on both the
assertiveness and cooperativeness scales on the average point. The aim here is to
find a mutually satisfactory and robust solution that satisfies both individuals in
some way.

Midway between competing and welcoming, it comes. It tackles a problem more

explicitly than ignoring it, but it falls short of analysing it with as much depth
and rigour as working together. Compromising can include finding middle-ground
solutions in some cases, making compromises, or seeking a fast solution that
offers a path forward from the impasse.

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To sum up the modes of conflict resolution: Leader and Leadership

Competing with the objective of winning

Accommodating: “to yield” is the purpose
Avoiding:’ delaying’ is the goal
Collaborating: the aim is to find a win-win solution.
Compromising: ‘Finding a middle ground’ is the aim.
Self Assessment Questions III
State whether the following are True or False
1) Social categorization is a natural feature of social cognition.
2) Kenneth Thomas and Ralph Kilmann developed a model for conflict
resolution.
3) Accommodating Mode is both accepting and cooperative.
4) Avoiding is both unassertive and uncooperative in the Thomas-Kilmann
model.

12.7 LET US SUM UP

It can be summed up from the above discussion that leader is the person who has
the greatest impact on the group actions and [Link] Characteristic of
leader:Integrity and Honesty, Communication, self esteem, empathy,
maturity, physical features and influence. The various type of leadership
are:Autocratic, Participative, Narcissistic Bureaucratic, Consultative, Social
categorization etc.

12.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Describe the various functions of leader.
2) Name ten leadership type.
3) Explain the characteristics of leader.
4) What do you mean by Laissez –fair?
5) How does Autocratic differ from Participative type of leadership?
6) Write a short note on Social categorization.
7) Describe Thomas-Kilmann’s five modes for resolving conflicts.

12.9 GLOSSARY
Leader: The leader is the person who has the greatest impact on the group actions
and beliefs.

Autocratic: An autocratic leader usually assumes that she or he is the best

individual at the situation and better than anyone.

Participative: Participative leadership is a form of leadership in which all group

members working together for taking decisions.
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Group Dynamics Narcissistic: Narcissistic leadership is a form of leadership in which the leader
only thinks for herself/ himself.

Bureaucratic: Bureaucratic leadership refers to organisational leadership through

a highly formalised set of procedures, protocols, and systems.

Consultative: Consultative leaders regularly ask members for input and take
members complaints seriously.

Social categorization: Social categorization such as gender, race and social

category, influences our perceptions as well.

12.10 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Self Assessment Questions I
1) True
2) False
3) True
4) False
Self Assessment Questions II
1) True
2) False
3) False
4) True
Self Assessment Questions III
1) True
2) True
3) True
4) True

12.11 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Baron, R.A., Byrne, D. & Bhardwaj. G (2010). Social Psychology (12th Ed).New
Delhi:Pearson.
References
Allport, F.H. (1924). Social Psychology, Houghton, Mifflon.
Chadha, N.K. (2012). Social Psychology. MacMillan: New Delhi
Deaux.K&Wrightsman, L. (2001). Social Psychology. California: Cole Publishing
Kassin,S., Fein, S., &Markus,H.R. (2008). Social Psychology. New York:
Houghton Miffin.
David, H. (1968). Social Psychology, Harper and Row, New York.
236
Davis, L. E., Galinsky, M.J. and Schopler, J. H. (1995). RAP : A framework for Leader and Leadership
leading multiracial groups, Social Work, 40 (2), 155-165.
Dawson and Gettys, Introduction to Sociology.
Deutsch, M. and Gerard, H. (1955). A study on normative and informational
social influence upon individual judgement. Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology, 51, 629-636.

Dollard, J. (1939). Frustration and Aggression, Yale University Press. Eldredge

and Merrill, Culture and Society, p. 483. Gillin and Gillin, Cultural Sociology, p.
488.

Gish, N.P., Fundamentals of Sociology, p. 63. Green Arnold, Sociology, p. 71.

Green, A.W., Sociology, (5th edition) p. 60.

Hopps, J.G. and Pinderhughes, E.B. (1999). Group work with overwhelmed
clients, New York : Free Press. Krech, Crutchfield and Ballachy (1962). Individual
and Society, McGraw Hill, New York.

Krech, Crutchfield and Ballacy (1962). Individual and Society, McGraw Hill,
New York.

Kuppuswamy, B. (1980), An Introduction to Social Psychology, 2nd revised

edition, (reprinted, 2004), Asia Publishing House, Mumbai.

Kuppuswamy, B. (1980). An Introduction to Social Psychology, Asia Publishing

House, New Delhi. Kuppuswamy, B.(2002), Elements of Social Psychology, 7th
Revised Edition, Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

Macgowan, M.J. (2000). Evaluation of a measure of engagement for group work,

Research on Social Work Practice, 10(3), 348-361. MacIver, R. M., Society, p.
521.

MacKenzie, K.R. (1983). The clinical application of a group climate measure. In

R. Dies and K.R. MacKenzie (Eds.) Advances in group psychotherapy: Integrating
research and practice (155-170). New York: International Universities Press.

Misra, G. (2009). Psychology in India, Volume 4: Theoretical and Methodological

Developments (ICSSR survey of advances in research). New Delhi: Pearson.

Myers, D.G. (2008). Social Psychology New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.

Taylor,S.E., Peplau,L.A. &Sears,D.O. (2006). Social Psychology (12th Ed). New

Delhi:
Pearson.
Shetgovekar, S(2018) An introduction to Social Psychology, Sage publication
India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.

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