xxvi Contents

General Elections (December 1945) Cabinet Mission, 1946 Communal Carnage (beginning
16th August 1946) Interim Government (2nd September 1946) Post-War Popular Unrest

Communalism, Partition and Freedom of India

Period of Extreme Communalism (Background to the demand for Pakistan) Partition and
Freedom Attlee's Announcement (20th February 1947) (Setting the time limit for
British withdrawal) o Lord Mountbatten Arrives in India Mountbatten Plan: Partition
Plan (Also known as 3rd June Plan) The Disastrous 72-day Timetable o Indian
Independence Act, 1947 Massacres- the Tragedy of Partition Independence Day (15th
August 1947)

7.45-7.60

Appendix 1 Sessions of the Indian National Congress

Appendix 2 Newspapers and Journals

Appendix 3

Development of Press in India

Appendix 4 Development of Education

Appendix 5 Governors-General and Viceroys of India

Practice Papers - Preliminary Exam

Practice Papers - Main Exam

A2.4-A2.6 A3.7-A3.14 A4.15-A4.20 A5.21-A5.30

PP.8-PP.10

Find at the End of Every Chapter

Previous Years' Questions - Preliminary Exam Previous Years' Questions - Main Exam

A1.1-A1.3

PP.1-PP.7

7.48

7.48

7.45

7.48

7.36

7.49

7.35

7.51
7.34

7.52

7.30

7.52

7.28

7.53

3.

Unit 1 Mid-Eighteenth Century India India on the Eve of British Conquest

()

Chapter

Decline of Mughal Empire (1707-1857)

Sandwiched between the two empires, the Mughal and the British, the mid-18th
century India is often depicted as 'a dark age' or 'an age of chaos'. But was it
really so?

Let us try to see this period through the eyes of someone living in mid-18th
century India. The Mughal Empire was now weak but not yet dead. The regional powers
were rapidly gaining strength and autonomy. India was open to trade and had emerged
as an attractive destination for European Trading Companies, but none of these
companies were perceived as destined to rule India. In the world context, India was
not yet an economically backward region. Neither were Europe and North America as
rich as they became in the 19th and 20th centuries. All these potentialities still
lay in the womb of the future. Perhaps this depiction as 'a dark age' suited a
certain way of looking at Indian history which highlighted the British achievements
of re-unification of India under the British and the inauguration of a new age of
enlightenment in India with the spread of western knowledge and culture. Not many
historians would agree today with this kind of depiction.

1.2 Modern Indian History

Hence, it is only appropriate that we refrain from such view and rather look at the
mid-18th century Indian polity as a chronological whole, comprising the following
three broad themes:

Theme 1: Decline of Mughal Empire (First half of the 18th century) The early
decades of 18th century saw the decline of the Mughal Empire-a long-drawn-out
process effected by many factors. The reign of Aurangzeb (1658-1707) marked the
beginning of this process of decline which was further hastened by the invasion of
Nadir Shah in 1739. Though the Mughal Empire did not survive, its institutions and
traditions continued in the regional states as well as in British provinces,
especially in respect of land revenue administration.

Theme 2: Rise of Autonomous States (Middle decades The middle decades of the 18th
century saw the rise of autonomous states or regional powers that can be
categorised into three groups-the successor states (Hyderabad, Awadh and Bengal),
the new states (Marathas, the Sikhs, the Jats and the Afghans) and the independent
kingdoms (Mysore, Kerala and the Rajputs). How come all these powers failed to keep
the British out? Answers to such questions and more shall be discussed under this
theme.

of the 18th century)

Theme 3: Rise of British Supremacy (Second half of the 18th century) The weakening
of the Mughal Empire also provided an opportunity to the East India Company and the
last decades of the 18th century saw the transformation of this Company from a
trading company to a political power. We shall trace this transition from where it
first began, i.e. in south India and Bengal.

Unit-1 covers the above political themes comprehensively and also gives you a
glimpse of 18th-century Indian society and economy. In this chapter, you will learn
about the first theme, i.e. the decline of the Mughal Empire.

DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

The first half of the 18th century witnessed the decline of the Mughal Empire that
had dazzled the world since many years with its extensive territories, military
might and cultural achievements. The era of the Great Mughals that had begun in
1526 with Babur's accession to the throne, ended with the death of Aurangzeb in
1707 which also marked the end of an era in Indian history.

The process of decline had set in during Aurangzeb's reign itself (1658-1707) and
could not be arrested by his weak successors. When Aurangzeb died, the empire of
the Mughals was the largest in India; yet it only represented an inflated balloon.
The empire had expanded beyond manageable limits and its vastness only tended to
weaken the centre. Aurangzeb's socio-religious policies and fundamentalism, in
sharp contrast to his ancestors, provoked the subject population into rebellion,
including the great Marathas against whom he waged fruitless wars in the Deccan for
20 years! It had been aptly said, "The Deccan ulcer proved to be as fatal to the
Mughal Empire as the 'Spanish ulcer' was to prove later on to the Napoleonic
Empire."

A combination of factors further ensured that within 50 years of Aurangzeb's death,

the Mughal Empire disintegrated-nine Mughal emperors followed one another in quick
succession and many adventurers, Indian and foreign, carved out independent
principalities for themselves in India. By 1739 Delhi had been invaded by Nadir
Shah, by 1761 (when Abdali invaded) the Mughals had been replaced by the Marathas
as the defenders of India, and by 1765 the Mughal emperor had been reduced to a
pensioner of the British.

Decline of Mughal Empire 1.3

The British carefully kept alive the fiction of the Mughal Empire till 1858. In the
150 years' period between 1707 and 1857 (when the last of the Mughals Bahadur Shah
Zafar was deposed by the British) there emerged as many as 12 Mughal emperors,
known as the Later Mughals. Two of the longest surviving of these, Muhammad Shah
(1719-48) and Shah Alam II (1759-1806), witnessed devastating attacks by Nadir Shah
(1739) and Ahmad Shah Abdali, who attacked India seven times during 1748-67.

Thus, internal weaknesses of the Mughal Empire combined with external aggressions
left the foundations of the Mughal Empire completely shaken, tempting regional
powers to assert independence and European trading companies to dabble in Indian
politics.

Later Mughals (1707-1857)

Aurangzeb's death in 1707 (at the age of 89) signalled a war of succession among
his three sons. The eldest brother, Prince Muazzam, defeated and killed the other
two (Muhammad Azam at Jajau in June 1707, and Kam Bakhsh near Hyderabad in January
1709), emerged victorious and ascended to the throne of Delhi assuming the title of
Bahadur Shah I.

Bahadur Shah I or Muazzam Shah Alam I (1707-12)

Bahadur Shah I (1707-12), was also known as Shah Alam I. He was an elderly man of
65, was learned and reversed some of the narrow-minded policies of Aurangzeb. He
adopted a more tolerant attitude towards the Hindus and there was also no
destruction of temples during his reign. Whether out of statesmanship or weakness,
he adopted a pacific policy in general with respect to various regional powers:

• Marathas Bahadur Shah allowed the Maratha prince Shahu, held as Mughal

captive since 1689, to go back to Maharashtra.

• Rajputs He made peace with the Rajput chiefs and confirmed them in their states.
• Jats and Bundelas He made peace with the Jat chief Churaman and Bundela chief
Chhatrasal who had joined him in the campaign against Banda Bahadur. • Sikhs
Bahadur

Shah tried to make peace with the rebellious Sikhs by giving Guru Gobind Singh a
high mansab.

But after the death of the Guru, the Sikhs once again raised a revolt under the
leadership of Banda Bahadur. This time the emperor decided to be strict and he
himself led a campaign against the rebels. He defeated Banda Bahadur at Lohgarh, a
fort built by Guru Govind Singh in the foothills of the Himalayas. Yet, the Sikhs
could not be crushed and they later recovered the fort in 1712. Bahadur Shah I

However, Bahadur Shah lavishly granted jagirs and promotions which led to a
deterioration in the field of administration during his reign. Called Shah-i-
Bekhabar (Headless King) by Khafi Khan, he died in 1712.

Parties at Mughal Court and Kingmakers After Bahadur Shah's death, a new element
entered Mughal politics and war of succession-while previously the contest for
power was between the royal princes and the nobles had merely backed them, now the
nobles became direct aspirants to the throne and began using the princes as pawns
to capture positions of authority. In other words, powerful nobles emerged as
'kingmakers'. For instance, at the time of Emperor Jahandar Shah, Zulfiqar Khan
emerged

Modern Indian History

as the kingmaker. Similarly, during emperor Farrukhsiyar, it were the Sayyid

Brothers who raised

Farrukhsiyar to throne in 1713 and pulled him down in 1719 when he ceased to serve
their interests. Worst of all, these nobles belonged to different parties like
Irani and Turani, which represented merely interest groups or factions looking for
their own self-advancement, even if at the cost of the welfare of the 'nation', the
Mughal empire. Though there emerged various parties at the Mughal Court, there were
4 prominent ones-the Turanis, the Iranis, the Afghans and the Hindustanis. The
first three were descendants of foreigners from Central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan
and formed the backbone of the 'army of occupation'. They held important civil and
military offices in India. The Turanis and Afghans were mostly Sunnis, while Iranis
were mostly Shias. In opposition to this Mughal or Foreign party was the Hindustani
party which mostly comprised of Muslims born in India and got the support of the
Rajputs and the Jats. However, it must be noted that the slogans of race and
religion were raised by the nobles only to suit their interests, and given up when
it was no longer profitable.

Jahandar Shah (1712-13)

In 1712, a war of succession broke out among the four sons of Bahadur Shah. They
were in such indecent haste of grabbing the throne that they plunged themselves
into the war of succession, leaving Bahadur Shah's dead body unburied for about a
month. In the struggle for succession, one of the less able sons, Jahandar Shah,
emerged victorious, supported by the most powerful noble of the time-Zulfiqar Khan
Party).

Jahandar Shah was a degenerate prince wholly devoted to pleasure. His

administration was virtually in the hands of the extremely capable Zulfiqar Khan,
who had become his wazir or prime minister.

Zulfiqar believed that it was important to establish friendly relations with the
Rajput rajas and the Maratha sardars. Therefore, he rapidly reversed the policies
of Aurangzeb.

Marathas Zulfiqar Khan confirmed the agreement reached between his deputy of
Deccan, Daud Khan Panni, and Shahu in 1711, whereby the Marathas were granted the
chauth and sardeshmukhi of the Deccan on the condition that these collections would
be made by Mughal officials and then handed over to the Marathas.

Rajputs Jai Singh II of Amber was appointed Governor of Malwa while Maharaja Ajit
Singh of Marwar was appointed Governor of Gujarat.

Jats, Bundelas, Sikhs Zulfiqar Khan continued to pacify Churaman Jat and Chhatrasal
Bundela. He also continued to suppress the Sikhs.

He also abolished the hated jeziah.

Zulfiqar Khan tried to improve the finances of the empire by checking the reckless
growth of jagirs and offices. But he gave up Todar Mal's land revenue settlement
and introduced the evil practice of revenue farming orljarah whereby the government
established contact with the revenue farmers and middlemen Jizya (or Jizyah) Jeziah
was a per capita yearly tax historically levied by Islamic states on non-Muslim
subjects. who paid the government a fixed amount while they were free to extract
whatever they could from the peasant, leading to increased oppression of the
peasantry.

Jahandar Shah was soon defeated by his nephew Farrukhsiyar at Agra, thus bringing
an end to the reign of Jahandar Shah. Zulfiqar Khan was also executed.

(Irani

1.4

Decline of Mughal Empire

Farrukhsiyar (1713-19)

Farrukhsiyar came to power with the help of Sayyid brothers-Abdullah Khan and
Hussain Ali Khan Barahow-who came to be known as the kingmakers. As a token of
gratitude, Farrukhsiyar appointed Abdullah Khan as his wazir and Hussain Ali Khan
as the Mir Bakshi. Farrukhsiyar was incapable, coward and he allowed himself to be
influenced by worthless flatterers. Taking advantage, the two brothers soon
acquired dominant control over the affairs of the state (1713-20).

Emperor Farrukhsiyar The Sayyid brothers adopted the policy of religious tolerance.
They believed that India could be ruled harmoniously only by associating Hindu
chiefs and nobles with the Muslim nobles in governance. They abolished the jeziah
and pilgrimage tax. They continued to conciliate the Marathas, the Rajputs and the
Jats while suppressing the Sikhs. Farrukhsiyar's reign saw the victory of the
Mughals over the Sikhs as the Sikh leader Banda Bahadur was taken prisoner at
Gurdaspur and later executed (19 June 1716).

In 1714, William Hamilton, a surgeon in the British East Indian Company

successfully cured Farrukhsiyar of a disease (swelling in the groin). After
successful treatment, Farrukhsiyar finally arranged his marriage to the daughter of
Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur, which had been delayed by the illness. As a reward to
the Company, the emperor issued a farman (royal order), known as the Farman of
1717, heedlessly granting the British East India Company many trading privileges
including the exemption from custom duties for its trade through Bengal. The
provisions of the farman became a source of perpetual conflict between the Bengal
Nawabs and the English Company.

Soon, Farrukhsiyar wanted to exercise his own authority and conspired to get rid of
the Sayyid brothers. However, the Sayyids proved to be too clever for him and with
the help of Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath, they dethroned the emperor and blinded and
killed him. It was the first time in the Mughal history that an emperor was killed
by his nobles.

After the execution of Farrukhsiyar, the Sayyid Brothers raised to the throne in
quick succession two young princes, Rafi-ud-Darajat and Rafi-ud-Daula, both of whom
died of consumption (old name for tuberculosis).

April 1719-June 19) He ruled for the shortest period. • Rafi-ud-Daula or Shah Jahan
II (June 1719-September 19) He took the title of Shah Jahan II. He was an opium
addict and suffered from dysentery.

• Rafi-ud-Darajat (

The kingmakers now made the 18-year-old Roshan Akhtar, better known as Muhammad
Shah the emperor of India. All the three successors of Farrukhsiyar were mere
puppets in the hands of the Sayyids. Even their personal liberty to move around and
meet people was restricted.

Muhammad Shah or Roshan Akhtar Bahadur (1719-48)

Even though Sayyid brothers had tried hard to befriend all sections of the
nobility, a powerful group of nobles headed by Nizam-ul-Mulk and Muhammad Amin Khan
began to conspire against them. These nobles were jealous of the growing power of
the brothers. Moreover, the murder of Farrukhsiyar also frightened many of them.
For, if the emperor could be killed, what safety was there for mere nobles?

at Delhi

1.5

Modern Indian History

Muhammad Shah too desired to free himself from the control of the Sayyid brothers
and succeeded in killing them in 1720 with the help of a powerful noble, Nizam-ul-
Mulk (full name-Qamar-ud-din Siddiqi Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah).

After the fall of the Sayyid brothers, Muhammad Shah ruled for a long period of
nearly 30 years (1719-48). This was probably the last chance to save the empire-the
Mughal rule was still held in high esteem, the Mughal army was still a force to
reckon with, the Maratha sardars were still confined to the south and the Rajputs
were still loyal to the Mughals. A strong and farsighted ruler might have still
saved the situation. But Muhammad was not the man of the moment. He was weak minded
and frivolous, and came to be known in Indian history as Muhammad Shah 'Rangeela'
because of his fondness for wine and women. After the fall of Sayyid brothers he
fell into the clutches of a dancing girl Koki Jiu and the eunuch Hafiz Khidmatgar
Khan.

In this way, Muhammad Shah's reign initiated an irreversible decline of the Mughal
Empire and the physical breakup of the Empire now began:

Powerful nobles now began to carve out semi-independent states. For example, Nizam-
ul-Mulk in Hyderabad (1724), Murshid Quli Khan in Bengal (1717) and Saadat Khan in
Awadh (1722) carved out their autonomous states.

The Marathas began their northern expansion and in 1737 Baji Rao I raided Delhi and
terrorised the

emperor.

In 1739 Nadir Shah invaded India, defeated the Mughals in the Battle of Karnal and
annexed strategically important areas west of the Indus (including Kabul) to the
Persian Empire. And India once again became vulnerable to the attacks from the
north-west. Soon after the assassination of Nadir Shah (1747), Ahmad Shah Abdali
was chosen as the King of Afghanistan. Between 1748 and 1767, Abdali invaded and
plundered the Mughal Empire seven times, beginning his first invasion in 1748
during the reign of Muhammad Shah.

Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah During Muhammad Shah's rule, Nizam-ul-Mulk was appointed as
the wazir in 1722. Instead of supporting the wazir in administrative reforms,
Muhammad Shah suspected his own ministers. Disgusted with the fickle-mindedness and
suspicious nature of the emperor, Nizam-ul-Mulk decided to pursue his own ambition.
He then decided to leave the emperor and his empire to their fate and marched south
to found the state of Hyderabad (in Deccan in 1724). Nizam-ul-Mulk's departure was
symbolic of the 'flight of loyalty and virtue from the empire' and marked the
beginning of the physical breakup of the Mughal Empire.

Nadir Shah's Invasion Mughal Empire received a fatal blow when the King of Persia
Nadir Shah invaded India in 1738-39. Nadir Shah was attracted to India by its well-
known fabulous wealth and the bankrupt Persian Empire found an easy prey in the
weak Mughal rule. Earlier, Aurangzeb had kept a vigilant eye over the north-west
frontier. However, after this death, the frontier had been neglected for years. The
danger was recognised only after Nadir Shah occupied Lahore. Hurried preparations
were made for the defence of Delhi but the nobles could not agree on a plan for
defence. The emperor Muhammad Shah accompanied by Nizam-ul-Mulk marched from the
capital to confront the invader.

Battle of Karnal On 13 February 1739, the two armies met at Karnal and Nadir Shah
inflicted a crushing defeat on the Mughal army. Whille Khan--Dauran (Mir Bakshi)
fell in the battlefield, Saadat Khan (governor of Awadh) and emperor Mohammad Shah
were taken prisoner. Nadir Shah now marched to Delhi and ordered a terrible
massacre in imperial capital to revenge the killing of a handful of his soldiers.
The devastation of Delhi has been famously lamented by the poets Mir and Sauda.
1.6

Decline of Mughal Empire

Nadir Shah took possession of the royal treasury; the Peacock throne and the
Kohinoor diamond were the two most priced items of his loot. His total plunder,
estimated at 70 crore, enabled him to exempt his

own kingdom from taxation for 3 years! Nadir Shah also annexed territory to the
west of the River Indus. Nadir Shah's invasion inflicted a heavy damage on the
Mughal Empire and its dwindling image suffered a severe blow. It exposed the hidden
weakness of the empire to the Maratha sardars and the foreign trading companies.
The invasion ruined central finances; the impoverished nobles began to oppress the
peasantry even more in an effort to recover their lost fortunes. The loss of areas
west to the Indus once again exposed the empire to dangers from the North-West.

Ahmad Shah Abdall's Invasions After the assassination of Nadir Shah in 1747, Ahmad
Shah Abdali (or Ahmad Shah Durrani) was chosen as the King of Afghanistan and
assumed the title 'Durr-i-Durrani' or Pearl of pearls. He also began invading India
during Muhammad Shah's reign in 1748, his first invasion being a fiasco. Between
1748 and 1767, he invaded and plundered Mughal Empire seven times.

In early 1749, he again crossed the frontier and defeated the Punjab Governor Muin-
ul-Mulk. However, Muin-ul-Mulk promised him an annual remittance of *14,000 and
Abdali returned.

In 1752, Abdali invaded India a third time as he stopped receiving the promised
remittance regularly. The emperor Ahmad Shah, with a view to saving Delhi from
devastation, appeased Abdali by surrendering Punjab and Multan. But when the Punjab
Governor Muin-ul-Mulk passed away, wazir Imad-ul-Mulk appointed Adina Beg as Punjab
Governor to restore order (in November 1753). This was seen as interference affairs
by Abdali.

Ahmad Shah Abdali

in Punjab

Hence, in November 1756, Abdali invaded India for the fourth time. In January 1757,
he entered Delhi and plundered as far as Mathura and Agra. Before returning, Abdali
recognised Alamgir ll as the emperor, Imad-ul-Mulk as the wazir, the Rohilla chief
Najib-ud-Daulah as Mir Bakshi of the empire and his son Timur Shah Durrani (wedded
to the daughter of Alamgir II) as his 'supreme agent' to safeguard his interests in
India. In this way, Abdali returned to Afghanistan without displacing Mughal
dynasty so long it accepted Abdali's suzerainty.

However, in 1758 Najib was expelled from Delhi by the Maratha chief Raghunath Rao
who also captured Punjab, forcing Abdali to invade India for the fifth time in 1759
to take revenge on the Marathas. In 1761, he defeated the Marathas in the third
Battle of Panipat, giving a fatal blow to their ambition of controlling the Emperor
and dominating the country. True, the Marathas escorted the Mughal Emperor to the
throne of Delhi in 1772 and again in 1789, they never again made an attempt to
capture Punjab and Multan or play the defenders of the North-West frontier of
India.

A cumulative effect of the Irani and Durrani invasions as well as the internal
feuds of the Indian nobility was that by 1761, the Mughal Empire had ceased to
exist in practice as an all India Empire.
Najib-ud-Daulah He was a Rohilla chief (Afghani) who had joined Ahmad Shah Abdali
in 1757 during his attack on Delhi. For a certain period of time, Najib-ud-Daulah
and later his son Zabita Khan and grandson Ghulam Qadir exercised undisputed power
at Delhi. Najib was the founder of the city of Najibabad in Bijnor district.

Ahmad Shah (1748-54)

Mohammad Shah's successor Ahmad Shah was born of Udham Bai, a public dancing girl.
He was weak and left the state affairs in the hands of his mother. Udham Bai, the
Queen Mother (title of Qibla-i-Alam) was of poor intellect and ruled with the help
of her paramour, Javid Khan a notorious eunuch.

1.7

1.8 Modern Indian History

During Ahmad Shah's reign, Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India twice: in 1749 and again
in 1752 when he marched upto Delhi. Emperor Ahmad Shah, with a view to saving Delhi
from devastation, appeased Abdali by surrendering Punjab and Multan. Thus, Punjab
and Multan were lost to the Afghans.

In 1752, Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroz Jung III (or Imad-ul-Mulk, grandson of Nizam-ul-
Mulk Asaf Jah), upon the recommendation of Nawab Wazir Safdar Jung, was appointed
as Mir Bakshi (Pay Master General) and received the titles of Amir ul-Umara (Noble
of Nobles) and Imad-ul-Mulk by the Mughal Emperor Ahmad Shah. Feroz Jung III soon
emerged powerful and began to intimidate the emperor himself who now wished to have
him removed from the court. Before this could be done, Feroz Jung III sought an
alliance with the Maratha chief Sadashiv Rao Bhau; together they blinded and
deposed Ahmad Shah in 1754 and raised a puppet ruler (Alamgir II) to the throne.
Imad-ul-Mulk now became the new wazir and kingmaker.

Note: In this way, Mohammad Shah was succeeded by a number of weak and inefficient
rulers - Ahmad Shah (1748-54), Alamgir II (1754-59), Shah Alam II (1759-1806),
Akbar II (1806-37) and Bahadur Shah II (1837-57).

Alamgir II or Aziz-ud-din (1754-59)

After dethroning Ahmad Shah, Imad-ul-Mulk now raised Aziz-ud-din (Jahandar Shah's
son) to the throne who began his reign as Alamgir II. It was during his reign that
the Battle of Plassey was fought (23 June 1757).

During his reign, Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India and plundered Delhi in 1757. The
same year Imad invited the Marathas to invade Delhi in order to drive out the
Afghans and the Rohillas. Accordingly, in March 1758 a massive force of Marathas
led by Raghunath Rao appeared at Delhi, defeated the Afghan garrison at Delhi,
expelled Najib and overran Punjab, occupying Lahore. They deposed Timur Shah (who
had been appointed a year earlier as viceroy by his father, Ahmad Shah Abdali) and
instead appointed Adina Beg as Governor of Punjab on behalf of the Peshwa Balaji
Baji Rao. In August 1759, the Afghan monarch Ahmad Shah Abdali returned to India to
avenge the Marathas. (It took him almost two years to deal a fatal blow to Marathas
in the Third Battle of Panipat, fought on 14 January 1761, resulting in a crushing
defeat of the Marathas).

In November 1759, Wazir Imad-ul-Mulk got the emperor murdered and raised to throne
his puppet Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan III.

Shah Jahan III or Muhi-ul-millat (1759-60)

He reigned as Mughal emperor for a very brief period. He was the son of the eldest
son of Muhammad Kam Bakhsh (who was the youngest son of Aurangzeb). He was placed
on the Mughal throne in December 1759 as a puppet ruler by wazir Imad-ul-Mulk. He
was later deposed by Maratha chiefs.

Shah Alam II or Ali Gauhar (1760-1806)

During 1759-60, Northern India was swept by the Marathas, led by Sadashivrao Bhau,
who deposed Shah Jahan III and installed Ali Gauhar, the son of Alamgir II as the
rightful emperor under the Maratha suzerainty. Ali Gauhar took the title of Shah
Alam II. He was a man of some ability and courage, but the Empire was now beyond
redemption. His reign saw two decisive battles: the Third Battle of Panipat (1761)
and the Battle of Buxar (1764).

In 1761, after the battle of Panipat and before leaving Delhi (20th March 1761),
Ahmed Shah Abdali named Shah Alam II as emperor and Najib-ud-Daulah as Mir Bakshi.
Abdali last invaded India in 1767.

Decline of Mughal Empire

His invasions hastened the downfall of the Mughal Empire, creating anarchy and
confusion all around. The Emperor Shah Alam II was not allowed to enter Delhi for
12 years (1760-72, until he was escorted to his throne by the Marathas in 1772).
Thus, he remained in exile for 12 years and came to be known as the 'fugitive
Mughal Emperor'. During his absence, the Rohilla leaders Najib-ud-Daulah and later
his son Zabita Khan and grandson Ghulam Qadir exercised undisputed power at Delhi.

In 1764, Shah Alam II joined hands with Mir Qasim of Bengal and Shuja-ud-Daulah of
Awadh in the Battle of Buxar against the English East India Company. Defeated at
Buxar, the Mughal Emperor signed the Treaty of Allahabad (1765) with the British.
According to the treaty, he was forced to grant the Diwani (right to collect
revenue) of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the British. In return, the emperor was
given a subsidy of 26 lakh and the districts of Kora and Allahabad. The Emperor
resided in the fort of Allahabad for the next six years as a virtual prisoner of
the English.

In 1771, the Marathas under Mahadji Shinde (or Scindia) returned to northern India,
captured Delhi and reinstated Shah Alam II at the Delhi throne (January 1772) under
Maratha suzerainty. Shah Alam II appointed Scindia in charge of Delhi
administration (Henceforth, the Scindias remained the overlords of Delhi until
Daulat Rao Scindia was defeated by Lord Lake in 1803).

During 1772-73, the Mughal Emperor supported by the Marathas led an expedition
against Rohilla leader Zabita Khan who was earlier appointed as Mir Bakshi by Shah
Alam II. Zabita Khan was taken prisoner along with his family and other Rohilla
leaders and severely humiliated. Zabita's son Ghulam Qadir Rohilla was castrated
and made to serve as a page in the palace. Several years later, in September 1787,
Ghulam Qadir was able to force the emperor to appoint him as Mir Bakshi and Regent.
But soon he had to leave Delhi due to differences with the emperor and re-entered
Delhi the next year to take revenge. On 30 July 1788, he took possession of the
royal palace, deposed Shah Alam II and later ruthlessly blinded him (10 August
1788). Shah Alam II was also referred to as the 'blind Mughal Emperor'. Mahadji
Scindia, however, hunted Ghulam Qadir down and the blind Shah Alam was restored as
the king (October 1788).

In 1803, Delhi was recaptured by the English after defeating Daulat Rao Scindia and
the blind Mughal emperor once again accepted the protection of the British. From
1803 till 1857, the Mughal dynasty merely served as a political front for the
English (the Company's coins continued to carry the stamp of Emperor Shah Alam till
1835).

Shah Alam's power was so depleted during his reign that it led to a saying in
Persian, 'Sultanat-e-Shah Alam, Az Dilli ta Palam', meaning, 'The kingdom of Shah
Alam is from Delhi to Palam', Palam being a suburb of Delhi. Shah Alam II also
authored his own Diwan of poems and was known by the pen-name 'Aftab'.

In this way, Shah Alam II and his successors were emperors only in name, being
puppets in the hands of their own nobles or the Marathas or the British. In fact,
the British kept alive the fiction of the Mughal Empire until 1858 when the last of
the Mughal Emperors Bahadur Shah Zafar was exiled to Rangoon.

Akbar Shah II (1806-37)

After the death of Shah Alam II, his son succeeded as Akbar Shah II. Akbar, the
penultimate Mughal Emperor of India, gave the title of 'Raja' to Ram Mohan Roy and
sent him to England to seek a raise in pension. In 1835, the East India Company
stopped calling itself a subject of the Mughal Emperor and discontinued issuing
coins in his name by deleting Persian lines on Company's coins to this effect.

1.9

1.10 Modern Indian History

Bahadur Shah II or Bahadur Shah Zafar (1837-57)

After the death of Akbar II, Bahadur Shah II became the Mughal Emperor. He was fond
of poetry and was known by the title of 'Zafar'. During the Revolt of 1857, Bahadur
Shah Zafar was proclaimed as the Emperor of India by the rebels. After the Revolt
of 1857, he was captured and deported to Rangoon where he died in November 1862.

In legal terms, the Mughal Empire came to an end on 1 November 1858, with the
declaration of Queen Victoria. The most important consequence of the decline of the
Mughal Empire was that it enabled the British to conquer India and push it into the
very vortex of colonial exploitation for nearly 200 years.

CAUSES OF DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

Bahadur Shah Zafar

Various internal as well as external factors that contributed to the decline of the
Mughal Empire are a follows:

Internal Weaknesses

The Mughal Empire was a 'war state' in its core. Its vitality depended ultimately
on its military power The emperor stood at the apex of this structure followed by
the military aristocracy followed by the Mughal army. Multiple issues emerged at
all three levels of this broad military structure. These may be understood under
the following heads:

Aurangzeb's Misguided Policies The expansion of Mughal Empire under Aurangzeb only
resembled an inflated balloon. The Mughal Empire had expanded beyond the point of
effective control and its vastness only tended to weaken the centre. Aurangzeb
failed to realise that the vast Mughal Empire depended on the willing support of
the people. His policy of religious intolerance antagonised the Rajputs, Sikhs,
Jats and Marathas and pushed them into open rebellion. Aurangzeb's mistaken policy
of continuous war in the Deccan against the Marathas drained the resources of the
empire, breaking Aurangzeb's back and ensuring that his reign marked the beginning
of the end of the Mughal Empire.

Weak Successors The government of the Mughals was a personal despotism and its
success depended on the character of the reigning monarch. The later Mughals proved
to be weak and incapable. They became victims of intrigues and conspiracies of the
faction-ridden nobles. They proved to be inefficient generals and administrators
who were incapable of suppressing revolts.

Bahadur Shah I (1707-12) was too old to maintain the prestige of the empire and he
liked to appease all parties by profusing grants of titles and rewards. Due to such
attitude, he was nicknamed 'Shah-i-Bekhabar'. Jahandar Shah (1712-13), the next in
succession, was wildly extravagant Farrukhsiyar was a coward, while Muhammad Shah
spent more of his time in watching animal fights Due to his addiction of wine and
women, Muhammad Shah got the title of 'Rangeela'. Ahmad Shah extended the harem (a
separate place for concubines/wives of emperor) to a very large area where he spent
weeks or months. The later Mughals were evidently weak and incapable, which
hastened the process of disintegration.

Decline of Mughal Empire 1.11

Wars of Succession and Role of Kingmakers In the absence of a definite law of

succession (like the law of primogeniture), there usually occurred a war of
succession among the Mughal princes. After the death of Bahadur Shah I in 1712, the
rival claimants to the throne began to be used as tools by the leaders of rival
factions to promote their own personal interests. For instance, Zulfiqar Khan acted
as the kingmaker in the war of succession which followed after 1712. From 1713 to
1720 the Sayyid Brothers acted as kingmakers and were instrumental in appointing
four kings to the throne. After them, Mir Mohammad Amin and Asaf Jah Nizam-ul-Mulk
acted as kingmakers. This weakened the stability of the Mughal government and
fostered partisanship at the cost of patriotism.

Nature of Mughal State The Mughal state was essentially a police state that
confined itself chiefly to maintenance of law and order and collection of revenue.
The Mughals failed to foster a feeling of harmony between Hindus and Muslims and
create a composite nation. Some efforts in this direction were made by Akbar but
these were undone by the bigotry of Aurangzeb and his weak successors. As a result,
many Indian chiefs looked at the Mughals as foreigners and as enemies of Hindus and
aspired for freedom from Mughal rule.

Degeneration of Mughal Nobility (or Military Aristocracy) In the late 16th century,
Akbar had organised this aristocracy or ruling class through the mansabdari system.
The mansabdars were appointed by the emperor himself on the basis of personal
loyalty to the Emperor. They were required to maintain a given number of savars or
horsemen, and were often paid in the form of a jagir (landed estate). With time,
the mansabdari system became hereditary and the offices of the state became a close
preserve of selected few. It also became a closed corporation of nobles belonging
to certain ethno-religious groups (the most powerful being the Irani and the Turani
groups) and gave no opportunity of promotion to capable men belonging to other
classes, as had been the case earlier.

The degeneration of the Mughal rulers further added to the degeneration of the
nobility. Many nobles discarded the discipline of military life and took to
luxurious living. They spent huge sums on keeping large harems, maintaining a big
staff of servants, etc., and indulged in other forms of pomp and show. Such habits
of extravagant living drained their limited financial resources and weakened their
morality; they now rivalled each other not in gallantry but in flamboyance and
flattery. Such degeneration that gripped the later Mughal nobility ensured that the
state was now deprived of able administrators and military leaders.
Shifting Loyalty of Zamindars The zamindars and the nobles were the two classes
that shared State power with the emperor. The zamindars or landlords were the
hereditary owners of lands and were variously known as Rais, Rajas, Khuts, Thakurs
or Deshmukhs. They played an important role in the collection of revenue and local
administration. These zamindars also helped the nobility to take advantage of the
weakness of the empire and to establish autonomous states for themselves.

Jagirdari Crisis and resulting Court Factions In the 18th century there emerged an
economic crisis, also known as jagirdari crisis. It is defined by Satish Chandra in
the following words: "The available social surplus was insufficient to defray the
cost of administration and give the ruling class a standard of life in keeping with
its expectations". This happened because of the unusual increase in the number of
mansabdars at a time when the area to be distributed as jagir remained stagnant or
even declined.

The jagirdari crisis increased during the last years of Aurangzeb, mainly because
of the Deccan wars. The jagir crisis is believed to have led to an unhealthy
competition among the nobles in order to have control over good jagirs. Group
politics in the Mughal Court became an order of the day, each group

Modern Indian History

wanting to have influence over the emperor to get access to good jagirs. Proximity
of any particular group to the emperor naturally alienated the others and this
gradually affected the personal bonds of loyalty between the emperor and his
nobility. Such a nobility no longer espoused the cause of the empire, they stopped
maintaining the required number of soldiers and horses and became more interested
in carving out their own autonomous states.

Politicking at the imperial court reached its height after the death of Bahadur
Shah in 1712. The reigns of Jahandar Shah (1712-13), Farrukhsiyar (1713-19) and
Muhammad Shah (1719-48) were most intrigue ridden. The Irani group was led by Asad
Khan and his son Zulfiqar Khan, the Turani group was led by Ghazi-ud-Din Khan Feroz
Jung and his son Chin Qilich Khan (Nizam-ul Mulk) and the Hindustani group was led
by the Sayyid brothers. Each faction tried to win the emperor to its view point and
poisoned his ears against the other faction. Though these factions were formed
based on family relations, yet personal interests played a dominating role. The
personal interest of Nizam-ul-Mulk (Qilich Khan) and Burhan-ul-Mulk (Saadat Khan)
led them to intrigue with Iranian ruler Nadir Shah.

Military Weakness The Mughal military was also infested with some inherent
weaknesses. It was organised in a kind of feudal style, where the soldiers owed
greater allegiance to the mansabdari rather than the Emperor and fostered
conditions of indiscipline and revolt.

The degeneration of the military aristocracy led to weakening of the Mughal army as
well. There was a lamentable dearth of able commanders, effective supervision,
military reform and new technology. Further, the Mughal army usually moved with a
huge tail of camps which looked like a city with markets and stores. Women and
children, cattle and other non-combatants accompanied the army, making it unwieldy
and reduced it to the likes of an armed rabble.

The weakness of the military invited both internal as well as external challenges.
For instance, the Marathas under Shivaji repeatedly challenged Aurangzeb's rule.
After his death, the Maratha depredations increased and in March 1737, they even
plundered the suburbs of Delhi. This was followed by the Persian invasion under
Nadir Shah (1739) and the sack of Delhi, which was an enormous blow to the prestige
of the empire.
Empty Treasury Shah Jahan's zeal for construction had already depleted the treasury
which was further drained by Aurangzeb's long wars in the Deccan. The military
marches also destroyed standing crops in the Deccan; whatever little was left was
destroyed by Maratha raiders. The peasants began to give up agriculture and took to
life of plunder and robbery. Under the later Mughals, the financial condition
further deteriorated; even as autonomous states gradually stopped the payment of
revenue to the centre, political upheavals and lavish living of the emperors and
nobles continued.

Size of Empire and Rise of Regional Powers The Mughal Empire had become too large
and unwieldy to be controlled by any ruler from one centre specially under medieval
conditions of transport and communication. During Aurangzeb's rule itself, powerful
regional groups like Sikhs, Jats, Rajputs and Marathas defied the Mughal authority
in a bid to carve out their own kingdoms. Continuous struggle between the Mughals
and these regional powers weakened the empire considerably and contributed to its
decline.

External Challenges and Causes

Rise of Marathas Perhaps the most significant external factor that contributed to
the collapse of the mighty Mughals was the rising power of the Marathas under the
Peshwas. They emerged as the strongest

1.12

Decline of Mughal Empire

regional power and propounded the ideal of Hindu Rashtra that could be built only
at the cost of the Muslim empire. After the death of Aurangzeb, the tide soon
changed in favour of the Marathas who now emerged on the offensive, reached upto
northern India and even began playing the kingmakers at Delhi court. They acted as
the defenders of the country against foreign invaders like Ahmad Shah Abdali.
Though the Marathas did not succeed in taking the place of the Mughals, their
conquests in Northern India in the 18th century certainly gave a death-blow to the
Mughal Empire.

Invasions of Irani (Persian) and Durrani (Afghan) Kingdoms The Iranian monarch,
Nadir Shah attacked India in 1738-39 and defeated the Mughal army in the Battle of
Karnal. Nadir Shah's successor Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India seven times between
1748 and 1767. These invasions, besides depleting the Mughal treasury of its
wealth, also exposed to the world the military weakness of the empire and its
prestige suffered a severe blow.

Advent of European Powers The European trading companies also took advantage of the
prevailing conditions in India and saw themselves as contenders for power. They
participated in court intrigues and hastened the process of disintegration of the
Mughal Empire.

CONTINUITY OF MUGHAL TRADITIONS

Contrary to the physical disintegration of the Mughal Empire, the Mughal form of
government continued to survive stubbornly for many years. The prestige associated
with the Mughal Emperor was so considerable that his sanction was sought by all
rebel chiefs and kings. They also continued with Mughal administrative practices.
Even the Maratha state which had risen as a reaction to Mughal rule, adopted Mughal
methods of administration. However, it must be remembered that these adaptations
were only regional and not all India in scale. Thus, several Mughal traditions and
institutions were reintegrated into Indian polity by the regional chiefs and also
by the British.
Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire (Views of Prominent Historians)

Personal Failings of Emperors and Nobles (William Irvine, Jadunath Sarkar): Irvine
and Sarkar highlighted the personal failings of the emperors and the nobles. Mughal
rule was portrayed as Muslim rule and Maratha, Sikh and Bundela uprising were
portrayed as Hindu reaction to Islamic onslaught. According to Sarkar, Aurangzeb
was a religious fanatic. He discriminated against sections of the nobles and
officials on the basis of religion which led to wide scale resentment among the
nobility.

● Jagirdari Crisis (Satish Chandra, Athar Ali): In the opinion of Satish Chandra,
it was the economic crisis which played a key role in the fall of the Mughal
Empire. According to him, towards the end of Aurangzeb's rule, the mansabdari-
jagirdari system went into disarray. This happened because of a shortage of jagirs
and overabundance of jagirdars.

Agrarian Crisis (Irfan Habib): Habib also stressed the role of economic crisis. He
showed that the agrarian system had become exploitative which sparked off peasant
revolts and ruined imperial stability. The Mughal government and the nobles tried
to extract as much revenue as possible. This subjected the peasantry to a crushing
burden which ultimately destroyed the peasants' capacity to pay the revenue.
Moreover, the jagirdars were frequently transferred and had little interests in any
long-term agricultural development.

• Deccan Crisis (M.N. Pearson, J.F. Richards and P. Hardy): According to them, the
leading cause of Mughal decline was the Mughal involvement in the Deccan and fight
with the Marathas.

1.13

Modern Indian History

Rise of Regional Powers (Muzaffar Alam and Chetan Singh): In their opinion, the
main cause for the Mughal decline was the impressive economic progress in Awadh and
Punjab regions as opposed to the economic stagnation in Delhi and Agra. Many social
and political elements in these regions got rich quickly and began to assert their
independence.

Evaluation The generally accepted view remains one of economic crisis. Yet, we may
conclude that there was no one single common cause applicable to the whole of India
that led to the decline of the Mughal Empire, but there was a combination of
factors that brought about a disequilibrium in the fragile political edifice of the
Mughal state and encouraged the revival of the regional identities as reflected in
the emergence of regional powers.

Prelim Capsule

Later Mughals (1707-1857)

Bahadur Shah I or Muazzam Shah Alam I (1707-1712)

Allowed the Maratha prince Shahu, held as Mughal captive since 1689, to go back to
Maharashtra. Gave Guru Gobind Singh a high mansab.

Defeated Banda Bahadur at Lohgarh, a fort built by Guru Govind Singh.

Was called Shah-i-Bekhabar (Headless King) by Khafi Khan.

Jahandar Shah (1712-1713)

Sat on the Mughal throne with the support of Zulfiquar Khan, a powerful noble.

Zulfiquar Khan introduced the evil practice of revenue farming or Ijarah.

Various parties at the Mughal court emerged, e.g. the Turanis, Iranis, Afghans and
Hindustanis.

Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719)

Came to power with the help of Sayyid brothers- Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali Khan
Barahow. Sayyid brothers abolished the jeziah and pilgrimage tax.

Sikh leader Banda Bahadur was executed.

Farrukhsiyar issued the farman of 1717, granting the East India Company many
trading privileges. Sayyids killed Farrukhsiyar with the help of Peshwa Balaji
Vishwanath- the first time in the Mughal history that an emperor was killed by his
nobles.

Rafi-ud-Darajat (1719)

Ruled for the shortest period and died of tuberculosis.

Rafi-ud-Daula or Shah Jahan II (1719)

Was an opium addict, suffered from dysentery, died of tuberculosis.

Muhammad Shah or Roshan Akhtar Bahadur (1719-1748)

Killed the Sayyid brothers in 1720 with the help of a powerful noble, Nizam-ul-
Mulk,

Known in history as Muhammad Shah 'Rangeela',

Fell into the clutches of a dancing girl Koki Jiu and the eunuch Hafiz Khidmatgar
Khan.

1.14

Decline of Mughal Empire 1.15

Physical breakup of the Empire began.

Powerful nobles now began to carve out semi independent states, eg- Nizam-ul-Mulk
in Hyderabad (1724), Murshid Quli Khan in Bengal (1717) and Saadat Khan in Awadh
(1722) carved out their autonomous states.

In 1737, Baji Rao I raided Delhi.

In 1739, Nadir Shah invaded India, defeated the Mughals in the battle of Karnal and
took possession of the Peacock throne and the Kohinoor diamond.

In 1748, Ahmad Shah Abdali first invaded India.

Ahmad Shah (1748-1754)

State control fell in the hands of Udham Bai, his mother (earlier a public dancing
girl).

Abdali invaded India twice (1749 & 1752).

To save Delhi from devastation, Ahmad Shah surrendered Punjab and Multan to Abdali.

In 1754, he was deposed by Imad-ul-Mulk with the help of Maratha chief Sadashiv Rao
Bhau.

Alamgir II or Aziz-ud-din (1754-1759)

Was raised to the throne by Imad-ul-Mulk, the new vazir and kingmaker.

In June 1757, Battle of Plassey was fought.

In 1757, Abdali invaded India and plundered Delhi. Before returning, he recognised
Alamgir II as the emperor, Imad-ul-Mulk as the vazir, the Rohilla chief Najib-ud-
Daulah as Mir Bakshi of the empire and his son Timur Shah Durrani (wedded to the
daughter of Alamgir II) as his 'supreme agent'.

In 1757, Imad invited the Marathas to drive out the Afghans and the Rohillas.

In March 1758, the Marathas led by Raghunath Rao appeared at Delhi, defeated the
Afghan garrison at Delhi, expelled Najib and overran Punjab, occupying Lahore. They
deposed Timur Shah and instead appointed Adina Beg as Governor of Punjab on behalf
of the Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao.

In August 1759, the Afghan monarch Ahmad Shah Abdali returned to India to avenge
the Marathas (and later defeated them in the battle of Panipat).

In November 1759, Alamgir II was killed by wazir Imad-ul-Mulk.

Shah Jahan III or Muhi-ul-millat (1759-1760)

Was placed on the Mughal throne as a puppet ruler by Wazir Imad-ul-Mulk.

Was later deposed by Maratha chiefs.

Shah Alam II or Ali Gauhar (1760-1806)

Was raised to the throne as the rightful emperor by the Marathas led by Sadashivrao
Bhau. In 1761, Abdali defeated the Marathas in the Battle of Panipat. Before
returning, Abdali named Shah Alam II as emperor and Najib-ud-Daulah as Mir Bakshi.

Shah Alam II was not allowed to enter Delhi for 12 years; remained in exile and
came to be known as the

'fugitive Mughal Emperor'. During his absence, the Rohilla leaders Najib-ud-Daulah
and later his son Zabita Khan and grandson Ghulam Qadir exercised undisputed power
at Delhi.

1.16 Modern Indian History

In 1764, Shah Alam II joined hands with Mir Qasim of Bengal and Shuja-ud-Daulah of
Awadh in the Battle of Buxar against the English Company.

In 1765, he signed the Treaty of Allahabad with the British; was forced to grant
the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the British and himself resided in the
fort of Allahabad for the next six years as a virtual prisoner of the English.

In 1772, he was reinstated to the Mughal throne by the Marathas under Mahadji
Shinde.

During 1772-73, Shah Alam supported by the Marathas led an expedition against
Rohilla leader

Zabita Khan.

In 1788, Zabita's son Ghulam Quadir deposed Shah Alam and blinded him. The emperor
was henceforth known as the 'blind Mughal Emperor'.

In 1803, Delhi was recaptured by the English after defeating Daulat Rao Scindia.

Shah Alam's depleted power led to a saying in Persian, 'Sultanat-e-Shah Alam, Az

Dilli ta Palam'.

He authored his own Diwan of poems and was known by the pen-name 'Aftab'.

Akbar Shah II (1806-1837)

Was the penultimate Mughal Emperor.

Gave the title of 'Raja' to Ram Mohan Roy and sent him to England.

In 1835, the English Company stopped calling itself a subject of the Mughal
Emperor, discontinued issuing coins in his name by deleting Persian lines on
Company's coins to this effect.

Bahadur Shah II or Bahadur Shah Zafar (1837-1857)

Was fond of poetry and was known by the title of "Zafar".

During the Revolt of 1857, Bahadur Shah Zafar was proclaimed as the Emperor of
India by the rebels. After the Revolt, he was captured and deported to Rangoon
where he died in November 1862.

Previous Years' Questions - Preliminary Exam

1. Assertion (A): Shah Alam II spent the initial years as an emperor outside Delhi.

Reason (R): There was always a lurking danger of foreign invasion from the North-
West Frontier.

[UPSC 2003] Select the answer for the options given below:

(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R are true, but R is the not the correct explanation of A.

Answers

Previous Years' Questions - Preliminary Exam

1. (c)

2. (c)
(c) A is true, but R is false.

(d) A is false, but R is true. 2. How did the Mughal emperor Jahandar Shah's reign
come to an early end? [UPSC 2003] (a) He was deposed by his Wazir. (b) He died due
to slip while climbing down steps. (c) He was defeated by his nephew in a battle.

(d) He died of sickness due to too much consumption of wine.

Chapter

Rise of Autonomous States

After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the second major theme of the 18th-century
Indian polity was the rise of autonomous states. From the debris of the Mughal
Empire arose a large number of autonomous and semi-autonomous states which the
British had to overcome before emerging supreme in India. Thus, in this chapter,
you will learn about the Indian States and Society on the eve of British conquest.

By 1761, the Mughal Empire was an empire only in name. Its weaknesses had enabled
regional powers to assert their independence. Yet the new states did not directly
challenge the authority of the Mughal emperor, as he continued to be seen as the
source of political legitimacy. These states also continued the Mughal institutions
in many areas of governance. Thus, the emergence of these states in the 18th
century, therefore, represented a transformation rather than collapse of the
polity. It signified a decentralisation of power and not a power vacuum or
political chaos.

Broadly three kinds of states arose:

1. Successor States They were the erstwhile provinces of Mughal Empire that broke
away and arose as a result of assertion of autonomy by governors of Mughal
provinces. These were Hyderabad, Carnatic, Bengal and Awadh.

2. New States They were the creations of rebellious local chiefs and arose as a
result of rebellion against

Mughal authority. These were the states set up by the Marathas, Sikhs, Jats and
Afghans. 3. Independent States They were neither the result of a breakaway from or
rebellion against Delhi. They had been only nominally a part of Mughal Empire, had
already enjoyed considerable amount of autonomy in the past and now in the 18th
century became completely independent. These were the regions on the south-west and
south-east coast of India, i.e. Mysore, Kerala and the Rajputs (sometimes wrongly
called the Hindu States).

These states were strong enough to destroy Mughal power but none was able to
replace it. Though some states were very prosperous and some gained considerable
military power, none could achieve resources and power to maintain an all-India
polity. One of the major weaknesses of these states was their backwardness in
science and technology. This became one of the major reasons for the total
subjugation of India by the most modern country of the time-the Great Britain.

SUCCESSOR STATES-HYDERABAD, CARNATIC, BENGAL AND AWADH

These states started exercising full autonomy, without formally renouncing their
allegiance to the Mughal Emperor, thus giving rise to a new political order within
the Mughal institutional framework. The fiction of Mughal sovereignty was kept
alive through the following:
1.18 Modern Indian History

to the imperial treasury. Emperor's formal confirmation was taken for the
appointment to high offices. Orders, titles, etc., were given in the name of the
Mughal Emperor.

Annual revenues were sent

Hyderabad and the Nizams

Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah (1724-48)

The state of Hyderabad was founded in 1724 by a powerful noble of the Turani group
at the imperial court, Qamar-ud-din Siddiqi. He is also known by his titles Chin
Qilich Khan (awarded by Emperor Aurangzeb in 1690-91), Nizam-ul-Mulk (awarded by
Farrukhsiyar in 1713) and Asaf Jah (awarded by Muhammad Shah in 1725).

As Viceroy of Deccan (1713-22) During the Mughal days, the Subahdar of Deccan was
appointed at Hyderabad. The idea of an independent state in Deccan was first
conceived by Zulfiqar Khan, who had obtained the viceroyalty of the Deccan in 1708.
After his death in 1713, Qilich Khan became the Deccan Viceroy upon insistence of
Farrukhsiyar who conferred upon him the title of Nizam-ul-Mulk. As Viceroy of
Deccan, he reorganised the administration and streamlined the revenue system.

Asaf Jah I

(ruled 1724-1748), founder and first Nizam of Hyderabad state.

Later, Farrukhsiyar called upon Nizam-ul-Mulk to fight off the Sayyid Brothers
(leaders of Hindustani group). However, the Sayyids proved to be too clever for
Emperor Farrukhsiyar who was soon blinded and killed by the brothers with the help
of Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath. However, in 1720 Nizam-ul-Mulk successfully assisted
Mohammed Shah in killing the Sayyid brothers. He was then rewarded with the post of
wazir in the court of Mohammad Shah.

As Wazir of Mughal Empire (1722-24) As wazir, he tried to reform the corrupt Mughal
administration and earned many enemies for himself, who successfully poisoned the
mind of the Emperor against him.

Establishment of Hyderabad State (1724) Disgusted with the fickle-mindedness and

suspicious nature of the emperor, Nizam-ul-Mulk decided to pursue his own ambition.
He then decided to leave the emperor and his empire to their fate and marched south
to found the state of Hyderabad in the Deccan. His departure was symbolic of the
flight of loyalty and virtue from the empire. The physical breakup of the Mughal
Empire had begun.

In 1724, Nizam-ul-Mulk resigned from his post and set off to Deccan only to find
that Mubariz Khan, the then Viceroy of Deccan, refused to vacate his post. Nizam-
ul-Mulk defeated and killed Mubariz in the Battle of Shakar Kheda (October 1724).
The Emperor then bestowed upon him the title of Asaf Jah.

Asaf Jah never openly declared his independence, but in practice he acted like an
independent ruler and founded the Asaf Jah Dynasty. His successors came to be known
as the Nizams of Hyderabad. He conducted wars, signed treaties, conferred mansabs
and made important appointments without any reference to the emperor. At the same
time, the Nizam posed as the defender of Mughal Empire on several occasions. For
instance, in the Battle of Karnal (1739), the Nizam accompanied the emperor to
fight against Nadir Shah.
Rise of Autonomous States 1.19

The Nizam was a wise statesman and a benevolent ruler. He reformed the revenue
system, subdued the power of the zamindars and followed a tolerant policy towards
the Hindus (a Hindu, Puran Chand, was his Diwan). He also cleverly diverted Maratha
energy by suggesting to the Peshwa the possibility of Maratha expansion in the
north, a suggestion readily accepted by Baji Rao I.

War of Succession (1748) After his death in 1748, a bloody war of succession
followed between his son Nasir Jung and grandson, Muzaffar Jung. Taking advantage
of the political crisis, the Marathas, Mysore and the Carnatic, all settled their
scores against Hyderabad. The Marathas invaded the state at will and collected
chauth. The French under Dupleix also used this opportunity to play off one group
against the other and supported Muzaffar Jung in return for handsome monetary and
territorial rewards.

The Carnatic

Nawab Saadatullah Khan (1710-32) and Dost Ali (1732-40)

In the 18th century, the Mughal subah (province) of Carnatic came under the
authority of Governor of Deccan (Nizam of Hyderabad). But just as in practice the
Governor of Deccan had freed himself from the control of the Mughal Emperor, the
Deputy Governor or the Nawab of Carnatic, had also established his independent
authority. Accordingly, the Nawab Saadatullah Khan of Carnatic, headquartered at
Arcot, appointed his nephew Dost Ali as his successor, without the prior approval
of his superior, the Nizam. However, in 1740, the Marathas invaded the Carnatic,
killed Nawab Dost Ali and took his son-in-law Chanda Sahib as prisoner to Satara.

Thereafter, the affairs of the Carnatic deteriorated and this provided an

opportunity to the European trading companies to directly interfere in Indian
politics. For nearly 20 years from 1744 to 1763, the English and the French
remained embroiled in a bitter war in South India, a series of conflicts popularly
known as the Carnatic Wars (1746-63).¹

Carnatic Region Carnatic region is the name given to the Coromandel Coast and its
hinterland. Though no longer a political or administrative division, it is of great
historical significance.

Bengal and the Nawab Nazims

The province or subah of Bengal emerged as an independent autonomous state in the

first half of the 18th century and though the sovereignty of the Mughal emperor was
not challenged, practically independent and hereditary authority of the governor
was established by two men of exceptional ability-Murshid Quli Khan and Alivardi
Khan.

Bengal in 18th Century: Under the Mughals

Bengal Provincial Administration

Bengal in the 18th century comprised of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. It was an
integral part of the Mughal imperial system. Officials like Nazim and Diwan were
directly recruited by Mughal emperors. The Diwan was separately appointed in order
to keep control over the Nazim. The main officials in the subah or province were-

Read about the Carnatic Wars and the British Conquest of South India in greater
detail in the upcoming chapters.
1.20 Modern Indian History

Diwan-Head of revenue administration O Nazim-Executive head of other matters of

civil and military administration Bakshi-Military pay master of the subah O Kotwal-
Head of police department (law and order) O Qazi-Dispensed justice

Waqai navis-Collection of news bearing political significance

A subah was divided into Sarkars (headed by Faujdars), Sarkars were further divided
into Parganas. At local level, zamindars had maximum control over local people and
administration. This system acted well till 17th century. In 18th century,
gradually the relationship of the central authority with the provincial
administration became loose and distanced. It merely received a tribute, and
gradually even the tribute became irregular.

Nizamat and Diwani The Mughal provincial administration had two main branches:
Nizamat and Diwani. Broadly speaking, Nizamat meant civil administration and
Diwani, revenue administration. The provincial subahdar was in charge of Nizamat
(He was also called Nazim, the Governor or Viceroy of the province). The Diwan was
in charge of revenue administration of the province. To ensure checks and balances
in subah administration, the two key officers were appointed by the Mughal emperor
and were directly responsible to him. Thus the Diwan worked independent of the
Nazim.

Bengal in 18th Century: Towards Autonomy (Nawab Nazims)

Murshid Quli Khan (1717-27)

The independent state of Bengal was founded in 1717 by Murshid Quli Khan, also
known as Mohammad Hadi. Murshid Quli's tryst with Bengal began in 1700, when
Aurangzeb sent him to Bengal as Diwan where he proved to be a successful revenue
administrator.

As Diwan and Subahdar of Bengal In 1717, Farrukhsiyar appointed him as Subahdar or

governor (Nizam or Nazim) of Bengal, thus holding the post of Subahdar and Diwan at
the same time. He was given the unprecedented privilege of holding the two offices
of Nazim (executive and military head) and Diwan (collector of revenue)
simultaneously. The division of power, which was maintained throughout the Mughal
period to keep both the imperial officers under control through a system of checks
and balances, was thus done away with. This helped Murshid Quli, who was already
known for his efficient revenue administration, to consolidate his position
further. He now declared himself as the Nawab of Bengal.

As Nawab of Bengal Murshid Quli became the first independent Nawab of Bengal. He
shifted the capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad, proved to be a capable ruler and
made Bengal a prosperous state.

Rationalisation of Land Revenue System In the field of revenue collection, the main
challenge faced by Murshid Quli Khan was that the whole province had been allotted
to the officers as jagirs in lieu of their salary. To rationalise revenue
collection, he adopted two measures. Firstly, he resumed all the jagirs and
converted them into khalisa lands (state lands) and gave the dispossessed officers
fresh jagirs in the wild province of Orissa. Secondly, he replaced the Mughal
jagirdari system with the system of revenue farming or ijara or malzamini system.
This was a contract system under which ijaradars, i.e. contractors were granted
contracts for collection of land revenue by taking security bonds from them. In
choosing the ijaradars, Quli Khan is known to have preferred the Hindus. The second
or third generation of these contractors came to be known as 'the zamindars'.
Rise of Autonomous States 1.21

Rise of new powerful elite classes under Murshid Quli Thus, under Murshid Quli, the
old hereditary zamindars were largely extinguished and a new official capitalist
class emerged. In this way, he created a new class of landed aristocracy in Bengal
whose position was later confirmed by Permanent Settlement in 1793. Further, Quli
Khan was able to raise revenue collection by paying attention to details. But at
the same time, in matters of revenue collection, he was uncompromising to the
extent of being ruthless. The system of revenue farming also increased pressure on
zamindars and peasants, leading to the growing importance of monied and commercial
elements. The relentless pressure on zamindars to pay their obligations in full
opened up opportunities for financiers. This period saw the emergence of the House
of the Jagat Seths who not only acted as guarantor of the larger zamindars but also
assumed full responsibility of the remittance of the Bengal revenue to Delhi, thus
enjoying unstinted patronage of the Nawab.

After 1717, Bengal's link with Delhi remained limited to sending tribute. Indeed,
the Bengal revenue was often the only regular income for the beleaguered Mughal
emperors during periods of financial uncertainty. Behind the veneer of formal
allegiance to the Mughal ruler, Murshid Quli began to enjoy considerable autonomy
and established a dynastic rule, ensuring that the Nizamat of the province would
pass on to a member of his family and not to an outsider. He was indeed the last
governor of Bengal appointed by the Mughal emperor.

Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan (1727-39)

Murshid Quli named his daughter's son Sarfaraz Khan his successor. But Sarfaraz was
ousted by his father Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan, who took control of the two
provinces of Bengal and Orissa in 1727. In this way, Murshid Quli's son-in-law
Shuja-ud-Din ruled Bengal from 1727 till 1739.

Sarfaraz Khan or Ala-ud-Din Haidar Jung (1739-40)

After Shujauddin's death in 1739, his son Sarfaraz Khan became the Nawab. But
Sarfaraz was soon deposed and killed by Alivardi Khan, the Deputy governor of
Bihar, in the Battle of Gheria (10 April 1740).

Alivardi Khan (1740-56)

After emerging victorious in the Battle of Gheria, Alivardi Khan made himself the
Nawab with the help of the banking family of Jagat Seth and a few powerful
zamindars. His reign showed a virtual break with the Mughals, two important forms
of imperial control over province, i.e. payment of annual tribute to the emperor
and appointment of higher provincial officials by the emperor-were not visible
during Alivardi's reign. However, like the Nizam of Hyderabad and Nawab Wazirs of
Awadh, Alivardi Khan also kept alive the fiction of Mughal sovereignty.

External Threats faced by Alivardi Khan Alivardi faced two strong external threats
during his regime-one from the Marathas and the other from the Afghan rebels. In
fact, Alivardi's rule of 15 years was spent in fighting the Maratha menace which
had assumed alarming proportions during this period. Driven by the dream of a
Maratha Empire and the desire for wealth, the Marathas attacked Bengal three to
four times during 1742 to 1751. In 1751, Alivardi finally signed peace with the
Marathas; he agreed to pay annual chauth and parted with Orissa on the condition
that the Marathas will not enter Alivardi's territory in future. Alivardi faced
another formidable challenge from the Afghan General, Mustafa khan. These prolonged
wars that Alivardi had to fight against the Marathas and the Afghans put severe
strain on the Bengal government.
In 1756, Alivardi died, nominating his grandson Siraj-ud-Daulah as his successor.

Modern Indian History

Murshid Quli Khan and Alivardi Khan

⚫ Strengths Both were men of exceptional quality and were fiercely independent.
They gave Bengal a long period of peace and orderly administration. The Bengal
rulers established regular thanas and chowkies and did not discriminate on
religious grounds in making public appointments. They promoted its trade and
industry and at the same time maintained strict control over foreign companies
trading in their realm. They checked private trade by officials and prevented
abuses in customs administration. Alivardi Khan rightly did not allow
fortifications of French and English factories at Chandernagore and Calcutta.

Weakness However, the Bengal Nawabs proved to be short sighted and ignorant in one
aspect. They failed to see that the English Company was not merely a company of
traders, but the representative of most aggressive colonial force of the time.
Their lack of contact with the rest of the world was to prove them dear, or else
they would have known how these European trading companies devoured Africa, South-
East Asia and Latin America.

Bengal in 18th Century: Towards Political Subjection Siraj ud-Daulah (1756-57)

Siraj's succession was challenged by two other contenders for the throne, Shaukat
Jung (Faujdar of Purnea) and Ghaseti Begum (Alivardi's daughter). This resulted in
intense court factionalism and support was offered to different warring groups by a
dominant group in the Nawab's court comprising of Jagat Seth, Umichand (or Amir
Chand), Raj Ballabh, Rai Durlabh, Mir Jafar, zamindars and others who were also
opposed to Siraj. This seriously destabilised the administration of Bengal and the
advantage was taken by English East India Company.

Conflict with East India Company Though the Farman of 1717 had become a perpetual
source of conflict between the Company and the Bengal Nawabs, the breaking point
came when the English Company, anticipating another round of Anglo-French struggle,
began to strengthen the fortifications of Fort William and mounted guns on its
walls. The Bengal Nawabs had objected to these fortifications time and again, but
the conflict became particularly acrimonious during Siraj's reign and led to a
military conflict.

The disaffected nobles of Siraj's court, particularly the Jagat Seths, Rai Durlabh,
Amir Chand (or Umichand) joined hands with the English to oust Siraj and install
their protégé, leading to the Plassey Conspiracy of 1757. More than the might of
the English, it was the treachery of the Nawab's confidants that decided the fate
of the battle of Plassey where the British victory ended the rule of Siraj and
inaugurated a new phase of Company's rule and British relations with India.²

Awadh

The subah of Awadh was strategically situated between the north bank of the Ganges
and the Himalayas. It extended from Kannauj district in the west to the river
Karmnasa in the East. It comprised Benaras and some districts near Allahabad.

Its proximity to Delhi added to its importance. Awadh was also economically
prosperous in the 18th century and enjoyed flourishing agriculture and trade. The
rise of Awadh as an autonomous state was the result of political pursuit by the
Irani and Shiite family of Burhan-ul-Mulk Saadat Khan.
"Read about the British conquest of Bengal in detail in the upcoming chapters.

1.22

Rise of Autonomous States 1.23

Saadat Khan (1722-39)

Saadat Khan was the founder of independent kingdom of Awadh. He was a very bold and
intelligent person. In 1722, he was appointed Governor of Awadh by the Mughal
Emperor. He was given the difficult charge of subduing rebellious zamindars who had
sprung up everywhere in the province. They had refused to pay land tax and behaved
like autonomous chiefs with their forts and armies. He was successful in this task
within a year and in appreciation, the Emperor Muhammad Shah conferred on him the
title of Burhan-ul-Mulk.

Soon afterwards, he returned to Delhi but ended up in a quarrel with one of the
emperor's favourites and was forced to return to Awadh. Frustrated with court
politics, he decided to build up a power base in Awadh. As a first step, he got his
nephew and son-in-law Safdar Jung recognised by the emperor as his deputy governor.
In this way, he made the province a hereditary possession and gradually secured the
independence of Awadh.

In 1723, Saadat Khan introduced a new land revenue settlement and peasants by
levying equitable land revenue. Like the Bengal Nawabs, he too between the Hindus
and the Muslims. His troops were well trained and well was efficient.

Saadat Khan, the First Nawab of Awadh

improved the lot of the did not discriminate paid. His administration

By 1735, Saadat Khan extended his influence to the adjoining regions of Kora,
Jahanabad, Banaras, Jaunpur, Ghazipur and Chunargarh. During this entire period, he
kept the communication channels open with the imperial court.

In 1739, Saadat Khan was called to Delhi to assist the Mughal Empire in fighting
against the invader, Nadir Shah. However, he was taken prisoner in the Battle of
Karnal. He felt further frustrated when the position of Mir Bakshi went to the
Nizam despite his support during the invasion. He considered this a betrayal and in
vengeance changed sides and joined Nadir Shah. His dirty game recoiled on him when
the invader demanded a sum of 20 crore promised to him. In sheer frustration,
Saadat Khan poisoned himself to death, thus committing suicide the day after the
occupation of Delhi.

Safdar Jung or Abul Mansur Khan (1739-54)

Nadir Shah remained the emperor of India for just two months. He recognised Safdar
Jung as the successor of Awadh by accepting 2 crore as peshkash. Jung's opportunity
really came when both Muhammad Shah and Nizam-ul-Mulk died in 1748 and he was
appointed wazir by the new emperor Ahmad Shah. He and his successors popularly came
to be known as Nawab Wazirs. He was also granted the province of Allahabad.

He gave a long period of peace and stability to the people of Awadh and Allahabad
before his death in 1754. He also suppressed rebellious zamindars and made an
alliance with the Maratha sardars to save his province form Maratha incursions. He
set up an equitable justice system. He too did not discriminate on religious
grounds. The highest post in his government was held by a Hindu-Maharaja Nawab Rai.

Safdar Jung maintained a very high standard of personal morality. In fact, all the
founders of the three autonomous states-Hyderabad, Bengal and Awadh-were men of
high personal morality. They led austere and simple lives.

1.24 Modern Indian History

Shuja-ud-Daula (1754-75)

After Safdar Jung's Death in 1754, his son Shuja-ud-Daula (not to be confused with
Shuja-ud-din of Bengal) was appointed the governor of Awadh.

Role in Third Battle of Panipat (1761) When Afghan invader Ahmad Shah Abdali
arrived again in India in 1761 and fought the Third Battle of Panipat against the
Marathas, Shuja joined the Afghan invader to see his opponents, the Marathas,
humbled and weakened. Within his own domain of Awadh and Allahabad his autonomy and
power remained unchallenged till his encounter with the English East India Company
in the Battle of Buxar.

Shuja-ud-Daulah, the Third Nawab of Awadh Role in Battle of Buxar (1764) In the
Battle of Buxar, the combined forces of the Nawab of Bengal, Shuja-ud-Daula (Nawab
of Awadh) and the Mughal Emperor were defeated by the English Company and Awadh was
brought into the British dragnet by the Treaty of Allahabad (16 August 1765). As
per the Treaty, among other things, Shuja was required to pay war indemnity of 50
lakh and enter into a reciprocal arrangement with the Company for defence of each
other's territory. In the following years, seeing the prosperity of Awadh, the
company gradually stepped up its fiscal demands by yet another treaty in 1773; the
Nawab agreed to pay 2,10,000 monthly for each brigade of company troops that would
remain present in Awadh. This led to Awadh's chronic indebtedness to the Company.
The military presence of English troops in Awadh also seriously undermined the
Nawabi regime.

Asaf-ud-Daula (1775-97)

After the death of Shuja-ud-Daulah in 1775, his son Asaf-ud-Daula became the Nawab.
In 1775 itself, he shifted the capital from Faizabad to Lucknow. Despite English
threat, he concentrated his energies in cultural pursuits and built up around
Lucknow court a vibrant cultural arena, giving rise to a distinct Lucknow culture.
Lucknow soon rivalled Delhi in its patronage of arts and literature. It became a
second home for sensitive men of letters who had left Delhi and lamented for the
world they had lost. These luminaries and poets included Mirza Rafi Sauda and Mir
Ghulam Hasan. He also built the famous monument Bara Imambara. The Nawab also
earned a lot of fame for his generosity and gave rise to a well- known saying in
Lucknow, 'he who does not receive from the Lord, will receive it from Asaf-ud-
Daula' (Jisko na de Moula, usko de Asaf-ud-Daula).

Till 1801, the English saw Awadh as a buffer state protecting Bengal against the
western powers notably the Marathas and they did not contemplate annexation. Soon
afterwards, Awadh became an obstacle to further British expansion and was finally
taken over in 1856.³

Read about the British Conquest of Awadh in greater detail in the upcoming
chapters.

Rise of Autonomous States

Prelim Capsule

Regional Nawabs

Hyderabad, Carnatic, Bengal and Awadh

Power

Important Events

Hyderabad Nizam-ul-

(1724)

Mulk Asaf Jah (1724-48)

In 1713, Chin Qilich Khan was made Viceroy of the Deccan by Emperor Farrukhsiyar
and given the title of Nizam-ul-Mulk

In 1720, he assisted Mohammed Shah in killing the Sayyid brothers. In 1722, he was
appointed wazir in the court of Mohammad Shah. In 1724, he founded the independent
state of Hyderabad in the Deccan. He founded the Asaf Jah dynasty His successors
came to be known as the Nizams of Hyderabad.

Nawab Saadatullah

Carnatic

(Early 18th century)

Khan

(1710-32)

He appointed his nephew Dost Ali as his successor.

In 1740, the Marathas invaded the Carnatic, killed Nawab Dost Ali and took his son-
in-law Chanda Sahib as prisoner to Satara.

Murshid Quli

Bengal

(1717)

Khan

(1717-27)

In 1717, he became the first to hold the two offices of Nizam and Diwan of Bengal
simultaneously.

Using this opportunity, he now declared himself as the Nawab of Bengal. He shifted
the capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad.

He replaced the Mughal jagirdari system with the system of revenue farming or ijara
or malzamini system

His reign saw the rise of new elite classes (zamindars and the bankers) in Bengal.
For e.g., The House of the Jagat Seths.

Alivardi Khan (1740-56)

He killed Sarfaraz Khan in the Battle of Gheria and became the Nawab. During his
reign, payment of annual tribute to the emperor stopped. He agreed to pay chauth
and ceded Orissa to the Marathas. He faced challenge from the Afghan General,
Mustafa khan

He was defeated by the EIC in the Battle of Plassey (1757).

Siraj udDaulah (1756-57)

Awadh (1722)

Saadat Khan (1722-39)

He subdued the rebellious zamindars of Awadh and was given the title of Burhan-ul-
Mulk by the emperor.

Safdar Jung (1739-54)

He got his nephew and son-in-law Safdar Jung recognised by the emperor as his
deputy governor and made the province a hereditary possession. He was taken
prisoner by Nadir Shah in the Battle of Karnal (1739).

He and his successors popularly came to be known as Nawab Wazirs

1.25

1.26 Modern Indian History

Shuja-ud- Daula (1754-75) Asaf-ud- Daula (1775-97) He joined Abdali against the
Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). He was defeated by the EIC in the
Battle of Buxar (1764). He shifted the capital from Faizabad to Lucknow. He
concentrated his energies in cultural pursuits, giving rise to a distinct Lucknow
culture. He also built the famous monument Bara Imambara.

NEW STATES-THE MARATHAS, SIKHS, JATS AND AFGHANS

The Marathas

Historical Context The Maratha kingdom was constituted in the 17th century in
western Deccan. In the 18th century, it became the nucleus of the much wider
Maratha swarajya (sovereign state). The Marathas were the most significant of all
the regional powers. The first part of the 18th century saw the decline of the
Mughals, the last part saw the rise of the British and the middle part saw the
swaying political fortunes of the Marathas, the lone Indian power that was strong
enough to offer an alternative to the Mughal rule.

Flag of the Maratha Empire

After the Mughals retreated from the Deccan, the Marathas grew as a called Maratha
sardars. Originally, the Maratha sardars only held temporary But in practice, they
tended to become hereditary once they established sardars lacked unity and vision
for founding an all India empire. continuous struggle against the Mughals till they
were destroyed.

confederacy of military leaders assignments of land revenue. themselves. But the

Maratha However, they successfully waged

Relationship with Mughals Marathas had a long history of suppression by the

Mughals, particularly during the 27-year war started by Aurangzeb in 1681. The
Marathas believed in Hinduism and the religious intolerance practiced by the Mughal
emperors further provoked the Maratha resentment.

In 1689 Aurangzeb defeated and killed Shivaji's son and successor Sambhaji and
captured Sambhaji's son Shahu. Aurangzeb had treated Shahu and his mother with
great dignity hoping to arrive at a political agreement with Shahu. However, the
whole Maratha nation rose in arms against the Mughals in what was to become a
people's war. The younger son of Shivaji, Raja Ram carried on the struggle till his
death in 1700 and thereafter the struggle was carried on further by his wife
Tarabai, acting as a regent for his minor son Shivaji II. In 1707 after Aurangzeb's
death, his successors released Shivaji's grandson Shahu in the hope of throwing an
apple of discord in Maharashtra.

As expected by the Mughals, Shahu's release divided the Marathas into two rival
camps-one led by Tarabai at Kolhapur and the other led by

Coronation of Shivaji

Rise of Autonomous States 1.27

Shahu at Satara. Tarabai, Shahu's aunt, declared Shahu as an imposter and refused
to recognise Shahu's right to succession. The consequence was a long civil war in
which Shahu ultimately emerged victorious mainly with the help of a group of new
independent sardars and an able Chitpavan Brahmin from Konkan, Balaji Vishwanath.

In this way, the civil war between Shahu and Tarabai gave rise to a new system of
Maratha government under the leadership of Balaji Vishwanath, the Peshwa (Prime
Minister) of King Shahu. This change marked the beginning of the second period in
Maratha history-the period of Peshwa domination. It was in this period that the
Maratha state transformed into an empire. The Marathas mainly relied on the
political mechanism of 'fitna' (using existing political grievances to cause civil
strife as opposed to using pure military operations) to penetrate the Mughal
Empire.

Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath (1713-20)

In recognition of the services rendered by Balaji Vishwanath, King Shahu appointed

him as the Peshwa or Prime Minister in November 1713. By virtue of his diplomacy
and statesmanship, Balaji Vishwanath turned the office of the Peshwa as the
functional head of the Maratha Empire while Raja Shahu became a mere figurehead.

Help to Sayyid Brothers In 1719, Balaji helped the Sayyid brothers remove
Farrukhsiyar from the Mughal throne and place a puppet emperor in Delhi. He had
himself gone to Delhi with a Maratha contingent of 15,000 troops. This gave him the
opportunity to witness firsthand the weakness of the Empire and filled him with
ambition of expansion in the North. Moreover, as a reward, he secured for the
Maratha king a Mughal sanad (imperial order).

First Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath

Mughal Sanad of 1719 As per the Sanad, the Marathas were allowed to collect chauth
(literally: one-fourth of revenues) and sardeshmukhi (an additional 10% of
revenues) from the entire Deccan (Aurangabad, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, Hyderabad and
Khandesh) and Karnataka. In return for the above privileges, the Marathas were to
place at the Emperor's disposal a contingent of 15,000 troops, maintain peace and
order in the Deccan and pay an annual tribute of 10 lakh to the emperor. In this
way, the Maratha king became the sardeshmukh of the entire Deccan and Karnataka.
The sanad is also known in history as 'the Magna Carta of the Maratha dominion'.

Foundation of Maratha Confederacy For the efficient collection of chauth and

sardeshmukhi of the Deccan, Balaji Vishwanath assigned separate areas to Maratha
sardars, thus laying the foundation of the Maratha Confederacy. This system of
watans and saranjams (grants of land) was just another form of Jagir system which
Balaji found as best suited to bring peace from anarchy at that time. However, it
later turned into a major Maratha weakness as it made the King largely dependent on
the sardars for his finances. The sardars now began to establish their control in
distant lands of Mughal Empire where they gradually settled down as more or less
autonomous chiefs. In this way, the conquests of the Marathas outside their
original kingdom were not made directly by the Maratha king or the Peshwa, but by
the sardars with their own private parties. During these conquests, they often
clashed with one another and did not hesitate to join hands with the enemies, be
they the Nizams, the Mughals or the English.

Balaji Vishwanath has been rightly called 'the second founder of the Maratha
State'. He emerged as first of a series of hereditary Peshwas who now gained
effective control of the Maratha Empire. After his death in April 1720, he was
succeeded by his 19-year-old son Baji Rao I.

1.28 Modern Indian History

Peshwa Baji Rao I (1720-40)

Balaji Vishwanath was succeeded by his eldest son, Baji Rao I as the Peshwa in
April 1720. In spite of his youth, he was a bold commander and a wise statesman and
has been called 'the greatest exponent of guerilla tactics after Shivaji'.

Maratha Expansion under Baji Rao I

He formulated a new policy of Maratha imperialism which aimed at expanding the

Maratha kingdom beyond the Narmada. He proposed his policy of conquest of the north
in the following words: 'Let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree (Mughal
Empire) and the branches will fall off themselves. Thus, should the Maratha flag
fly from the Krishna to the Indus'. He preached the ideal of 'Hindu Pad Padshahi',
i.e. 'Hindu Empire' to secure the support of Hindu chiefs against the Mughals.

All the 20 years of his Peshwaship, Baji Rao kept marching and winning battles.
Under his leadership, the Marathas won control over Malwa, Gujarat and parts of
Bundelkhand. He is remembered in Maharashtra as the fighting Peshwa. It was he who
picked up war leaders like the Scindias and the Holkars who rose into prominence
during this time.

Baji Rao faced severe challenge from the Nizam-ul-Mulk in the Deccan. Twice the two
met in the battlefield and both times the Nizam was defeated and compelled to grant
the Marathas the chauth and sardeshmukhi of the six Mughal provinces in the Deccan.

In 1733, Baji Rao launched a campaign against the Sidis of Janjira Island and in
the end expelled them from the mainland. Simultaneously, he also started a campaign
against the Portuguese. In the end, Salsette and Bassein were captured.

Baji Rao also transformed the kingdom of Maharashtra into an empire expanding in
the north. It was his forward policy which brought the provinces from Punjab to
Bengal under Maratha influence by 1760.

However, strong foundation for the empire could not be laid and little attention
was paid to the administration of new territories. This was because the interest of
the new sardars remained limited to revenue collection. Baji Rao made no attempt to
check the dangerous feudal tendency which in the end proved ruinous to the Maratha
Kingdom. In 1740, Baji Rao met a premature death at the age of 40.
Peshwa Balaji Bajirao (1740-61)

Bajirao's 19-year-old son Balaji Bajirao also known as Nana Sahib, was the Peshwa
from 1740 to 1761. After the death of Chhatrapati Shahu in 1749, Nana Sahib became
the supreme authority in Maratha polity. Shahu's successor Raja Ram executed a
document known as the Sangola Agreement (also known as constitutional revolution of
1750) which transferred the supreme power from the Chhatrapati to the Peshwa.
Henceforth, the Peshwa became the de facto ruler of the Maratha State, and as a
symbol of this fact, shifted the government to Poona, his headquarters.

Balaji Bajirao's rule also witnessed the appearance of new powers in the political
scene, namely the Afghans, the Sikhs, the French and the English.

Maratha Expansion under Balaji Bajirao

The Maratha power achieved its territorial zenith during the rule of Peshwa Balaji
Baji Rao, extending from Cuttack to Attock. The Maratha armies now overran the
whole of India. In the east, Marathas under Raghuji Bhonsle regularly raided
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa (then ruled by Alivardi Khan). The raids were stopped
after a treaty in 1751, under which Alivardi surrendered Orissa and agreed to pay
1,20,000 as annual chauth for the three provinces.

Rise of Autonomous States

In the south, states including the state of Mysore were forced to pay tribute.

In the north, the Maratha bands regularly raided the Rajput kingdoms of Jaipur,
Udaipur, Bundi, Kotah, etc. Soon they also became the power behind the Mughal
throne. In the face of Afghan invasion, a treaty in 1752 brought the Mughal emperor
under Maratha protection. In 1752, the Marathas helped Imad-ul-Mulk to become the
new wazir and in 1753, they installed their chosen candidate on the Mughal throne.

Conflict with Abdali The Marathas were not content with their victories in the
north and looked greedily at Punjab, which was ruled by an agent of Abdali. This
was a blunder. Abdali had retreated from India taking away whatever he could. But
now he decided to return and challenge the ever-growing ambitions of the Marathas.

Abdali formed an alliance with Najib-ud-Daulah of Rohilkhand and Shuja-ud-Daulah of

Awadh, both of whom had suffered in the face of Maratha depredations. Seeing the
importance of the coming struggle, the Peshwa dispatched an army to the north under
the nominal command of his minor son Vishwas Rao. But the actual command was in the
hands of Peshwa's cousin Sadashiv Rao Bhau (son of Chimaji Appa, younger brother of
Peshwa Baji Rao I). Thus Bhau was the commander-in-chief of the Maratha forces. The
army also had a contingent of European style infantry and artillery commanded by
Ibrahim Khan Gardi.

The Marathas now also tried to find support from northern powers. But their earlier
behaviour had antagonised all such powers. For instance, they had imposed heavy
fines and tributes upon the Rajputana, Punjab and Awadh. Therefore they had to
fight their enemy all alone, except for the weak support of Imad-ul-Mulk.

Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761) The forces of Abdali and the Marathas met
at Panipat on 14 January 1761. The Maratha army was completely routed, causing over
40,000 casualties. This marked the beginning of the decline of the Maratha glory.
Both Vishwas Rao and Sadashiv Rao Bhau perished along with many other Maratha
commanders and 28,000 soldiers. Those who fled were chased by the Afghan cavalry
and robbed by the Jats, Ahirs and Gujars of Panipat region. The Peshwa got the news
while he was on his way to the north to help his cousin. Shocked by the tragic
news, he met with an early death in June 1761. In this way, Ahmad Shah gave a death
blow to the Maratha glory.

Neither the Marathas nor the Afghans benefitted from this battle. The beneficiaries
were the British who grasped this opportunity to expand influence in Bengal. In
reality, the Third Battle of Panipat did not decide who would rule India, but
rather who would not. It, therefore, cleared the way for the rise of British power
in India... 'If Plassey had sown the seeds of British supremacy in India, Panipat
afforded time for their maturing and striking roots'.

After this there was no looking back. In 1772, Peshwa Madhav Rao I died and
followed a factional struggle for power. This exposed the Marathas to defeat at the
hands of the British in the first Anglo- Maratha war.

Causes of Maratha Defeat in Third Battle of Panipat

• Abdali's forces enjoyed both numeric and qualitative

superiority. While Abdali's army was estimated at 60,000; the Maratha army was
estimated at 45,000. The Marathas were also accompanied by several non-combatants
(around 2 lakh as per an estimate) that virtually turned the Maratha forces into a
slow moving caravan, hampering swift movement of the forces. The Marathas had to
play the dual role of fighting the war and protecting these civilians who

"Read about the Anglo-Maratha Wars in detail in the upcoming chapters.

1.29

Modern Indian History

were like sitting ducks before the Afghans. When these civilians were slaughtered
in cold blood, it further pulled down Maratha morale.

Abdall's forces were better organised and better equipped. While Abdali's men
fought with muskets (light gun with a long barrel) and swivel guns (small cannon
mounted on a swivelling stand), the Maratha forces mostly fought with their swords
and lances.

The Marathas fought alone without any support. Their overbearing attitude and
policy of indiscriminate plunder had estranged the Muslims and the Hindu chiefs
alike, such as the Jats, the Rajputs and the Sikhs. On the other hand, the Muslim
powers of North India rallied behind Abdali.

Near famine conditions prevailed in the Maratha camp as the road to Delhi was cut-
off by the Afghan war. The Maratha camp turned into a virtual hell owing to the
stench of carcasses lying around unburied.

Mutual jealousies infested the Maratha leadership which also considerably weakened
their position. Bhau took pride in his Brahmin birth and looked down upon Malhar
Rao Holkar.

Significance of Third Battle of Panipat

Neither side benefitted from this battle.

It produced disastrous consequences for the Marathas and seriously deflected the
course of Maratha imperialism.

The Marathas suffered immense losses in terms of men, money and prestige. The
Marathas lost the cream of their army and their political prestige suffered a big
blow.

The Marathas could never recover their pre-1761 position or status. Their defeat
gave an opportunity to the British East India Company to consolidate its power in
Bengal and south India. Afghans too did not benefit from their victory. They could
not even hold the Punjab.

Peshwa Madhav Rao I (1761-72)

The 17-year-old Madhav Rao became the Peshwa in 1761. He was a talented statesman
and within a short period of 11 years, he restored the lost fortunes of the Maratha
Empire, a phenomenon known as Maratha Resurrection, with the help of his able
minister, Nana Phadnavis (abbreviated as Nana Phadnis). Nana Phadnis played a
pivotal role in holding the Maratha Confederacy together in the midst of internal
dissension and the growing power of the English Company.

Madhav Rao successfully subdued the old enemies, the Rohillas, the Rajputs and the
Jat Chiefs in the north and Mysore and Hyderabad in the south. In 1771, the
Marathas brought back Emperor Shah Alam II to Delhi, who now became their
pensioner. Thus it appeared as if Maratha ascendency in the north had been
recovered. However, Madhav Rao died of tuberculosis in 1772.

Peshwa Narayan Rao (1772-73)

After the death of Madhav Rao, the Maratha Empire was thrown into a state of
confusion. At Poona there was a struggle for power between Raghunath Rao (younger
brother of Balaji Bajirao) and Narayan Rao (younger brother of Madhav Rao). Narayan
Rao succumbed to the intrigues of his uncle Raghunath Rao in 1773.

Peshwa Raghunath Rao (1773-74)

He became the Peshwa of the Maratha Empire for a brief period from 1773 to 1774. He
was deposed by Nana Phadnis and 11 other administrators (Baarbhai) in what is known
as 'the Baarbhai Conspiracy'. The Baarbhai included influential Maratha sardars
like Mahadji Shinde (or Scindia) and Tukojirao Holkar.

1.30

Rise of Autonomous States 1.31

Mahadji Shinde (or Scindia, 1768-94) Mahadji was a Maratha Sardar who ruled over
the Gwalior state in central India. He was instrumental in resurrecting Maratha
power in north India after the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761. Along with Madhav
Rao I and Nana Phadnavis, he was one of the three pillars of Maratha Resurrection.

During his reign, Gwalior became the leading state in the Maratha Empire and one of
the foremost military powers in India. He started recruiting some Rajputs and even
Muslims in the army. He reorganised his army along European and scientific lines.
For this reason, he also appointed a Savoy resident, Count Benoit de Boigne (from
the Duchy of Savoy in Italy, but under French occupation during 1792-1814) and
later on Monsieur Perron, as specialists.

Mahadji Shinde

The Marathas under Mahadji returned to northern India, overrunning the Rajputana,
defeating the Jats and expelling the Rohillas from the Doab and captured Delhi
(February 1771) and reinstated Shah Alam II at Delhi throne under Maratha
suzerainty. During 1772-73, he along with the Mughal Emperor, led expeditions
against the Rohillas and even destroyed the power of the Jats of Mathura.
During the First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82), Mahadji played the most important
role from the Maratha side since he humbled the British in Central India single-
handedly, which resulted in the Treaty of Salbai in 1782. In the Treaty of Salbai,
British government accepted him as an independent king. After his death, he was
succeeded by Daulat Rao Scindia.

Peshwa Sawai Madhav Rao or Madhav Rao II (1774-95)

The Baarbhai installed Narayan Rao's posthumous son, Madhav Rao II, as the Peshwa
with themselves, led by Nana Phadnavis, as the Regents (known as Baarbhai Council).
Madhav Rao II was made Peshwa when he was barely 40 days old; his time in power was
dominated by the political intrigues of Nana Phadnis. The succession of Sawai
Madhav Rao (Sawai means 'One and a Quarter') gravely frustrated Raghunath Rao's
ambitions and he turned to the British and tried to capture power with their help,
resulting in the First Anglo-Maratha war.

The Peshwa's power now gradually waned. Poona became the seat of constant intrigues
between the supporters of Sawai Madhav Rao, headed by Nana Phadnis and the
supporters of Raghunath Rao. Taking advantage of the weakening of central
authority, the big Maratha sardars or chiefs carved out semi- independent states in
the north. These were the-Holkar (Indore), Scindia (Gwalior), Gaekwad (Baroda) and
Bhonsle (Nagpur). They possessed their own armies and their allegiance to the
Peshwas became more and more nominal. Among the Maratha sardars in the north,
Mahadji Shinde was the most important. He organised a powerful European style army
with the help of French and Portuguese officers, consisting equally of Hindu and
Muslim soldiers.

Sawai Madhav Rao committed suicide in 1795 probably because of the high-handedness
of Nana Phadnis. A power struggle ensued among the Maratha nobles for control of
the Confederacy. The powerful chief, Daulat Rao Scindia, and minister, Nana
Phadnis, installed Baji Rao II, son of Raghunath Rao, as a puppet Peshwa.

Peshwa Baji Rao II (1796-1818)

Baji Rao II was the last Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. By now, the British had
decided to put an end to the Maratha challenge. The British divided the warring
sardars through clever diplomacy and then defeated them in separate battles in the
Second Maratha War (1803-05) and Third Maratha War (1817-18). The seat of the
Peshwa was extinguished while the Maratha states were allowed to exist as
subsidiary states.

1.32 Modern Indian History

First Reign (1796-1802) First reign of Baji Rao II saw the Second Anglo-Maratha War
(1803-05). After the death of Nana Phadnavis (March 1800), the Poona court once
again fell victim to various court conspiracies. In the struggle for power in
Maratha polity, Peshwa Baji Rao II, Daulat Rao Scindia and Yashwant Rao Holkar
emerged as the main Maratha leaders. Peshwa and Scindia formed an alliance against
Holkar and tried to insult him. In 1801, Peshwa brutally killed Holkar's brother
Vithoji Rao Holkar (also known as Vithoba). This made Holkar attack Poona (battle
of Poona), who then defeated the combined armies of Peshwa and Scindia near
Hadapsar and captured Poona. Peshwa fled, took refuge in Bassein and approached
Wellesley for help. This provided the British an ideal opportunity to intervene in
the Maratha affairs. Baji Rao II accepted subsidiary alliance and signed the Treaty
of Bassein in 1802. This affected the patriotic feelings of other Maratha chiefs
and provoked the Second Anglo-Maratha War that began the breakup of the Maratha
confederacy.
Second Reign (1803-18) During his second reign began the Third Anglo-Maratha War.
On 3 June 1818, Peshwa surrendered before the British. He was dethroned and
pensioned off and ordered to spend his last days in Bithoor near Kanpur.

Nana Sahib (Peshwa) He was a leader during the Revolt of 1857. As the adopted son
of the exiled Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao II, he sought to restore the Maratha
confederacy and the Peshwa tradition.

In this way, the Maratha dream of establishing their own empire could not be
realised. This was mainly because the Maratha Empire represented the same decadent
social order as the Mughal Empire did and suffered from the same weaknesses. Their
revenue system and administration were quite similar. The Marathas did not try to
develop a new economy, nor did they encourage science and technology or trade and
industry. Like the Mughals, their dominion depended on force and force alone. They
failed to establish a bond with the common people and their interest remained
limited to squeezing out revenue from the helpless peasantry. Nearly half of the
agricultural produce was collected as tax. Thus, the Marathas failed to transform
themselves into a modern state, and made way for the rise of the British.

Prelim Capsule

The Marathas

Peshwas Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath (1713-20) Important Events He supported Shahu

against Tara Bai in the Maratha civil war; in return, Shahu appointed him as his
Peshwa (Prime Minister). He launched the period of Peshwa domination during which
the Maratha state transformed into an empire. In 1719, Balaji helped the Sayyid
brothers remove Farrukhsiyar As reward, he secured the Mughal sanad of 1719, known
in history as 'the Magna Carta of the Maratha dominion'. The Maratha king became
the sardeshmukh of the entire Deccan and Karnataka. He laid the foundation of the
Maratha Confederacy. He is known as 'the second founder of the Maratha State'.

Read about the British Conquest of the Maratha state in greater detail in the
upcoming chapters.

Rise of Autonomous States 1.33

Peshwa Baji Rao I He preached the ideal of 'Hindu pad-padshahi'. (1720-40) He is

remembered in Maharashtra as the fighting

Peshwa. In 1733, he defeated the Sidis of Janjira Island.

Peshwa Balaji Bajirao (1740-61)

He was also known as Nana Sahib.

It was during his reign that Raja Ram executed the Sangola Agreement (also known as
constitutional revolution of 1750) which transferred the supreme power from the
Chhatrapati to the Peshwa.

Maratha power reached its territorial zenith.

Marathas were defeated by Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761).

The Marathas fought under the nominal command of his minor son Vishwas Rao, but the
actual command was in the hands of Peshwa's cousin Sadashiv Rao Bhau. Maratha army
had a contingent of European style infantry and artillery commanded by Ibrahim Khan
Gardi.
Peshwa Madhav Rao I (1761-72)

He restored the lost fortunes of the Maratha Empire, a phenomenon known as Maratha
Resurrection, with the help of his able minister, Nana Phadnavis. In 1771, the
Marathas re-installed Emperor Shah Alam II to Delhi.

Peshwa Narayan Rao (1772-73)

He succumbed to the intrigues of his uncle, Raghunath Rao.

Peshwa Raghunath Rao (1773-74)

He was deposed by Nana Phadnis and 11 other administrators (Baarbhai) in what is

known as 'the Baarbhai Conspiracy'. Baarbhai included influential sardars like
Mahadji Shinde and Tukojirao Holkar.

Peshwa Sawai Madhav Rao (1774-95)

His succession frustrated Raghunath Rao who now went over to the British and tried
to capture power with their help, resulting in the First Anglo-Maratha war. Taking
advantage of the weakening of central authority, the big Maratha sardars carved out
semi-independent states: Holkar (Indore), Scindia (Gwalior), Gaekwad (Baroda) and
Bhonsle (Nagpur).

In 1795 Sawai Madhav Rao committed suicide.

Peshwa Baji Rao II The British divided the warring sardars and then defeated them
in separate battles in (1796-18) the Second Maratha War (1803-05) and Third Maratha
War (1817-18).

The seat of the Peshwa was extinguished.

In 1818 Peshwa was dethroned by the EIC and pensioned off and ordered to spend his
last days in Bithoor near Kanpur.

The Sikhs

The development in the Punjab, former Mughal province of Lahore, was somewhat
different as compared to other Mughal provinces. In other Mughal provinces, it was
some Mughal provincial governor who established an autonomous state. But in the
case of Punjab, it was a group of local people, the Sikhs.

Guru Nanak Dev

Modern Indian History

Sikhism Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak in the Punjab region in the 15th century.
The Sikh Panth was as old as the Mughal Empire. When Guru Nanak began to preach his
message of devotion and equality in Punjab in the 15th century, Babur was founding
the Mughal Empire. 'Sikh' literally means learner or disciple. In the course of
time, the new cult took the form of a religious movement and spread quickly among
the Jat peasantry and other lower castes in Punjab. Guru Nanak's religious movement
was peaceful and secular. Nanak was succeeded by nine Gurus; all the ten Sikh Gurus
emphasised on simplicity of religion and freedom from bigotry.

1. Guru Nanak-founder of Sikhism.

2. Guru Angad- developed the Gurumukhi script, introduced the langar (free kitchen)
and tradition of mall akhara for the youth.
3. Guru Amar Das- composed the Anand Sahib, introduced the simple Anand Karaj
marriage and abolished sati among the Sikhs.

4. Guru Ram Das- laid the foundation of the holy city of Amritsar (earlier known as
Ramdaspur and Guruka-Chak) and initiated the construction of the Golden Temple.

5. Guru Arjan Dev- compiled the Adi Granth and completed the construction of the
Golden Temple (It was during Ranjit Singh's reign that the shrine of the temple was
richly decorated with marble and gold plates and came to be known as the Golden
Temple).

6. Guru Hargobind- created the Sikh marital art called Gatka, trained the Sikhs in
military art and war

tactics, built the Akal Takhat, and was known as the 'soldier saint'. 7. Guru Har
Rai- he maintained the large army of Sikh soldiers that the sixth Sikh Guru had
amassed, yet

avoided military conflict, and was known as the 'tender-hearted guru'.

8. Guru Har Krishan- was the youngest of all gurus, installed as guru at the age of
five. 9. Guru Teg Bahadur- he refused to convert to Islam and was beheaded in Delhi
on the orders of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.

10. Guru Gobind Singh-transformed the Sikhs into a military force by establishing
the body of the Khalsa in 1699.

Relationship with Mughals

The last four gurus were persecuted by the Mughals, Guru Arjan and Guru Teg Bahadur
were tortured and brutally killed for refusing to convert to Islam. Subsequently,
Sikhism militarised to oppose Mughal dominance. Aurangzeb was initially not very
hostile to the Sikhs; but as the community grew in size and challenged the central
authority of the Mughals, the emperor turned against them. Guru Tegh Bahadur was
executed in Delhi in 1675 (however, the emergence of Sikh empire under Ranjit Singh
was characterised by religious tolerance and pluralism).

Guru Gobind Singh (1666-1708)

He was installed as the Sikh guru at age nine, after his father, Guru Teg Bahadur,
was beheaded by the Mughals for refusing to convert to Islam. Four of his sons were
also killed during his lifetime, falling victim to Mughal-Sikh conflict.

Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth and last guru of the Sikhs transformed the Sikhs into
a military force by establishing the body of Khalsa in 1699. Members were initiated
into the body by the guru himself, who were obliged to show their allegiance by
five signs including kesh (uncut hair) and kirpan (short sword). Perhaps the guru
was now convinced about the need of armed resistance for the defence of the panth.
It might have also been due to the rise of Jat peasantry among the Sikhs as
carrying arms was already

1.34

Rise of Autonomous States 1.35

a part of Jat cultural tradition. The Khatri traders were another component of the
Sikh community. Their aspiration for equality with the Jats was fulfilled when Guru
Gobind Singh decided to end the guruship, the power of guru was henceforth to be
vested in the panth and the granth.

Guru Gobind Singh's conflict with Aurangzeb is well known. From about 1696, Guru
Gobind had tried to carve out an autonomous domain in and around Anandpur, In 1704,
Anandpur was captured by the Mughals and the guru was compelled to leave. Guru
Gobind was murdered in a conspiracy in 1708 and the leadership of Sikhs passed to
his disciple, Banda Bahadur.

Banda Bahadur (1708-16)

Banda Singh or Banda Bairagi, more widely known as Banda Bahadur, waged a
relentless though unequal struggle against Aurangzeb's successors for eight years.
The Mughals tried to suppress the rebellion ruthlessly as Punjab was strategically
crucial. In the course of time, the position of Banda Bahadur had weakened due to
dissension within the Sikh community. Some of the Jat zamindars and Khatri revenue
farmers went to the Mughal side (for instance, Churaman Jat of Agra). Banda Bahadur
was captured and was put to death in 1716. Even this could not suppress the Sikhs
who finally succeeded in establishing their political power in the Punjab.

Factors that contributed to the political supremacy of the Sikhs in the Punjab were
as

follows

• The weakening of the Mughal imperial authority in the early decades of the 18th
century contributed to the rise of the Sikhs.

• The series of Persian and Afghan invasions from 1739 onwards seriously undermined
the Mughal authority in the Punjab.

• The Maratha incursions took place in the wake of foreign invasions and added to
political turmoil in the province. The Marathas also tried to establish control
over the Punjab. The ensuing internal struggle within provincial administration was
another reason. Zakariya Khan was the Mughal governor of Lahore during 1726-45. His
death resulted in a fratricidal struggle among his three sons over the governorship
of the Punjab.

All the above factors created a very fluid situation in Punjab in the 18th century,
allowing the Sikhs to emerge supreme. The adversity of the Mughal Empire proved to
be a beneficial opportunity for the Sikhs. The invasion of Nadir Shah and Abdali
seriously undermined Mughal authority in the Punjab. The Afghans under the
leadership of Abdali also crushed the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat in
1761 In this way, the defeat of the Mughals and the Marathas at the hands of the
Afghans allowed Sikhs to consolidate their position in the Punjab.

With the withdrawal of Abdali from the Punjab, the Sikh confederacies began to fill
the political vacuum. Between 1765 and 1800, they brought the Punjab and Jammu
under their control. In this way, the period from 1765 onwards saw steady
development of Sikh political power which culminated in the establishment of an
autonomous state in the early 19th century.

Misls During the second half of the 18th century, power in the Sikh polity became
more horizontally structured, as misls (brotherhood or confederacies based on
kinship ties) now held territories as units.

1.36 Modern Indian History

Period of Sovereign Sikh Rule in Former Mughal Province of Lahore (1765-1845)

Sikh Confederacies In the face of severe Mughal repression, the Sikhs had organised
themselves into several small mobile bands called Jathas, each headed by a
Jathedar. After 1765, numerous small Jathas regrouped themselves into 12 larger
regional confederacies or Misls led by local chiefs. These included the Bhangis,
the Ramgarhias, the Kanhayias, the Singhpurias, the Ahluwalias and the
Sukerchakias. The misls did occasionally unite, but largely the political authority
in Punjab remained decentralised and more horizontally dispersed during this whole
period until Ranjit Singh, the chief of the Sukerchakia misl, tried to raise a more
centralised Sikh state at the end of the 18th century. Thus, Punjab's rise to
prominence had to wait till the end of the century for Ranjit Singh.

Punjab under Ranjit Singh (1792-1839)

At the end of the 18th century, Punjab rose to prominence under Ranjit Singh, who
was the son of Mahan Singh, the leader of Sukerchakia misl. Ranjit Singh was a
courageous soldier, an efficient administrator and a skilful diplomat. He brought
under his control the area extending from Sutlej to Jhelum. He conquered Lahore in
1799 and Amritsar in 1802.

Conflict with the English When the Sikhs were trying to establish themselves as a
political power in the north, simultaneously, the English Company was trying to
establish itself in eastern India. Having emerged supreme in the east, the English
turned their attention to the north, thus making their conflict with the Sikhs
inevitable. In 1809, Ranjit Singh signed the Treaty of Amritsar with the British
East India Company. As per the terms of the treaty, the English recognised him as
the sole sovereign ruler of Punjab, permitting him complete freedom of action to
the north of the Sutlej, but the British established their control over cis-Sutlej
Sikh States, thus preventing Ranjit Singh from any further expansion to the south
of the Sutlej.

Maharaja Ranjit Singh

Expansion north of the Sutlej Later Ranjit Singh also conquered Kashmir, Peshawar
and Multan. In this way, he established his own kingdom. He made no changes in the
land revenue system and allowed the Mughal system to continue. Land revenue was
charged at the rate of 50 per cent of the gross produce. Ranjit Singh, popularly
known as Sher-e-Punjab', was an efficient administrator. He greatly modernised his
army along European lines with the help of European instructors. His army was not
confined to the Sikhs. He recruited Gorkhas, Biharis, Oriyas, Pathans, Dogras and
even Punjabi Muslims.

As a person, Ranjit Singh was tolerant and liberal in religious matters. He was a
devout Sikh, but he also patronised Hindu and Muslim holy men. He is known to 'step
down from his throne to wipe the dust off the feet of Muslim mendicants with his
long grey beard'. Fakir Azizuddin and Diwan Dina Nath were some of his most trusted
Ministers. The Punjab under Ranjit Singh was in no sense

a Sikh State.

Rise of Autonomous States 1.37

Tripartite Treaty of 1838 With his diplomatic realism, Ranjit Singh was temporarily
able to save his kingdom from British encroachment. But towards the close of his
reign, the British forced him to sign a Tripartite Treaty (1838) with Afghan Shah
Shuja and the English Company whereby he agreed to provide passage to British
troops through Punjab, enabling them to place Shah Shuja on the throne of Kabul.

After 1809 till 1839, when Ranjit Singh died, there was no major tension between
the Sikhs and the English. Ranjit Singh's eldest son Kharak Singh proved to be an
unworthy successor and suddenly died in 1839. Kharak Singh's son Naunihal also
accidently died while returning from his father's funeral, leading to an anarchic
situation in the Punjab. An intense internal struggle for power followed and the
British moved quickly to conquer the Punjab. The First Anglo-Sikh war began in 1845
and the British finally annexed the Punjab in 1849. In this way, within a decade
after the death of Ranjit Singh, the mighty Sikh State was absorbed into the arms
of British imperialism.

Cis-Sutlej States The term, now obsolete, first came into use in 1809, when the
Sikh chiefs south of the Sutlej passed under British protection. The term was
generally applied to the country south of the Sutlej and north of the Delhi
territory.

The Jats

Taking advantage of the weakness of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century, a few
smaller states also emerged in north India. These were the Jats and the Afghans.
The Jats were an agriculturist caste that inhabited the Delhi-Agra belt. They
revolted against the oppressive policies of Aurangzeb under the leadership of the
Jat zamindars in the latter half of the 17th century. Even though the revolt was
suppressed, the region remained disturbed. Despite its origin as a peasant
rebellion, the Jat state remained feudal, with zamindars holding the main power
(the revenue demand under Suraj Mal were higher than under the Mughals).

The foundation for the Jat state of Bharatpur in Rajasthan was laid by Churaman and
Badan Singh-

Churaman (1695-1721) Churaman built a strong fort at Thoon and challenged Mughal
authority in the region. When, in 1721, the Mughal army led by Jai Singh II
(governor of Agra) attacked and captured his fort, Churaman committed suicide.

Badan Singh (1721-56) Badan Singh, Churaman's nephew, now assumed leadership of the
Jats. He considerably strengthened his position and built four forts at Deeg,
Kumher, Weir and Bharatpur, consolidating the Bharatpur kingdom.

Suraj Mal (or Sujan Singh, 1756-63) The Jat power reached its glory under Suraj
Mal. He was a brave soldier and an able administrator. His state extended from
Delhi in the north to Chambal in the south, Agra in the west to Ganga in the east;
including the subahs of Agra, Mathura, Meerut and Aligarh.

Suraj Mal's Role in Third Battle of Panipat The struggle against the Afghan invader
Abdali was given the appearance of a great religious battle by the Marathas. Agents
of the Peshwa visited the court of every Hindu prince to gather support, including
that of Suraj Mal. Following a meeting with Sadashiv Rao Bhau, Suraj Mal decided to
join the Marathas against Abdali. Soon differences emerged between them on the plan
of campaign against Abdali and Bhau made an enemy of the only powerful Hindu Raja

"Read about the British conquest of Punjab in greater detail in the upcoming
chapters.

Modern Indian History

who had come to serve him with all his resources. Abdali at once seized this
opportunity and tried to secure Suraj Mal's neutrality, if not active assistance.
Raja Suraj Mal agreed to maintain neutrality, but his sympathies continued to be
with the Marathas.

The neutrality of Raja Suraj Mal is considered to be a major contributory factor in

the defeat of the Marathas. Vast areas around Delhi had been completely ruined due
to constant ravages; and during the struggle, while Abdali depended on supplies
from Rohilkhand, the Marathas depended on the Jat kingdom. With his arrogant
attitude, Bhau had lost this resource and the Marathas had to fight on empty
stomach at Panipat.

However, when the Maratha survivors fled form Panipat and entered the Jat kingdom,
the Jats provided them with food, medicine and clothes for relief. Had it not been
for Suraj Mal's generosity, few of them would have been able to cross the Narmada
to tell the woeful tale of Panipat to the Peshwa. Hence it is clear that the Jats
under Suraj Mal did not participate in the Battle of Panipat. They, however,
provided considerable assistance to the Maratha soldiers and civilians who escaped
the fighting.

Suraj Mal has been called as the 'Plato of the Jat tribe' and as 'the Jat Ulysses'
for his steady intellect and clear vision. However, his rule was short-lived and he
died on 25 December 1763 fighting the Rohillas under Najib-ud-Daulah. His death
marked the end of the Jat state.

The Afghans (at Farrukhabad and Rohilkhand)

The states of Farrukhabad and Rohilkhand were a fallout of the Afghan migration in
the mid-18th century because of political disruption in Afghanistan.

Farrukhabad Muhammad Khan Bangash (also known as Ahmad Khan Bangash), an Afghan
adventurer, established his control over Farrukhabad (territory between present day
Aligarh and Kanpur), during the reigns of Farrukhsiyar and Mohammad Shah.

Rohilkhand Similarly, an Afghan (Pathan or Pashtun) soldier Daud and his son Ali
Muhammad Khan carved out an independent principality for themselves. Ali Muhammad
Khan took advantage of the collapse of authority in north India following Nadir
Shah's invasion to set up a petty kingdom- Rohilkhand. It was located at the
Himalayan foothills (north-west of present state of UP, between Kumaon in the north
and the Ganga in the south) with its capital at Aonla in Bareilly and later at
Rampur.

The Afghani use of artillery, particularly the flint-gun, ended the domination of
cavalry since the discovery of the stirrup in the early medieval times.
Politically, the role of the Afghans was negative. Both the Rohillas and the
Bangash helped Ahmad Shah Abdali during the Third Battle of Panipat and accentuated
the decline of the Mughals. The Rohillas themselves suffered heavily at the hands
of other powers in the area-the Jats and the Awadh rulers, and later the Marathas
and the British.

INDEPENDENT KINGDOMS-MYSORE, KERALA AND THE RAJPUTS

Mysore

Mysore was located south of Hyderabad at the junction of Eastern and Western Ghats.
It was originally a viceroyalty under the Vijayanagara Empire in the 16th century.
The Kingdom of Mysore had preserved

1.38

Rise of Autonomous States 1.39

its fragile independence ever since the end of Vijayanagara Empire and had been
only nominally a part of the Mughal Empire.

The Dominions of
MYSORE,

In the early 18th century, Mysore was ruled by Wadiyar (or Wodeyar) King Chikka
Krishnaraja. Two of his ministers, Nanjaraja (the Sarvadhikari or prime minister)
and Devaraja (the Dulwai or commander in chief) seized power and reduced the king
to a mere puppet. The mid-18th century saw the emergence of Mysore as the second
most significant power in south India, after Hyderabad. The foundation of Mysore
power was laid by Hyder Ali, which was later consolidated by his able son, Tipu
Sultan.

CHICK DEO RAJA WADEYAR, 1704. 1. F.

From Wadiyars to Tipu Sultan, Mysore was sought after by various powers (Marathas,
Hyderabad, Carnatic and the English) who turned it into a constant battlefield.

Hyder Ali (1761-82)

In 1721, Hyder Ali was born in an obscure family and started his career as a petty
officer in the Mysore army (hostile English contemporaries often termed him as a
usurper). Though uneducated, he was a man of great energy and intellect. He
gradually rose in the Mysore army to be a brilliant commander. In 1761, Hyder
overthrew Nanjaraja and established his authority over Mysore state.

Expansion under Hyder Ali

Map of Mysore (1704)

Hyder Ali established control over rebellious poligars (zamindars) and conquered
Bidnur, Sunda, Sera, Canara and Malabar. Major reason for occupation of Malabar was
to have access to the Indian Ocean. Hyder was an expansionist at heart and
naturally clashed with other regional powers the Marathas, the Nizam and the
English.

He faced Maratha raids in 1764, 1766 and again in 1771 as the Marathas recovered
fast under Peshwa Madhav Rao. However, after the death of Peshwa in 1772, Hyder Ali
not only quickly recovered the territories earlier lost to the Marathas, but also
acquired several territories in the Krishna- Tungabhadra Doab.

He also inflicted a heavy defeat on the English near Madras in 1769.

Hyder Ali

Hyder's most remarkable achievement was his realisation that only a modern army
could be the basis for a powerful state. Thus, he inducted French experts and
established a modern arsenal at Dindigul (est. 1755) with their help. He made an
attempt to induce organisational discipline along European lines. He organised his
army through the system of risalas, with a clear chain of command going upto the
ruler. He practiced religious toleration and many of his ministers were Hindus.

Hyder died during the course of the second Anglo-Mysore war (1782) and was
succeeded by his son, Tipu Sultan.

1.40 Modern Indian History

Tipu Sultan (1782-99)

Tipu Sultan strongly asserted his autonomy, unlike other 18th-century states. In
1787, he assumed the title of Padshah, issued coins in his name without any
reference to the Mughal emperor, and instead of Emperor Shah Alam's name he
inserted his own name in the khutba (Friday sermons at the mosque) and even issued
a new calendar. He also sought a sanad (royal order) from the Ottoman Khalif to
legitimise his rule. At the same time, he did not completely sewer the links with
the Mughal monarch. Being a realist, he recognised Mughal authority when it suited
him and defied it when it did not.

Tipu Sultan As ruler and administrator, Tipu Sultan was successful and earned the
praise of his contemporaries. In spite of the absence of any checks on his
authority, he did not behave like an irresponsible despot and took great care to
work for the welfare and happiness of his people. More than any other 18th-century
Indian ruler, Tipu thoroughly recognised the threat that the English posed to South
India. Accordingly, Tipu raised an efficient military force. He employed French
officers to train his troops and even raised a French corps. He also made an effort
to build a modern navy after 1796.

Economically, Mysore flourished under Tipu, though not free from contemporary
economic backwardness. He understood the importance of modern trade and industry.
He was the lone Indian ruler who recognised economic strength as the foundation of
military strength. Hence he promoted both inland as well as foreign trade, but also
imposed tight government control over it. He set up a number of factories in Mysore
state which manufactured a wide range of articles such as paper sugar, silk
fabrics, tools and implements, etc. He sent emissaries to France, Turkey, Iran and
Pegu Myanmar to develop foreign trade. He also tried to set up trading companies on
the lines of European companies. He worked for modernisation of agriculture and
introduced sericulture in Mysore.

Tipu, almost a folk hero, was an innovator and a modernist in many ways. He was an
avid learner and had a library with books on diverse subjects. He showed proper
appreciation for western thought and sciences which had freed his mind of 'eastern
conservatism and apathy'. Tipu showed a keen interest in French Revolution. He is
believed to have planted a "Tree of liberty' at Seringapatam, became a member of
the Jacobin Club and allowed himself to be addressed as Citizen Tipu.

The imperialist writers depict Tipu as a 'monster pure and simple' and a 'bigoted
monarch'. These views are obviously biased. The Sringeri Letters reveal that he
issued funds for repair and other temple works and never interfered with worship in
temples situated within the Seringapatam fort. In personal life, he remained free
from vices. He would fondly say that it was "better to live a day as a lion than a
lifetime as a sheep".

Tipu Sultan ruled Mysore till his death at the hands of the British in 1799-he died
defending his capital Seringapatam (or Srirangapatnam) during the course of the
Fourth Anglo-Mysore war. Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan fought four wars against the
British before the final surrender of Mysore in 1799. The Marathas, the Nawab of
Carnatic and the Nizam of Hyderabad aligned with the British from time to time to
subdue the Mysore ruler."

Read about the British conquest of Mysore in greater detail in the upcoming
chapters.

Rise of Autonomous States 1.41

Tipu Sultan's Administration Tipu Sultan's government, like all other governments
of the time, was a despotic one. The Sultan himself was the highest civil,
political and military authority of the state. There was no office of the wazir in
his administration. However, there were 7 principle departments, each under a Mir
Asif including:
Mir Asaf Cutchehri Revenue and Finance department

Mir Miran Cutchehri Military department

⚫ Malik-ut-Tujjar Cutchehri Commerce department

Mir Yam Cutchehri Marine department

Mir Khazain Cutchehri Treasury and mint department Mir Sadar Cutcheheri Ordnance
and garrison department

Kerala

At the beginning of 18th century, Kerala was divided among a large number of chiefs
and rajas. The four most important states were Calicut (under Zamorin), Chirakkal,
Cochin and Travancore. Travancore, the southernmost state, had always maintained
its independence from Mughal rule. It also withstood the shock of Mysorean
expansion in 1766 when Hyder Ali invaded Kerala and annexed Malabar and Calicut;
Travancore was spared. The kingdom of Travancore had its initial capital at
Padmanabahapuram (1729-95), later shifted to Thiruvananthapuram (1795-49).

Rise of Travancore (After 1729)

• Marthanda Varma Travancore had risen into prominence after 1729 under King
Marthanda Varma. He expanded his kingdom from Kanyakumari to Cochin with the help
of modern army trained on Western lines. He defeated the Dutch and ended their
political power in Kerala.

of Marthanda Varma, Rama Varma was a man of great creativity and learning,
including western knowledge. He conversed fluently in English and regularly read
newspapers published in London, Calcutta and Madras. He was responsible for making
Trivandrum, the capital centre of scholarship and art. After his death, the state
lost its glory and soon succumbed to British pressure, accepting a resident in
1800.

Rama Varma Successor

The Rajputs

Rajputs were warrior clans that ruled in overwhelming majority in Rajasthan and
Saurashtra. Since the time of Akbar, Rajput chiefs were patronised by Mughal
emperors following a policy of indirect rule. They paid an annual tribute
(peshkash) to the emperor as a mark of subordination and enjoyed autonomy in
matters of internal administration. Many of them were given high military ranks in
the Mughal army. In this way, they contributed to the strength of the empire and in
return they were given help to consolidate their own hold over their kingdoms.

Relationship with Mughals Eighteenth century was marked by a love-hate relationship

between the Mughals and the Rajputs. Rajput rulers did not lag behind in taking
advantage of the declining Mughal Empire to consolidate their position and tried to
re-establish their independence.

According to Bipan Chandra, the desire for independence partially arose from the
harsh treatment of the Rajputs dating back to Aurangzeb's reign. Aurangzeb had led
many ruthless campaigns in Rajasthan.

Modern Indian History

He practiced religious intolerance and revived jeziah. Such harsh treatment aroused
the anger of many Rajputs and left a sore which never healed. Thus, a race which
had been the right arm of the Mughal Empire at the beginning of the Mughal period,
was gradually alienated and never again served the throne without distrust.

Shekhar Bandopadhyaya writes that Aurangzeb did not discriminate against the Rajput
sardars, but he could not tolerate the continuous territorial expansion of Mewar.
The situation took an ugly turn when Aurangzeb interfered in the succession of
Marwar. He refused to recognise Ajit Singh (the posthumous son of Rana Jaswant
Singh of Marwar) as Rana. Instead he appointed Inder Singh Rathore, a nephew of
Jaswant Singh, as Rana there. Consequently, Ajit Singh of Marwar rose in revolt and
was ably helped by Mewar.

Anti-Mughal League (1708) In 1708, Emperor Bahadur Shah I marched towards Jodhpur
and forced Ajit Singh into submission. It led to the formation of an anti-Mughal
League led by Ajit Singh, Jai Singh II and Durgadas Rathore (a senior officer of
Jaswant Singh). They adopted the method of slowly loosening their ties with Delhi
and function as independent states in practice. They participated in the struggle
for power in the Delhi court and gained lucrative governorships.

For instance, in the Farrukhsiyar-Sayyid brothers' tussle in Delhi, the Rajput

chiefs of Jodhpur and Jaipur followed the policy of "opportune adherence or
aloofness". In order to win Ajit Singh to their side, the Sayyids appointed Ajit
Singh with the governorship of Ajmer and Gujarat, a position he held till 1721. On
the other hand, the anti-Sayyid party appointed Jai Singh II of Jaipur as the
governor of Agra in 1721. In this way, at one point, the Rajputs controlled the
entire territory from 600 miles south of Delhi to Surat on the western coast.

However, the Rajputs rulers remained divided among themselves and none proved
powerful enough to compete with the Marathas or the English for the position of
paramount power.

Jai Singh II or Raja Sawai Jai Singh (1699-1743) The most powerful Rajput chief of
this time was Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber who ruled in Jaipur from 1699 to 1743.
He was a distinguished statesman and reformer. His interest in science was the most
remarkable aspect of his personality, especially at a time when Indians were in
oblivion of scientific progress.

Jai Singh founded the city of Jaipur and made it a seat of science and art. Jaipur
was scientifically built based on a city plan, having broad streets which
intersected at right angles. Jai Singh was also a great astronomer. He erected
observatories at Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi and Mathura; some of them had
Instruments which were his own invention. He drew up a set of tables called Zij
Muhammadshahi, to enable people to make astronomical observations. He got several
important texts on geometry and trigonometry translated into Sanskrit including
Euclid's 'Elements of Geometry'.

Jai Singh was also a social reformer. He tried to reduce lavish expenditure by
Rajputs on their daughters' weddings which had given rise to the practice of female
infanticide.

CONCLUSION

Thus, we see that the regional powers were unable to take the place of the Mughals;
none had the resources to provide an all India polity. The regional powers could
not reverse the general economic stagnation that had plagued the Mughal economy.
The jagirdari crisis intensified as income from agriculture declined

1.42
Rise of Autonomous States 1.43

while the number of contenders for a share of the surplus multiplied. Consequently,
many regional powers made desperate attempts to preserve internal and external
trade.

Satish Chandra argues that it is wrong to talk of generalised socio-economic

stagnation in the 18th century. He points out that there were considerable economic
variations. There was creation of new wealth and social power in the provinces,
which resulted in the decline of the centralised Mughal power. Those regions with
considerable amounts of resources actually attracted the English and other European
traders and triggered off a competition among them for supremacy in the
subcontinent.

The biggest weakness of the regional states lay in their scientific backwardness;
limited attempts were made to modernise industry and commerce. These backward
regional states easily succumbed to the superior British system.

18TH-CENTURY INDIA-ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS (INDIAN ECONOMY AND SOCIETY ON

THE EVE OF BRITISH CONQUEST)

Socially and economically, 18th-century India failed to progress at an adequate

pace. India was a land of contrasts as extreme poverty and extreme luxury existed
side by side. While the common people remained impoverished, backward and
oppressed, the rich and the powerful enjoyed a life of luxury and abundance. Yet,
the life of the masses in general was better than what it became after 100 years of
British rule. The socio-economic life of the people in the 18th century may be
understood under the following heads:

Economic Conditions

Village Economy

• Self-sufficient, self-governing village community In the beginning of 18th

century, the basic unit of Indian economy was the self-sufficient, self-governing
village community which produced almost everything for its local needs (except
perhaps a few items like salt and iron) and had very little to do with the outside
world.

• Agriculture and handicraft industry The two industries worked in close union;
while the peasant grew crops, his family carried out spinning and weaving and other
secondary activities to produce goods needed for the family. Various other services
were provided by craftsmen like carpenter, potter, goldsmith, blacksmith and others
who received a share in the village crops in return. Handicrafts had reached a high
level of development and were in much demand. Some of the famous handicrafts of the
time included cotton, silk and woollen fabrics and metal works.

⚫ Agrarian structure The concept of private property in land had not yet
developed. Land in the village was plentiful and belonged collectively to the
cultivating community, each family having its share of arable land. Karl Marx had
described this kind of collective ownership of land as the Indian form of
communism. Different classes connected with land possessed certain rights. The
actual cultivators enjoyed the right to cultivate and had security of tenure
provided a fixed share of produce was paid to the overlord. The land revenue was
collected by the village headman or Patil and passed onto the ruler or Nawab. The
state demand of revenue generally varied from one-sixth to one-third. Other land
related issues and disputes were settled by the Patil in consultation with the
village Panchayat.
1.44 Modern Indian History

• Self-governance The villages were also self-governing. The Village Panchayat

administered the village affairs and settled disputes. The local chief or the
subahdar did not interfere in the day-today village affairs and limited himself to
claiming a share in the village crops. In this way, the main link of the village
with the state was the payment of land revenue. Even as rulers and dynasties
changed continuously, the life in the villages carried on as usual, phenomena
referred to as the "unchangeableness of Asiatic communities" by Karl Marx. It has
been aptly said that the village communities in India 'lasted when nothing else
seemed to last'. economic

Stagnation The unchanging character of village communities was responsible for

socio-stability on one hand and stagnation on the other. Agriculture was
technically backward and stagnant. Though the farmer's produce supported the rest
of society, yet his own reward was miserably inadequate. The farmers had to pay
exorbitant amounts to the state, the zamindars and the revenue farmers. The
isolation of village communities obstructed the creation of a wider market for
Indian handicrafts. The caste-bound socio-economic structure permitted little
mobility of individual and labour. Political indifference acted as a barrier to
growth of national consciousness. As a result, Indian villages represented a
picture of stagnation, untouched from all modern scientific developments taking
place in other parts of the world.

Urban Economy

Even as economic stagnation continued, India remained a land of extensive

manufacturers and Indian manufactures enjoyed a worldwide renown. Though urban
economy presented a better picture, there was no sharp division between urban
centres where industries were concentrated and rural centres which supplied raw
materials. Industrial production in India continued to be largely a rural-based
activity.

Condition of Indian Industry

• Textiles Cotton textiles which were produced virtually all over India constituted
the most important manufacture. The cotton manufactures of Bengal (Dacca,
Murshidabad), Gujarat (Ahmedabad, Surat, Bharuch) and Andhra (Masulipatam,
Aurangabad, Vishakhapatnam) the silk fabrics of Murshidabad, Lahore and Agra,
woollen shawls and carpets of Agra, Lahore and Kashmir were in demand both in India
and abroad.

⚫ Other agro-based industries In addition to cotton and silk, dye stuffs

(particularly indigo) and sugar were the next most important commercial industrial
products. Significant agro-based industries included oils, tobacco, opium and
alcoholic beverages.

• Mining and ship-building Though mining was inadequately developed, India was
self-sufficient in iron. Ship-building was another important and developing
industry.

Luxury goods High-class luxury goods were also produced and largely consumed by the
rich nobility. Manufacturing centres Some other important manufacturing centres
included Patna (Bihar), Chanderi and Burhanpur (MP), Jaunpur, Varanasi, Lucknow
(UP), Multan, Lahore (Punjab), Bangalore, Coimbatore and Madurai (south India). The
emerging Indian cities had also developed their own banking system comprising
Shroffs, Mahajans, Chetties and others.

• Stagnation Though India was, on the whole, self-sufficient in agriculture and

craft industries, some observers feel that the pre-British industrial sector was
stagnant and technically backward and there was an overall declining trend in
agriculture and craft industry production. However, this decline was far greater in
the post-British 18th and 19th centuries.

Rise of Autonomous States

Condition of Indian Trade

• Favourable balance of trade As India was self-sufficient in food grain production

and handicrafts, it did not import goods on a large scale. On the contrary, its
agricultural and industrial produce was in great demand in the foreign market. The
17th century saw Indian cotton textiles emerge as the most important Asian import
to the West, displacing spices (the marked expansion of cotton textile exports
provided employment to a sizeable section of Indian population). Hence India
exported more than it imported and its trade was heavily balanced in India's
favour.

●Inflow of bullion The remarkable rise in Indian textile exports ensured a steady
flow of bullion into India from buyer nations and India came to be known as the
sink of precious metals. Indian trade with Europe then was essentially based upon
the price differential between Asia and the rest of the world. The European
merchants bought Indian goods at a low price and sold them at a much higher price
in Europe, Africa and other New World markets. Since there was no demand for
European goods in India, the purchases of Indian goods had to be financed by
bullion payments. This comprised the main problem faced by European companies in
Indian trade.

Rise of merchants and bankers Flourishing trade brought into existence the merchant
capitalists and bankers who further promoted trade and commerce. In fact, in the
beginning of 18th century, India was one of the main centres of world trade and
industry.

● Major items of export These included cotton textiles (most important export
item), silk, indigo, saltpeter, rice, wheat, sugar, spices, precious stones and
drugs. Major items of import were

(From) Persian Gulf-pearls, silk, wool, dates, dry fruits, rose water

O Arabia-coffee, gold, drugs, honey

o China-tea, sugar, porcelain and silk

Tibet-gold, musk, woollen sloth

Indonesian islands-spices, perfume, sugar

o Africa-ivory, drugs

o Europe-woollen cloth, metals, paper

• Disruption However, political disintegration of the Mughal Empire in the 18th

century inevitably brought economic fragmentation as well. Economic activities were
disrupted by continuous wars and conflict between the regional powers. New agencies
of pillage and plunder sprang up. Every small or large ruler tried to increase his
income by imposing heavy duties on goods passing through his territories. Many
trading centres were looted by foreign invaders (like Nadir Shah and Abdali) and
European trading companies began to dabble in Indian politics.
Examples of Trading Centres Looted by Foreign Invaders were Delhi was plundered by
Nadir Shah

Lahore, Delhi, Mathura was plundered by Abdali

Agra was plundered by Jats

A Bengali woman in fine muslin silk, 18th century

Gujarat and Deccan were plundered by Marathas

Sarhind was plundered by Sikhs

1.45

Modern Indian History

Main Industrial Products of India In the 18th Century India was a large-scale
manufacturer of cotton and silk textiles, dyes, sugar, oils, tobacco, opium,
alcoholic beverages, jute, ivory, ships, iron and other mineral and metallic
products (like gold and silver jewellery, arms and shields, etc.) and high-class
luxury goods.

Social Conditions

Despite political upheavals of the 18th century, the social life of the masses
remained traditional, marked by stagnation and dependence.

Social Stratification At the apex of the social order was the emperor, followed by
the nobility. During peace time, they led a life of luxury with a taste for wine,
women and music. The middle classes comprised of the merchants, shopkeepers, etc.
The lowest rung of the society comprised of vast numbers of the poor peasants and
artisans. Society was divided on the lines of religion, region, tribe, language and
caste. In fact, caste was a central feature of the social life of the Hindus. Caste
rules prevailed in matters of inter-dining and inter-marriage. Even though Islam
preached social equality to the Muslims, they too were divided along class and
caste lines. These considerations kept not only Shia and Sunni apart but also
Irani, Afghani, Turani and Hindustani Muslims apart from each other.

Status of Women Family system was primarily patriarchal (Kerala Nairs were an
exception) and the will of the male head of the family usually prevailed. Though
examples can be sighted of women who played significant roles in polity or arts,
the status of women was certainly not of equality. Evils of child marriage, dowry
and purdah system prevailed. Polygamy was common among the rich classes. In fact,
the caste system, the custom of sati and the conditions of widows were the greatest
social evils of 18th-century India.

Slavery Prevalence of slavery was yet another social evil of the time. European
travellers and administrators have reported widespread practice of slavery in
India. Extreme poverty or natural calamities compelled some to sell off their
children. However, slaves in India were treated better than their counterparts in
America or Europe. They were usually seen as hereditary servants rather than as
menials. They were allowed to marry among themselves and their children were
considered free citizens. Slave trade in India touched new dimensions with the
coming of Europeans. The European companies bought slaves from the markets of
Bengal, Assam and Bihar and sold them in the American and European markets. In
1789, trafficking of slaves was abolished by a proclamation, yet it continued to
survive in various forms until recent times.
State of Education The education system prevalent in India in 18th century was
traditional, decadent and out of touch with modern developments in the West. The
idea of Indian education (both Hindu and Muslim systems) was culture and not
literacy; learning was linked with religion. Vocational education was imparted
according to one's varna or family tradition.

• Elementary education was fairly widespread, though mainly confined to males of

higher castes. Elementary schools were called pathshalas and maktabs and were often
attached to temples or mosques. School's curriculum included instruction in
reading, writing and arithmetic as well as moral

1.46

Rise of Autonomous States 1.47

and religious instruction. The study of science and technology was excluded.
Original thought and innovation was discouraged.

• Higher education centres were called chatuspathis or tols (for Sanskrit) and
madrasas (for Persian and Arabic). Persian was the court language and was learnt by
Muslims as well as the Hindus. The French traveller Bernier described Kashi or
Banaras as 'the Athens of India'.

⚫ Literacy Interestingly, literacy was not less than what it was under the British
later. In 1813, Warren Hastings wrote that Indians had in general 'superior
endowments in reading, writing and arithmetic than the common people of any nation
in Europe'. A good feature was that the teachers enjoyed high prestige in society.

Hindu-Muslim Relations In 18th-century India, Hindus and Muslims enjoyed friendly

relations with one another. They respected each other's religion and practiced
religious tolerance. This was particularly true among common people in villages and
towns, where Hindus and Muslims cooperated with one another in socio-cultural
affairs. This resulted in the emergence of composite Hindu-Muslim culture,
accelerated by the development of Urdu language.

Art and Culture Culturally too, there were some signs of exhaustion. It remained
wholly traditionalist. The most rapid decline was seen in those arts which depended
on patronage of kings and nobles (for example,- Mughal architecture and painting).
Yet the 18th century cannot be called a dark age. With the decline of Delhi, talent
fled to newly established state capitals like Hyderabad, Lucknow, Murshidabad and
Jaipur. Cultural continuity with preceding centuries was maintained and local
traditions continued to evolve.

. In the field of architecture

Jaipur Sawai Jai Singh built the famous pink city of Jaipur. He also built five
astronomical observatories at Jaipur, Delhi, Banaras, Mathura and Ujjain.

Lucknow Asaf-ud-Daula built the Bara Imambara (building for celebration of the
Muharram festival) in 1784.

o Amritsar Maharaja Ranjit Singh renovated the Sikh shrine, decorating the entire
upper portion with a thin layer of gold, giving it the modern name of Golden
Temple.

o Kerala The famous Padmanabhapuram Palace was built with its remarkable
architecture and mural paintings.

Bara Imambara, Lucknow

In the field of literature

The spread of Urdu language and poetry was a distinct feature of 18th century and
saw the emergence of famous Urdu poets like Mir, Sauda, Nazir and Mirza Ghalib.

Vernacular languages also greatly developed during this period including languages
such as Hindi, Punjabi, Marathi, Bengali, Assamese and Telugu. In South India,
Malayalam literature was revived under Travancore rulers Marthanda Varma and Rama
Varma. Kunchan Nambiar arose as one of the great poets of Kerala. Katahakali
literature, dance and drama saw its full development during this period. Some
famous Sindhi poets of the 18th century were Shah Abdul Latif, Sachal and Sami.
Latif composed the famous collection of poems called Risalo. Warris Shah wrote the
famous romantic epic in Punjabi-Heer Ranjha. In Assam, literature developed under
the patronage of Ahom Kings. Dayaram was a great lyricist from Gujarat.

Modern Indian History

Thus, we see that, 18th-century India was characterised by traditional outlook and
stagnation. It was totally ignorant of the scientific, cultural, political and
economic achievements of the West. Though some preconditions for development along
modern lines did exist, such a development was severely hampered due to political
instability, feudal society and presence of European companies with deep politico-
economic interests. The greatest weakness of Indian life and society lay in the
field of science. This weakness became the most significant reason for the total
subjugation of India by the most advanced country of the time.

Previous Years' Questions - Preliminary Exam

1. Who among the following streamlined the last Maratha administration after
Sambhaji?

[UPSC 2000]

(a) Raja Ram

(b) Balaji Vishwanath

(c) Ganga bai

(d) Nanaji Deshmukh

2. Who among the following Indian rulers established embassies in foreign countries
on modern lines? [UPSC 2001]

(a) Hyder Ali

(b) Mir Qasim

(c) Shah Alam II

(d) Tipu Sultan

3. What was the immediate reason for Ahmad Shah Abdali to invade India and fight
the third Battle of Panipat? [UPSC 2010]

(a) He wanted to avenge the expulsion of his viceroy Taimur Shah from Lahore by the
Marathas
(b) The frustrated governor of Jullundhar Adina Beg Khan invited him to invade
Punjab

(c) He wanted to punish Mughal administration for non-payment of the revenues of

the Chahar Mahal (Gujarat, Aurangabad, Sialkot and Pasrur)

(d) He wanted to annex all the fertile plains of Punjab up to the borders of Delhi
to his Kingdom

4. The staple commodities of export by the English East India Company from Bengal
in the middle of the 18th century were [UPSC 2018]

(a) Raw cotton, oil-seeds and opium (b) Sugar, salt, zinc and lead

(c) Copper, silver, gold, spices and tea (d) Cotton, silk, saltpetre and opium

Previous Years' Questions - Main Exam

1. Clarify how mid-eighteenth century India was beset with the spectre of a
fragmented polity.

Answers

Previous Years' Questions - Preliminary Exam

1. (b)

2. (d)

3. (a)

[UPSC 2017]

4. (d)

1.48

Chapter

Rise of British Supremacy: A Backgrounder (Emergence of Imperialism in Europe and

Arrival of Europeans in India)

The third theme of 18th-century Indian polity was the rise of the British supremacy
in India. It inaugurated a new phase in the history of India. For the purpose of
your convenience, this theme has been dealt with in two chapters. In this chapter,
you will learn about why and how the British came to India. In the subsequent
chapter, you will become familiar with how the British subsequently expanded their
influence.

The British came to India in the context of the emergence of capitalism and modern
imperialism in Europe. Both these systems had deep roots in the past patterns of
European socio-economic evolution. Thus, the first half of the chapter provides you
a brief survey of socio-economic developments in Europe from the 14th to the 19th
century leading to the emergence of capitalism and imperialism in Europe. It
introduces you to the decline of feudalism in Europe and the emergence of new ideas
which prompted the geographical discoveries, overseas trade and colonisation, thus
helping you understand the nature of British imperialism in India.
In the 14th century, significant changes occurred in Europe. Capitalism began
replacing the feudal economy and society. This opened a new chapter in the history
of the world. This is because capitalism as a system is based on profit making. It
is always looking for new markets and more profits. Capital accumulates and seeks
outlets for reinvestment for future profits. Expansion of capitalist system,
therefore, was worldwide, engulfing many other economies, societies and cultures.

Thus, the second half of the chapter explains to you in greater detail the 15th
century, when the Europeans went out in the world. Henceforth world history got
closely related to developments in Europe. Industrial Revolution and capital
formation in Europe led to the search for new markets. Asia and Africa were the
ideal grounds for colonial powers to make their fortune. Different trading
companies were formed in Europe to carry out external trade. Soon there was clash
of interests and struggles started among the colonial powers-the Portuguese, the
Dutch, the French and the English. From this struggle, the English East India
Company emerged victorious and established its monopoly over Indian trade.

EMERGENCE OF CAPITALISM AND IMPERIALISM IN EUROPE

Socio-Economic Changes in Europe (14th Century Onwards)

One of the significant landmarks of the 18th century was the competition among
various European colonial powers to establish their hegemony over the Indian
subcontinent. Why did the various European countries jump into fierce competition
to establish a colonial empire? This can be understood

Modern Indian History

in the context of socio-economic developments of Europe from the 14th century

onwards which led to expansion of European nations for trade and markets, finally
giving rise to European capitalism and imperialism.

The prominent socio-economic changes may be understood as follows:

The European feudal crisis (14th century)

Renaissance and Reformation (14th to 16th century) Geographical Exploration and

Colonisation (15th century) Merchant Capitalism (16th and 17th centuries) Emergence
of Organised Trade: Joint Stock Companies and Chartered Companies (17th century)
Mercantilism (17th century) Scientific Ideas and Industrial Revolution (18th
century)

Together the above changes accounted for commercial revolution in Europe (16th and
17th centuries) and culminated in the transformation of Europe from merchant
capitalism to industrial capitalism.

European Feudal Crisis (14th Century) Feudalism had been in existence for about a
thousand years and was the dominant social system in medieval Europe. Under this
system, the nobility held lands from the Crown in exchange for military service,
and vassals were in turn tenants of the nobles, while the peasants (serfs) had to
live on their lord's land and give him homage, labour, and a share of the produce,
notionally in exchange for military protection.

Hence, the whole of feudal society was based on ties of dependence. The strong
needed the weak as dependents to serve them. The economy and society was primarily
land-based. The bottom of the social hierarchy consisted of peasants or serfs who
were bound to serve their masters or lords. These lords in turn served their
overlords. The Christian church with its clergy was extremely powerful in the
feudal society.

By the 14th century, limits to growth of feudal society had been reached and the
feudal society of Europe was in a crisis. Technology and resources could not keep
pace with the rise in population. Accordingly, when Black Death (plague) spread
from 1348 onwards, it wiped out people in large numbers, resulting in abandoning of
cultivable land and decline in agricultural production. Consequently, the income of
the feudal lords also declined and they reacted by attempting a tightening of their
feudal control over the peasants. The peasants resisted and the 14th and 15th
centuries were marked by a series of peasant rebellions all over Europe.

The crisis was particularly intense in Western Europe (broadly the area west of
River Elbe consisting of countries like England, France, Holland, Spain and parts
of Germany and Scandinavia). Here the hold of feudal lords weakened and serfdom
declined after the feudal crisis, leading to the emergence of nation- states under
strong monarchs. On the contrary, in Eastern Europe (the region of present day
Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, former USSR, etc.) the landlords succeeded in
subjugating the serfs and serfdom consolidated after the crisis. As a result of
this, Eastern Europe lagged behind Western Europe in trade, industry and
urbanisation.

As a result of the feudal crisis, agriculture became less profitable, whereas gains
in trade and commerce increased substantially. For instance, in Italy (also the
birthplace of Renaissance) the merchants had been prospering immensely since the
11th to 12th century by supplying various artisanal goods and luxury

1.50

Rise of British Supremacy: A Backgrounder

items to Europe. Marco Polo (1254-1324) emerged as a legendary Italian merchant who
travelled to China and fascinated Europeans with his travel tales. Italy also
enjoyed a geographical advantage in the Mediterranean as it was connected by both
land and sea routes to the East. By 1500 AD Italy had emerged as the most
prosperous state in Europe with flourishing trade centres, including Venice, Milan,
Florence, Geneva and others.

Renaissance and Reformation (14th-16th Century) Renaissance was a period (14th-16th

century) of great social and cultural change that spread across Europe from its
birthplace in Italy. Some historians consider the European Renaissance as the dawn
of the Early Modern Era. The term 'Renaissance' is derived from the French word
meaning 'rebirth'. It was a period characterised by innovation, imagination and
creativity. The Renaissance was also a time during which Europe's classical past
was revisited and reinvigorated. The most notable changes were experienced in the
fields of art and architecture, literature, philosophy and science. Naturally,
renaissance led to the questioning of orthodox beliefs and decline in the influence
of the Catholic Church.

The Reformation was a 16th-century movement for the reform of abuses in the Roman
Church ending in the establishment of the Reformed and Protestant Churches. Such a
development had widespread impact and Reformation emerged as a religious,
political, intellectual and cultural upheaval that splintered Catholic Europe,
setting in place the structures and beliefs that would define the continent in the
modern era.

In the 14th century, Europe simultaneously entered the period of Renaissance even
as its feudal society was being questioned and transformed in many ways. Europeans,
particularly the rising class of traders and bankers (who constituted the new
middle class of Europe), began to question the subordination of the individual to
the hierarchies of the feudal age.

Geographical Exploration and Colonisation (15th Century) Several factors

contributed in the discovery of new routes and lands.

• Italian and Arab monopoly over old trade routes Soon the other countries of
Europe had become eager to break the Italian monopoly over trade. But in 1453,
Constantinople was captured by the Ottoman Turks and the old Red Sea Trade route
now became a state monopoly of the Islamic rulers. Other known routes were also
controlled either by the Arabs or the Italians who refused to share them with
emerging European nations. In such circumstances, the Western European states,
particularly Portugal and Spain, were keen to search for new routes to India and
the Spice Islands in Indonesia (then known as East Indies).

Rise of nation-states The rise of nation-states under strong monarchs in the 15th
century also promoted geographical explorations and most of the early European
explorers were state sponsored.

• Renaissance Renaissance had generated a great spirit of adventure and enquiry

among the people of Western Europe. Technological advancements in the form of
availability of compass, gunpowder and maps also fostered the spirit of travel and
exploration.

● Spirit of ‘God, Glory and Gold' The explorers were also driven by the zeal to
spread Christianity in new lands, return home with fabulous riches and achieve
glory, popularly known as the spirit of 'God, Glory and Gold'.

1.51

Modern Indian History

In 1487, Bartholomew Diaz of Portugal reached the southernmost tip of Africa (named
Cape of Good Hope).

In 1492, Christopher Columbus of Spain set out to reach India but discovered
America instead. ⚫In 1498, Vasco da Gama of Portugal discovered a new sea route
from Europe to India and became the first European to reach India by sea. From
Africa, he sailed via the Cape of Good Hope and continued to India, reaching
Calicut. He returned with a cargo which sold for 60 times the cost of his voyage!
(Read Ahead: The Arrival of Europeans)

Merchant Capitalism (16th-17th Century) This was clearly an age of the merchant.
The geographical explorations and new colonies had opened vast opportunities for
profits. The capital accumulated by the merchant class from trade profit was termed
as merchant capital, hence this earliest phase in the development of capitalism is
termed as merchant capitalism.

Capitalism now began to replace feudal economy and society, giving rise to
commercial revolution in Europe. The term is used to denote a series of changes
which brought about tremendous expansion of market and money economy. For instance,
use of currency became widespread and began replacing the age-old barter system. By
1600, almost all major cities of Europe got connected with postal service.
Urbanisation picked up and cities like London, Paris and Amsterdam grew at a very
fast pace.

In addition to the merchants, capital was also being accumulated by craftsmen who
showed enterprise and profited from the expanding market. In fact, Industrial
growth and manufacturing in the era of merchant capitalism has also been termed as
proto-industrialisation as it created conditions for the emergence of full-fledged
factory-based Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century.

Emergence of Organised Trade: Joint Stock Companies and Chartered Companies (17th
Century) The 17th century saw the emergence of more sophisticated business
organisations such as the Joint Stock Companies and Chartered Companies. A major
advantage of a Joint Stock Company was that a much larger amount of capital could
be raised and the high risks and costs could be shared by the shareholders. The
Chartered companies were authorised by the government which often granted them
monopoly of trade with a particular country. Several such companies were
established such as the English East India Company (1600) and the French East India
Company (1664). As a result of these developments, the 17th and 18th centuries
witnessed an enormous increase in world trade.

Mercantilism (17th Century) In the 17th century, Europe was swayed by a set of
economic ideas and practice known as mercantilism. It is an economic theory which
states that trade generates wealth and is further stimulated by the accumulation of
profitable balances, which a government should encourage by means of protectionism.
In fact, mercantilism can be understood as the economic counterpart of the spirit
of aggressive nationalism.

Its ideas and policy prescription are summarised as follows:

That the volume of world trade is more or less fixed and the state should endeavour
to gain as large a share of this trade as possible.

1.52

Rise of British Supremacy: A Backgrounder 1.53

• That gold and silver were the most desirable forms of national wealth and if a
state did not possess them naturally then the chief way of obtaining them was
trade.

That for accumulation of wealth or precious metals, the state should ensure a
favourable balance of trade.

That the state should impose high tariffs to reduce imports of manufactured goods
and lower tariffs to encourage import of cheap raw materials.

That the state should promote exports, especially of manufactured goods through
measures like granting monopolies and regulating the guilds.

• Acquisition of colonies was desirable both as a market for exports and as source
of supply of raw material. For acquisition or protection of colonies, wars could be
waged if required.

Naturally, mercantilist period was a period of accumulation of capital in Europe

which proved to be a vital requirement for the forthcoming Industrial Revolution in
the 18th century (Much of this capital was extracted from the colonial trade
carried out in America, Africa and India. Hence, much of the commercial supremacy
of the English and the French was based upon their colonial trade during the
mercantile era).

Scientific Ideas and Industrial Revolution (18th Century)

The Industrial Revolution (1760-1840) which began in Britain was marked by the
transition to new manufacturing processes. This transition included shifting from
hand- production methods to machine-based production, the development of machine
tools, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use
of steam power and the rise of the factory system. Textiles were the dominant
industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and
capital invested; the textile industry was also the first to use modern production
methods. Britain was the first to undergo industrialisation and most of the
important technological innovations were British.

Industrial Revolution

(Illustration of power loom weaving)

Factors that contributed to Industrial development in Britain:

• Britain's expanding trade Britain's overseas trade had been expanding rapidly in
the past decades thanks to its growing influence and the acquisition of new
colonies all over the world including Africa, West Indies, Latin America, Canada,
Australia, China and India, providing unlimited opportunities for export. This
raised the demand for production which necessitated new inventions. ● Role of
British government The government in Britain, at the time, was under the influence
of commercial and manufacturing interests and extended determined support for
markets and colonies.

⚫ Scientific discoveries and inventions The desire of British manufacturers to

increase production for the expanding markets pushed them to utilise the existing
technology and even to seek new inventions. Thus, it is noteworthy that it was not
the scientific inventions that brought about Industrial Revolution, but the need of
British manufacturers to increase production.

⚫ Role of scientific ideas At the same time, scientific ideas contributed to the
Industrial Revolution by making the society more receptive to new inventions and
discoveries. Scientific outlook was immensely enriched by thinkers such as Nicholas
Copernicus, Isaac Newton, Galileo, James Watt

Modern Indian History

and others. The Spinning Jenny was developed by James Hargreaves (1765) which
increased the artisans spinning capacity by a hundred times. Now one person could
do the work of eight persons. Richard Arkwright's water frame turned the jenny into
a commercial proposition. Crompton's mule was a further improvement. The use of
power looms developed in the 1780s and this led to a rapid increase in Britain's
cotton exports which served as the main vehicle of the Industrial Revolution in
Britain (and had significant impact on the industry and society of a colony like
India). The invention of steam engine by James Watt (1790s) proved a boon for many
industries. Use of steam power in shipping revolutionised maritime transport.
Finally, the railways ushered in an altogether new era in land transport.

• Role of increasing population Population in Britain increased rapidly after 1740

and began to meet the need for the growing industries for more and cheap labour
(Industrial Revolution in turn also aided population growth and it doubled in the
50 years after 1780).

• Role of accumulated capital By now, sufficient capital had accumulated in Britain

for investment in the factory system. Further, this capital was now concentrated
not in the hands of feudal elements who would waste it in luxurious living, but in
the hands of the merchants who were keen in investment in trade and industry. Here
again, the wealth drawn from colonies, including from the plunder of Bengal (1757)
aided immensely in the Industrial Revolution in Britain (1760).

Earlier we saw how Britain's expanding overseas trade pushed Industrial Revolution.
But that's not all; Industrial Revolution itself began to strengthen overseas trade
and colonialism. As England's industrial manufactures developed, correspondingly
the need to import manufactured goods from abroad was reduced. Soon the
manufacturers fully supplied the internal market of England and now began to seek
export markets. Such export markets initially exited in Europe, but later as
industrialisation began to spread in the European continent, export markets could
be found only in less-developed colonial countries which had not yet undergone
modern industrialisation. These countries, including India, were converted into
almost exclusively agricultural goods exporting and industrial goods importing
countries. A classic example of this conversion was India-from being a major
exporter of cotton textiles in 18th century to being a major importer from England
in 19th century.

Thus, the industrial revolution transformed Europe from merchant capitalism to

industrial capitalism. While the merchant capitalist interests lay in promoting
trade in goods (goods which included industrial manufactures such as cotton
textiles produced by Indian manufactures) from countries like India to Europe, the
industrial capitalist interests lay in promoting Europe's exports of industrial
goods.

The merchant capitalists invested capital in industries and used wage labour and
strove to make profits in the market. The mechanisation process brought about a
rapid rate of capital accumulation. Between 1820 and 1845, the net output of cotton
industry grew by about 40%, whereas its wage cost increased by only 5 per cent.
This further accelerated accumulation of capital in the hands of the merchants who
now began to look for opportunities of reinvestment.

ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS (15TH CENTURY ONWARDS)

We have already seen that the 14th century onwards, significant changes occurred in
Europe. Italy, the birth place of renaissance, had been prospering since the 11th
to 12th century by supplying various artisanal goods to Europe from the East. Other
European countries soon became eager to break the Italian monopoly over trade and
began their search for new routes to India and the Spice Islands in

1.54

Rise of British Supremacy: A Backgrounder

Indonesia, then known as East Indies. Asia and Africa were the ideal grounds for
colonial powers to make their fortune. The Portuguese were the first ones to
arrive, followed by the Dutch, the English, the Danes and the French.

Different trading companies were formed in Europe to carry out external trade.
Industrial Revolution and capital formation in Europe led to the search for new
markets and further strengthened the colonial pattern. Soon there was clash of
interests and struggles started among these colonial powers. From this struggle,
the English East India Company emerged victorious and established its monopoly over
Indian trade.

The Portuguese

The Portuguese were the first ones to arrive on the Indian scene. The reasons for
arrival of the Portuguese in India were both economic as well as religious. They
had come to seek spices especially pepper as well as to destroy the monopoly of
Arabs and Italians over trade with the East. They also wished to spread
Christianity in Asia and Africa and restrict the increasing influence of Arabs and
Turks. Prior to the Portuguese, trade in the Indian Ocean was a monopoly of Arab
merchants. But within 15 years of their arrival, the Portuguese completely
destroyed Arab trade and established their control over Eastern trade which lasted
nearly a century.

Early Efforts

Prince Henry the Navigator Prince Henry of Portugal, nicknamed the 'Navigator' had
become obsessed with the idea of finding a sea route to India. He was keen to
circumvent the Muslim-dominated route of the Red sea. However, Prince Henry died
before his dream could be fulfilled. He is remembered as a great patron and sponsor
of voyages than as a sailor.

Depiction of a Portuguese Armada

AFRICA

Bartholomew Diaz (1487) In 1487 Bartholomew Diaz reached the southernmost tip of
Africa (which he named Cape of Storms) and became the first known European to reach
the Indian Ocean from the Atlantic! The Portuguese later renamed the cape as 'Cape
of Good Hope' as it represented the opening of a new route to the East! Diaz later
used his experience in the construction of a ship which was later used by Vasco da
Gama.

Route followed by Vasco Da Gama in 1498

• Vasco da Gama (First Portuguese India Armada, 1498) Piloted by a Gujarati named
Abdul Majid, Vasco da Gama sailed from the Cape of Good Hope and continued to
India, reaching Calicut (Kozhikode) in 1498. He thus discovered a new sea route
from Europe to India and became the first European to reach India by sea! This
opened a new chapter in the history of India's trade relations with Europe. Vasco
da Gama led two Portuguese India Armadas (or fleet of warships), the first and the
fourth, sent under the patronage of King Manuel I of Portugal and was well received
by the Zamorin (ruler) of Calicut, Manna Vikrama. Vasco da Gama returned with a
cargo which sold for 60 times the cost of his voyage!

1.55

1.56 Modern Indian History

• Pedro Alvarez Cabral (Second Portuguese India Armada, 1500) In March 1500, Pedro
Alvarez Cabral led the Second India Armada (also the First Brazil Armada as it
marked the arrival of Europeans to Brazil on the way) with the aim of making a
treaty with the Zamorin of Calicut and setting up a Portuguese factory. However,
Cabral ran into a conflict with the local Arab Merchants who then attacked the
Portuguese factory at Calicut, killing more than 50 Portuguese. Outraged, Cabral
captured ten Arab merchants' ships anchored in the harbour, massacred nearly 600
Arabs on board and confiscated the cargo before putting the ships on fire.

• Vasco da Gama (Fourth Portuguese India Armada, 1502) In 1502, Vasco da Gama
revisited India and set up the following:

In 1503, the 1" Portuguese factory was set up at Cochin (Kochi).

In 1505, the 2nd factory was set up at Cannanore (or Kannur).

Soon, Calicut, Cochin, Cannanore and Quilon (Kollam) became important trading
centres of the Portuguese. The Portuguese trading points or factories on land were
called Feitorias-these were unfortified trading outposts which also served as bases
for naval fleet called armadas. The early spice trade comprised of mainly pepper
and cinnamon.
Formation of Portuguese State of India (Estado da India, 1503-04) The Portuguese
State of India was meant to be a governing body of the various Portuguese
fortresses and colonies overseas and it was required to function under a Viceroy.
In effect, the formation of this body indicated that the Portuguese would no longer
be content with mere spice trade but would set out to establish a Christian
Portuguese state in the East and launch a holy war against Islam there.

Portuguese Governors

Francisco De Almeida (1505-09) Almeida was appointed as the first Portuguese

Viceroy of India for a term of three years and sent with sufficient armed ships to
protect Portuguese interests. He was directed by the government to build such
Portuguese fortresses that would aim to establish Portuguese control over trade of
the Indian Ocean. He adopted the 'Blue Water Policy' aimed at establishing naval
supremacy of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean, rather than over land. He is
credited with the construction of Fort Anjediva on Anjediva Island lying at the
border of Muslim Bijapur and Hindu Vijayanagar states.

In 1508, Portuguese fleet was attacked by joint Muslim naval force (Gujarat
Sultanate and Mameluk Egyptian fleet) at Chaul and Dabul, with Almeida's son losing
his life in the battle of Chaul. Almeida, however, defeated the joint force in the
Battle of Diu, thus establishing Portuguese supremacy over Indian Ocean.

Alfonzo-De-Albuquerque (1509-15) He was the greatest Portuguese Viceroy in India

and is also called as the real founder of Portuguese power in India. He set up his
headquarter at Cochin.

In 1509, Albuquerque conquered Diu and in 1510 he conquered Goa from the Sultan of
Bijapur, Yusuf Adil Shah. With the victory of Goa, regional kingdom of the
Portuguese in India was established and Goa became 'the first bit of Indian
territory to be under the Europeans since the time of Alexander the Great'. Under
Albuquerque, the Portuguese established their domination over the entire Asian
coast from Hormuz in Persian Gulf to Malacca in Malaya and the Spice Islands in
Indonesia. They shied away neither from waging wars nor from piracy and plunder for
expanding their influence. In Bengal, Hooghly and Balasore became the Portuguese
trading centres.

Rise of British Supremacy: A Backgrounder 1.57

Albuquerque thus made the Portuguese strong in India. He was an efficient

administrator and integrated the locals into the administration. He wanted to
establish permanent Portuguese settlements in India and with this aim in mind he
encouraged his countrymen to marry Indian women and propagate Christianity. He also
abolished sati in regions under his control.

Nino de Cunha (1529-38) He was the next major Portuguese Governor after
Albuquerque. In 1530, he transferred the government head office from Cochin to Goa,
thus making Goa the official capital of the Portuguese in India.

In this way, the Portuguese succeeded in establishing their foothold in India. One
of the main reasons for the success of Portuguese on the sea was the inability of
Mughals to develop a strong navy. Southern India was also outside the direct
territorial influence of the Mughals, thus allowing the Portuguese to establish
control.

Cartaze System This was a method used by Portuguese to extract money from Indian
ships. Under this system, captains of all Indian ships sailing to a destination not
reserved by the Portuguese were obliged to buy passes or license from the Viceroy
of Goa. In the absence of a pass, their ships could be seized by the Portuguese.
Decline of the Portuguese Several factors contributed to the decline of the
Portuguese. The Viceroys who came after Albuquerque were weak and inefficient. Also
in 1661, Portugal was at war with Spain and needed support from England. This led
to the marriage of Princess Catherine of Portugal to Charles II of England and as
dowry the insular and less inhabited areas of southern Bombay were handed over to
the English (the Portuguese managed to retain all the mainland territory north of
Bandra up to Thane and Bassein). This marked the beginning of the strong English
presence in India.

Reasons for Decline of the Portuguese

1. After Albuquerque, the Portuguese administration in India became inefficient

because his successors were weak & inefficient.

2. The Portuguese society was dominated by the aristocracy and merchants did not
enjoy the social influence necessary to mould state policy according to their
interests, making it difficult for Portugal to maintain its maritime empire.

3. The Portuguese officials were neglected by the home government. Their salaries
were low which encouraged them to indulge in corruption and malpractice.

4. The Portuguese proved to be intolerant and fanatic in matters of religion. They

resorted to forcible conversions to the Christian faith which made the natives
hostile.

5. The Portuguese drew a very thin line between trade and piracy, which also
aroused the hostility of the

natives.

6. In 1580 Portugal was merged with Spain which dragged Portugal into Spain's wars
with England and Holland, badly neglecting the Portuguese interest in India.

Brazil which diverted their imperial interests away from India. 8. Lastly and most
importantly, the Portuguese power declined in the face of stiff competition from
other European powers who came behind them. The Dutch gained control over Indonesia
and the British over India, Sri Lanka and Malaya.

7. Portuguese discovered

Modern Indian History

By mid-17th century, the Portuguese finally left India. But three of their
settlements, namely Goa, Diu and Daman remained in their hands till 1961. In this
way, Portuguese were not only the first to come to India but also the last ones to
leave India.

Impact of Portuguese Portuguese control of the Indian Ocean had significant socio-
political, religious and economic consequences:

1. The Portuguese began to propagate Christianity in the Malabar and the Konkan
coast. Missionaries like St. Francis Xavier, Father Rudolf and Father Monserette
played a leading role in propagating the Christian faith. In 1540, all temples of
Goa were destroyed.

2. The missionaries started schools and colleges along the west coast, where
education was imparted in the native language.
3. The missionaries undertook research on Indian history and culture. Fa Heras has
made a deep study on the Indus Valley Civilisation.

4. The Portuguese brought the printing press to India. The Bible came to be printed
in the Kannada and Malayalam language.

5. The Portuguese introduced into India several types of crops, fruits & vegetables
which they had obtained from different countries. These included-potato, sweet
potato, tobacco, corn, lady's finger, chilly, pineapple, papaya, sapota, leechi,
orange, black pepper, groundnuts, cashew, almonds, etc. 6. Portuguese influence
also established the significance of navy in sea trade.

Prelim Capsule

The Portuguese

Year 1487 1498 Personality Prince Henry the Navigator Important Events A key figure
in the early days of the Portuguese Empire and in the 15th-century European
maritime discoveries and expansion. Is remembered more as a great patron and
sponsor of voyages than as a sailor. Nicknamed 'Navigator'. Bartholomew Reached the
southernmost tip of Africa (which he named Cape of Storms) and became the first
known European to reach the Indian Ocean from the Atlantic. Diaz The Portuguese
later renamed the cape as 'Cape of Good Hope'. Vasco da Gama Headed the First
Portuguese India Armada. Sailed from the Cape of Good Hope and continued to India,
reaching Calicut (Kozhikode). Discovered a new sea route from Europe to India and
became the first European to reach India by sea. Was piloted by a Gujarati named
Abdul Majid. Led two Portuguese India Armadas, the first and the fourth. Was sent
under the patronage of King Manuel I of Portugal. Returned with a cargo which sold
for 60 times the cost of his voyage.

1.58

Rise of British Supremacy: A Backgrounder 1.59

1502 Vasco da Gama In 1503, 1" Portuguese factory was set up at Cochin (Kochi). In
1505, 2nd factory was set up at Cannanore (or Kannur). 1505-1509 Francisco De
Almeida (1st Portuguese Viceroy) 1509-1515 Alfonzo-De- Albuquerque The 1"
Portuguese Viceroy of India. Adopted the 'Blue Water Policy' aimed at establishing
naval supremacy of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean. Credited with the
construction of Fort Anjediva. In 1508, Almeida defeated the joint Muslim naval
force (Gujarat Sultanate and Mameluk Egyptian fleet) in the Battle of Diu. Known as
the real founder of Portuguese power in India. He set up his headquarter at Cochin.
In 1509 he conquered Diu. In 1510 he conquered Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur.
Encouraged his countrymen to marry Indian women and propagate Christianity.
Abolished sati in regions under his control. 1529-1538 Nino de Cunha In 1530 he
transferred the government head office from Cochin to Goa.

The Dutch (From Netherland/Holland)

As Portuguese power wavered in the aftermath of the Spanish union, the Dutch took
over from them. The Dutch came to India for trade. They were innovative people in
business as well as in shipping techniques. They had designed the fluitship (the
Fluyt) which was much lighter and required a smaller crew, thus reducing its
operating costs. These ships eventually proved to be superior to the bulkier and
slower Portuguese ships.

Cornelius de Houtman (1596) In 1596, Cornelius de Houtman was the first Dutch
traveler to reach
Dutch East India Company (1602) In 1602, the Dutch East India Company was formed
and the Dutch Parliament gave it a charter empowering it to make war and peace with
other states, acquire territories and build fortresses. But the main interest of
the Dutch was in the Indonesian archipelago and the Spice Islands and not India.
They soon pushed out the Portuguese from the Malay Straits and the Indonesian Spice
Islands of Java and Sumatra and even defeated English attempts there. However, they
discovered that Indian trade was necessary to carry out trade with South-West Asia,
as there was a good demand of Indian cloth there. In return, Indians demanded
pepper and spices. Hence, the credit of first making 'Indian cloth' as an item of
export goes to the Dutch.

Dutch Factories

In 1605, the first Dutch factory was established at Masulipatnam in Andhra. The
second factory was set up in 1606 at Petapuli (Nizampatnam).

India.

1.60 Modern Indian History

In 1610, the Dutch signed a treaty with the king of Chandragiri and established
their headquarters at Pulicat. Here they minted their gold coins called pagodas.

They soon established trading depots at Surat, Broach, Cambay and Ahmedabad in
Gujarat, Cochin in Kerala, Nagapatam (or Nagapattinam) in Madras, Masulipatnam in
Andhra, Chinsura (Gustavus fort) and Peepli in Bengal, Mahe on the Malabar Coast,
Agra in present-day Uttar Pradesh and Patna in Bihar.

Dutch factories were also established at Kasimbazaar, Karaikal, Balasore,

Baranagore and Golconda.

⚫In 1690, the Dutch headquarters were transferred from Pulicat to Nagapattinam.

The head of Dutch factories were called factors who were classified as traders and
the Dutch Model of Trade was based on Cartel or Cooperative System. The Dutch
struck many decisive blows to the Portuguese at Goa, Malabar, Ceylon, Malacca,
Colombo and Cochin and virtually replaced the Portuguese. But meanwhile, an
important rival, the English had emerged.

Anglo-Dutch Rivalry In 1623, Amboyna massacre took place in Indonesia where the
Dutch killed 10 Englishmen and 9 Japanese. After this massacre, the Dutch began to
restrict themselves to Malay Archipelago and the English to India. In 1759, the
Dutch were defeated by the English in the decisive Battle of Bedara (Bengal),
ending the Dutch power in India (the English, however, had to bitterly contest
another European rival, the French, before emerging fully victorious by the end of
the

18th century).

The English

English East India Company (1600) England too had become impatient to participate
in the profitable Asian trade. In 1599, a company to trade with the East was formed
under the auspices of a group of merchants known as the Merchant Adventurers. The
Company popularly came to be known as the East India Company (or EIC, nickname-
John Company).

Flag of English East India Company In 1600, The East India Company was granted a
royal charter by Queen Elizabeth giving it the exclusive privilege of trading east
of the Cape of Good Hope for a period of 15 years. As compared to the Dutch
Company, it was a much smaller concern. Its chief asset was its simple
organisation-a court of 24 directors elected annually by general court of
shareholders. In the beginning, the English Company concentrated on spice trade.
initial voyages of the Company were made to the Spice Islands in Indonesia. Soon
the English discovered the importance of Indian goods especially textiles as a
barter commodity for spice trade. Thus, in Surat in Gujarat was established as the
trade transit point and the company ships were docked there. Company now planned to
open a factory at Surat in Gujarat and Captain Hawkins was sent to negotiate
consent with the Mughal Emperor.

Captain Hawkins (1608) In 1608, Captain William Hawkins was sent as a

representative of the English Company to the Court of Jahangir to obtain permission
to open a factory at Surat.

the The 1608, The

Rise of British Supremacy: A Backgrounder 1.61

Hawkins was the first Englishman to set foot on Indian soil (Surat, 24 August
1608). He could speak Turkish language and he came in a ship named 'Hector'. He
arrived at Surat and from there he went to the court of Jahangir at Agra in 1609.
The English Company was given permission by a royal farman to open factories on the
west coast. But the English were not satisfied with this concession as they wanted
permission for the whole of the country. Moreover, Hawkins had to leave Agra owing
to Portuguese intrigue and the English realised that they would first have to deal
with the Portuguese before gaining favours from the Mughals.

English Factories A factory was merely a trading post within which were located the
warehouses, offices and houses of the company's employees. It is noteworthy that no
manufacturing activity was carried out in this factory.

Early Factories

In 1611, the English opened their first factory in the south at Masulipatnam
(Machilipatnam). In 1611 itself, the English defeated the Portuguese in the Battle
of Swally Hole near Surat. This convinced Jahangir and, the English were allowed to
set up a permanent factory at Surat in 1613. In 1615, taking the policy of
expansion further, Sir Thomas Roe was sent by King James I as an ambassador to the
court of Jahangir. Roe was successful in obtaining royal farman permitting the
British to trade and establish factories in all parts of the Mughal Empire.

Soon the English began to feel insecure in the absence of fortified settlements and
made an attempt to fortify Surat (in 1625) but the Mughals frustrated the attempt
and imprisoned the English. The English then decided to shift their focus to South
India to avoid direct confrontation with the Mughals. Conditions in South India
were more favourable to the English as they did not have to face a strong Indian
government there. The great Vijayanagara kingdom had been overthrown in 1565 and
its place taken up by relatively smaller and weaker states.

Madras

In 1632, Sultan of Golconda issued a Golden Farman in favour of the English,

permitting them to trade freely from the ports of Golconda on annual payment of 500
pagodas.

In 1639, Francis Day was able to obtain Madras on lease from the Raja of
Chandragiri and shifted the centre of English activity to Madras. The Raja allowed
the English to fortify Madras, to administer it and to coin the money on the
condition that they will pay him half the customs revenue of the port. Thus the
English set up a factory and built a small fort around it called Fort St. George.

Fort St. George (Madras)

In 1690, the British bought the Fort Devanampatnam, near Madras, and renamed it as
Fort St David.

Bengal

In 1651, at Hugli, the first English factory in Bengal was set up upon receiving
permission from Sultan Shuja (second son of Emperor Shah Jahan), the Subahdar of
Bengal. In 1658, all

1.62 Modern Indian History

establishments of the Company in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Coromandel Coast were
brought under the control of Fort St. George.

In 1690 Job Charnock established a factory at Sutanuti which was fortified in 1696
and called Fort

William.

In 1698 the English Company obtained from Subahdar of Bengal Azim-us-Shan, the
zamindari (i.e. right to collect revenue) of the villages of Sutanuti, Kalikata and
Gobindapur on payment of ₹1,200 to the previous proprietors. In 1700, the Bengal
factories were placed under Fort William. Soon the villages grew into a city known
as Calcutta.

Bombay

In 1662, King Charles-II of England received Bombay as dowry on marrying a

Portuguese princess. In 1668, the Crown transferred it to the Company on an annual
rent of ten ponds and it was soon fortified in the wake of threats from the rising
Maratha power. Bombay quickly replaced Surat as the principal depot of the Company
on the West coast.

English and the Mughals

Internal Developments of the Company Between 1615 and 1686, the company grew from
strength to strength. In 1625, the Governors and Directors of the company were
given judicial powers. In 1661, the company was empowered to send ships of war with
men and ammunition for the safety of its possessions overseas. In 1683, it got full
powers to declare war and make peace, to raise and maintain an army. As early as
the 1680s, the Company had plans to secure English dominion in India and was
determined to make Indians pay for the conquest of their own country. On several
occasions, the Court of Directors wrote to the Company authorities advising them to
adopt such a civil and military policy that would secure a large revenue and enable
the English to maintain their force and make English a nation in India.

Aurangzeb In 1680, Aurangzeb had issued a farman that the Company's trade was to be
customs- free everywhere except Surat. In 1688, hostilities between the English and
the Mughal authorities first broke out when the English captured Hugli and declared
war on Emperor Aurangzeb. The English had seriously misjudged the situation and
underestimated Mughal strength; they were soon defeated and driven out of the
factories in Bengal. Realising that they were not yet strong enough to fight the
Mughal power, they once again decided to rely on humble entreaties and flattery and
get concessions from the Mughal emperor. Aurangzeb too readily pardoned the English
for their mistake as he saw that foreign trade benefitted Indian artisans and
merchants and enriched the state treasury. He therefore permitted them to resume
trade on payment of 1.5 lakh as compensation. The farman of 1691 granted by
Aurangzeb exempted the English Company from payment of customs duties in Bengal in
return for an annual payment.

Farrukhsiyar In 1717, The East India Company succeeded in securing valuable

privileges under a royal farman, Farman of 1717, by the Mughal Emperor
Farrukhsiyar. Described as the Magna Carta of the Company, the farman was
instrumental in increasing the Company's stronghold in Bengal. The Company later
colonised Bengal followed by the rest of India.

Provisions of the Farman The farman confirmed the privileges granted in 1691 and
extended them to Gujarat. It contained following provisions:

Rise of British Supremacy: A Backgrounder 1.63

The British were allowed duty-free trade in Bengal in lieu of an annual payment of
*30,000. • Exemption from payment of all dues at Surat in lieu of one-time
settlement of 10,000. The Company retained its old privilege of exemption from
payment of all dues at Hyderabad and for Madras was required to pay only the
existing rent.

The Company was allowed to rent more territory around Calcutta.

The Company was allowed to use their own currency (minted at Bombay) throughout
India. The Company was also granted the right to issue passes or dastaks (a permit
exempting payment of transit duties) for the movement of such goods.

The Company's servants were also permitted to trade but were not covered under this
farman and were required to pay the same taxes as Indian merchants. (However, the
dastaks were later misused by the Company's servants to carry out private trade.
The Company's' servants were paid low salaries and their real income came from the
permission the Company granted them to carry on private trade within the country,
even as trade between India and Europe was reserved for the Company).

Farman as Source of Conflict The provisions of the farman became a source of

perpetual conflict between the Company and the Nawabs of Bengal. The strong Nawabs
of Bengal such as Murshid Quli Khan and Alivardi Khan objected to the English
interpretation of the farman of 1717. They exercised strict control over the
English traders and prevented them from misusing the dastaks.

Despite strong political control by native rulers, commercial affairs of the

company flourished. Madras, Bombay and Calcutta became the nuclei of such
activities. Large number of Indian merchants and bankers were attracted to these
cities. As far as the company's servants were concerned, they were keen to take up
service in India despite low salaries. This was because they were permitted to
carry on private trade in India on payment of same taxes as Indian merchants.

Prelim Capsule

The English

Year 1600 1608 Personality The English Company Captain Hawkins Important Events The
Company was granted a royal charter by Queen Elizabeth giving it the exclusive
privilege of trading east of the Cape of Good Hope for a period of 15 years. He was
sent as a representative of the English Company to the Court of Jahangir to obtain
permission to open a factory at Surat. He was the first Englishman to set foot on
Indian soil. He could speak Turkish language and he came in a ship named 'Hector'.
He arrived at Surat and from there he went to the court of Jahangir at Agra in
1609. He obtained permission to open factories on the west coast but the Company
was not satisfied as it wanted permission for the whole of the country.

1.64 Modern Indian History

1611 1613 1615 Sir Thomas Roe 1632 (Madras) 1639 Francis Day 1651 (Bengal) 1658
1690 1696 1698 Job Charnock - 1700 - 1662 (Bombay) 1717 The English opened their 1"
factory in the south at Masulipatnam. The English defeated the Portuguese in the
Battle of Swally Hole near Surat. The English were allowed to set up a permanent
factory at Surat. He was sent by King James I as an ambassador to the court of
Jahangir. Roe was successful in obtaining royal farman permitting the British to
trade and establish factories in all parts of the Mughal Empire. Sultan of Golconda
issued a Golden Farman in favour of the English, permitting them to trade freely
from the ports of Golconda on annual payment of 500 pagodas. He was able to obtain
Madras on lease from the Raja of Chandragiri. The English set up a factory and
built a small fort around it called Fort St. George. First English factory in
Bengal was set up at Hugli upon receiving permission from Sultan Shuja, the
Subahdar of Bengal. All establishments of the English Company in Bengal, Bihar,
Orissa and Coromandel Coast were brought under the control of Fort St. George. He
established a factory at Sutanuti which was fortified in 1696 and called Fort
William. Sutanuti factory was fortified and called Fort William. The English
Company obtained from Subahdar of Bengal Azim-us-Shan, the zamindari of the
villages of Sutanuti, Kalikata and Gobindapur. The Bengal factories were placed
under Fort William. Soon the villages grew into a city known as Calcutta. King
Charles-II received Bombay as dowry on marrying a Portuguese princess. In 1668 the
King transferred Bombay to the Company on an annual rent of ten ponds. Farrukhsiyar
granted the English Company valuable trading privileges under the Farman of 1717
described as the Magna Carta of the Company.

The Danes (From Denmark)

The Danes came from Denmark and they were a minor colonial power to set foot in
Indian soil. The Danish East India Company was established in 1616 and they set up
trading outposts in 1620 at Tranquebar near Tanjore (Tamil Nadu). In 1755, they
founded a colony called Fredericknagore near Serampore in Bengal. Occupied twice by
the English, the Danish colony failed as a commercial venture. In 1777, the Danish
company went bankrupt and Serampore was transferred to the Danish Crown.

Rise of British Supremacy: A Backgrounder 1.65

However, Serampore became a safe haven for missionaries in India and earned immense
fame for the cultural and educational activities of the missionaries. In 1845,
Denmark ceded Serampore to Britain, thus ending nearly 150 years of Danish presence
in Bengal.

The French

The French were the last of the European colonial powers to set foot in India. They
were also keen on profiting from the Asian trade.

The French Trading Company (1664) In 1664, Colbert formed the Companie des Indes
Orientales. The French trading company (under the governorship of Colbert) was
granted a license by King Louis IV to trade with India and the East Indies.

French Factories

In 1667, the first French factory was set up at Surat with Francis Caron as its
Director General. In 1669, a factory was set up at Masulipatnam.
In 1672, Caron was replaced by Francois Martin who, in 1673, received a village as
grant from the King of Bijapur Sher Khan Lodhi and founded it as Pondicherry.
Pondicherry later emerged as the French capital in India, and Martin came to be
known as the Father of Puducherry.

In 1674, the French also received a site near Calcutta from the ruler of Bengal
where they built the town of Chandernagore (1690-92).

In 1693, the Dutch snatched Pondicherry but it was restored to the French under the
Treaty of Reswick (1697). In this way, the French East India Company established
its firm base in Chandernagore and Pondicherry.

The French also acquired control over Islands of Mauritius and Reunion in the
Indian Ocean. Between 1697 and 1739, the French further consolidated their position
by adding several bases including Mahe, Karaikal, Balasore and Kasimbazar.

The real trouble started when the French won control of Tanjore which the British
considered vital for their trade security. (Read about the Anglo-French rivalry in
the upcoming chapter).

PATTERN OF EUROPEAN TRADE

In the 16th century, when European powers first started trading with India, they
had few goods to offer

(only wine and oil) in return for Indian commodities. For nearly three centuries,
they struggled with the problem of financing an adverse balance of trade with Asia.
In the beginning, they used gold and silver to pay for their imports from the East.
However, the European companies were severely criticised for doing so as flow of
bullion out of the country was considered bad under mercantilist beliefs. It was
only in the 18th century that a final solution came when the English began
receiving Bengal revenues and revenues from export of opium to China.

As far as items of trade were concerned, Indian spices were the most sought after
commodity in Europe, especially pepper. Towards the end of the 17th century, cotton
textiles, silk, indigo and saltpeter gradually rose in importance in place of
spices. The increase of imports of Indian textiles alarmed indigenous Englishmen
who began pressurising the government to prohibit such imports. This led to

Modern Indian History

the passing of protectionist regulations in England from 1700 onwards. (Note-

Saltpeter, KNO3 or Shora was an important ingredient in the manufacture of
gunpowder. Being a heavy material, it was also used to stabilise the ships. Patna
emerged as a major centre of saltpeter).

The change in European economy due to growth of industrial capitalism also affected
its politico- economic relations with India. The industrial capitalists soon began
resenting East India Company's monopoly over Indian trade. Ranging from Adam Smith
(Wealth of Nations 1776) to various business lobbies, all attacked the Company's
monopoly rights ultimately leading to the abolition of monopoly of the East India
Company in Indian trade in 1813 and in China trade in 1833. Sometimes it was the
English trade that followed their flag, sometimes the other way round, but together
they ensured the rise of the British Empire in India.

To sum up, in this chapter, you read about the transformation which occurred in
Europe since the 15th century. The growth in trade and commerce was accompanied by
the European nations' search for potential colonies in Asia, Africa and America.
Different trading companies were formed to carry out external trade. Various
European East India Companies arrived in India as well. However, owing to clash of
interests, many sided struggles started among the Portuguese, the Dutch, the
English, the Danes and the French. Subsequently, English and the French East India
Companies emerged as the main contenders in India. Read about this Anglo-French
rivalry and the final victory of the English East India Company in the next
chapter.

Previous Years' Questions - Preliminary Exam

1. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly 4. Which of the following is
the correct statement?

[UPSC 1999]

matched?

(a) Jahangir: William Hawkins

(b) Akbar: Sir Thomas Roe

(c) Shahjahan: Travernier

(d) Aurangzeb: Manucci

2. In India, among the following locations, the Dutch established their earliest
Factory at [UPSC 2003] (a) Surat (b) Pulicat

(c) Cochin

(d) Kasimbazar

3. With reference to the entry of European powers into India, which one of the
following statements is not correct? [UPSC 2003]

(a) The Portuguese captured Goa in 1499.

(b) The English opened their first factory in South India at Masulipatnam.

(c) In Eastern India, the English company opened its first factory in Odisha in
1633.

(d) Under the leadership of Dupleix, the French occupied Madras in 1746.

(a) The modern Kochi was a Dutch Colony till India's Independence.

[UPSC 2005]

(b) The Dutch defeated the Portuguese and built Fort Williams in the modern Kochi.

(c) The modern Kochi was first a Dutch Colony before the Portuguese took over from
them.

(d) The modern Kochi never became a part of the British Colony.

5. In the year 1613, where was the English East India Company given permission to
set up a factory (trading post)? [UPSC 2006] (b) Madras
(a) Bangalore

(c) Masulipatnam

(d) Surat

6. Which one of the following was the first Fort constructed by the British in
India? [UPSC 2007] (a) Fort William (b) Fort St. George

(c) Fort St. David

(d) Fort St. Angelo

1.66

Rise of British Supremacy: A Backgrounder 1.67

7. Who among the following Europeans were the last to come to pre-independence
India as traders?

(a) Dutch [UPSC 2007] (b) English

(c) French

(d) Portuguese

8. With whose permission did the English set up their

first factory in Surat?

(a) Akbar

[UPSC 2009]

(b) Jahangir

(c) Shahjahan

(d) Aurangzeb

Answers

Previous Years' Questions - Preliminary Exam

1. (b)

2. The second European power to occupy Pondicherry were the French.

3. The English never occupied Pondicherry Which of the statements given above
is/are correct? (a) 1 only (c) 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

3. (a)

2.

(b)

6. (b)
(c)

9. With reference to Pondicherry (now Puducherry), consider the following

statements: [UPSC 2010]

1. The first European power to occupy Pondicherry were the Portuguese.

8. (b)

(b)

4.

9.

5. (d)

(a)

7.