Elaboration of Curriculum Framework on Mathematics

Elaboration of Curriculum Framework on

Mathematics

(Pre-Primary to Grade 12)

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

Ministry of Education
January, 2020

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 Elaboration of Curriculum Framework on Mathematics

Elaboration of Curriculum Framework on Mathematics

Developers

Asnakew Tagle Gared ………………………………………Bahirdar University, Assistent professer

Tilahun Alemu Gutema …………Oromia Education Bureau, Mathematics Curriculum Expert expert

Yeshimebet Jira Ateya ………………………………………... Oromia Region, Mathematics Teacher

Mustafa Kedir Edao ………………………..Addis Ababa City Administration, Mathematics Teacher

Mitsiwat Mesfin Hagzom ……………………………………….Tigray Region, Mathematics Teacher

Yeshitila Fantaye Merin ………………………………..…….. Amhara Region, Mathematics Teacher

Amsalu W/Gebriel W/Micheal ………………………………..………. HawassaUniversity, Instructor

Bayush Birlie Birhanu ………………… Amhara Education Buearu, Mathematics Curriculum Expert

Bimerew Kerie Tesfaw ………………………………….…………. MoE, MSIC, Mathematics Trainer

Firehiywot Desalegn W/Tsadik ……………………………………………… DirDewa CTE, Lecturer

Gojam Nhial Keat ………………………………..………….. Gambela Region, Mathematics Teacher

Getahun HaileMicheal Demisse …………………………………….………. MoE, Curriculum expert

Matebie Alemayehu Wasihun ………………………….……. MoE, Mathematics Curriculum expert

Takeshi Miyazaki …………………………………………..……… MoE, MSICE, Education Advisor

Nahoko Chiku ...................................................................... JICA MUST Project, Deputy Team Leader

Takele Alemu Takelemariam ………………………………JICA MUST Project, Research Assistant

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 Elaboration of Curriculum Framework on Mathematics

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

Ministry of Education
January, 2020

Acknowledgement

The Ministry of Education would like to express gratitude and thanks to those who
were participated in the development process of Mathematics position paper for their
unreserved commitment and hard work. Without them, it would not have been
possible, if not impossible; to produce this position paper. We would also extend our
thanks to those who have read and came up with valuable comments and suggestions
to enrich the paper.

C Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

Ministry of Education

First Print: Jan, 2020

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

Ministry of Education

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 Elaboration of Curriculum Framework on Mathematics

ISBN:

Executive Summary

Mathematics is the branch of human enquiry involving the study of numbers, quantities, data,
shape and space and their relationships, especially their generalizations and abstractions and
their application to situations in the real world.

For general education Mathematics can be broadly grouped into Arithmetic, Algebra,
Geometry, Probability and Statistics, Logic, Trigonometry and Calculus.

The major reasons for teaching Mathematics are its importance in everyday life and society;
importance in relation to the learner’s intellectual development and importance in other
curriculum areas.

The result of the National Learning Assessment (NLA) achievement in Mathematics is below
the expected 50% national standard. Even though there are many strengths in Mathematics
curriculum the major drawback are content overload especially in Grade 11 and 12, lack of
adequate explanations on the conceptual meaning and lack of indigenous knowledge’s.

Mathematics education follows the Fallibilist Philosophy. According to Popper in Ernest

(1991), the Fallibilist believe that mathematical knowledge or objects of mathematics are
results of human activity (social and cultural results). Popper continued that Fallibilist is the
only philosophy of mathematics that believes history is germane to mathematics education
and to mathematics itself. Moreover, for the fallibilist philosophy of mathematics the focus
of teaching is not the content. It is the process aspect that is more important. But this does not
mean that the content has no place, but it must be combined with the method.

Mathematics curriculum follows as eclectic approach of behaviorism, cognitivism and Constructivism

Learning theories.

Teachers should also be adopted Proper teaching method according to the situation, learning
environment and educational background of the students. Some of the major methods of

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teaching for Mathematics are Lecture Method, Inductive Method, Deductive Method,
Heuristic Method, Analytic Method, Synthetic Method, Problem Solving Method,
Laboratory Method and Project Method.
The overall goal of Mathematics Education is to develop students’ ability to conceptualize
inquire, reason, communicate, formulate and solve problems mathematically; and their capability of
appreciating the aesthetic nature and cultural aspects of mathematics.

The general Objectives of Mathematics education are Acquire knowledge of facts, concepts,
theories, laws, principles, proofs of Mathematics; Develop the ability to communicate
mathematical ideas with precision and accuracy; Develop inertest and positive attitude
towards Mathematics; Apply mathematical knowledge to solve real life problems; Develop
the skill to use algorithms in problems solving; Appreciate the contributions of
mathematicians; Develop mastery of algebraic skills, drawing skills, deducing
interpretations, finding patterns, making connections, analyze, organize data, reasoning,
critical thinking, etc.

Core Competencies identified as essential for student learning for the 21st century in the
Mathematics curriculum are Learning to Learn, Critical Thinking, Problem Solving, Creative
Thinking and Innovation, Communication and Collaboration.

Thematic areas for Mathematics education are categorized under Number, Algebra,
Geometry, Measurement, Statistics and Probability, Logic, Trigonometry and Calculus.
Thematic areas for Pre-Primary Mathematics education are Number, Geometry, Measurement, Time
and space. From this broad category, thematic area for Primary Mathematics includes
Numbers and Operations, Relations and Functions, Geometry, Measurement and Data
Handling; thematic area for Middle level Mathematics includes Numbers and Expressions,
Relations and Functions, Geometry and Data Handling; thematic area for Secondary
Mathematics includes Number System, Algebra, Geometry, and Measurement, Statistics and
Probability, Logic and Calculus.

Curriculum materials are educational resources helpful to organize and implement curricular
and instructional experiences for learners from pre-primary to secondary levels. Syllabuses,
Textbooks, and Teachers Guides are the major curriculum materials that are essential for the
implementation of the general education Mathematics curriculum of Ethiopia.

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In addition to syllabus, textbooks and teacher guides, implementing the curriculum properly
and effectively requires using a wide variety of support materials such as Workbooks and
Worksheets, Supplementary Materials and Instructional Materials. These materials which are
referred to as curriculum support materials are all those materials or resources developed by
the Ministry of Education, teachers or purchased from other providers. The major purpose of
these materials is supplementing, complementing and enriching syllabus, textbooks and
teacher guides.

In formulating appropriate modes of assessment for Mathematics, the formative “Assessment

for Learning” and “Assessment as Learning” can be used to collect evidence of the process
of student learning, provide feedback to enhance learning and establish students’ roles and
responsibilities in their learning. “Assessment of Learning”, being summative, is usually
conducted at the end of a teaching module, a school term or a school year, to summarize
students’ learning performance. No matter what kind of assessment is undertaken, students
should be encouraged to make use of assessment feedback for self-reflection and teachers
could carefully analyze the results of formative and summative assessment to revise class
instructions.

Some common assessment activities in mathematics includes Questioning and Answering,

Class work and homework, Project work, Exploratory Task and Performance Task, Tests and
examinations, Exploratory Task and Performance Task and Tests and examinations.

Based on the goal and objectives of each level of Mathematics curriculum there should be
proper time allotment. The contents of pre-primary curriculum will be organized in thematic
approach. There will no teaching and learning in standalone learning area as primary, Middle
Level and Secondary school Mathematics. Pre-Primary Mathematics for KG 1 will have 2
Hr and 5 Min per week (25 Min per day) and KG 2 will have 2 Hr and 30 Min per week (30
Min per day). For Primary and Middle level five periods per week and 40 Min for one period
and for secondary five periods per week and 45 Min for one period are allocated.

For the effective implementation of Mathematics curriculum, the following should be

considered.

• One to one distribution of Student textbook and teachers guide

• The presence of qualified teachers
• Availability of Mathematics instructional materials

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• Introduce the revised curriculum for all teachers

• Parents/Guardians follow up to their children to study and exercise Mathematics daily

Contents

[Link] Contents Page

Executive summery
Contents
Acronyms
1 Introduction
2 Definition of Mathematics Education
3 Rational
4 Situational Analysis
5 Road Map Findings
6 Learner Profile
7 Philosophy, Learning Theory and Method of Teaching
8 Values and Principles
9 Goals and Objectives
10 Core Competencies
11 Thematic Areas
12 Integration of Indigenous Knowledge
13 Cross-cutting and National Pressing Issues
14 Curriculum Materials and Curriculum Support Materials
15 Suggested Time Allocation
16 Modality
17 Assessment
18 Recommendations
References
Attachment
Attachment 1: Pre-primary position Paper Developers
Address

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Acronyms

MoE Ministry of Education

MUST Mathematical Understanding for Science and Technology

JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency

MSEIC Mathematics and Science Education Improvement Center

NEAEA National Education Assessment and Examinations Agency

NLA National Learning Assessments

ICT Information and Communication Technology

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1. Introduction

The Ethiopian government is aggressively working to transform the education system in

order to achieve quality education. With this understanding, different studies such as
roadmap study, formative and summative evaluation, among others, have been conducted.
These studies came up with several practical recommendations. One, among others, is the
need to reform the existing General Education Curriculum. Based on these
recommendations Ministry of Education with regional education bureau and other
stockholders has prepared the Ethiopia general curriculum Framework. Based on the
Ethiopia general curriculum Framework (Pre-Primary to Grade 12) elaboration of
Mathematics Curriculum framework (Pre-Primary to Grade 12) has been developed. The
intension of this document is to elaborate the concepts stipulated under the general
curriculum frame work.

Elaboration of Mathematics curriculum framework comprises definition of Mathematics

Education, Rational , Situational Analysis, Road Map Findings, Learner Profile, Philosophy,
Learning Theory and Method of Teaching, Values and Principles, Goals and Objectives,
Core Competencies, Thematic Areas, Integration of Indigenous Knowledge, Special need,
Cross-cutting and National Pressing Issues, Curriculum Materials and Curriculum Support
Materials, Assessment, Suggested Time Allocation and Recommendations for effective
implementation.

Curriculum developers should use this document in the preparation of other curriculum
materials such as syllabus, student textbook and teacher guide.

2. Definition of Mathematics Education

There is no consensus on the definition of mathematics prevails, even among professionals.

• In mathematics dictionary by James & James it has been defined as the science of
logical study of numbers, shape, arrangement, quantity, measure and many related
concepts.

• Wikipedia, „Mathematics is the study of quantity, structure, space.

• Aristotle has defined mathematics as „The science of quantity?‟.

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• Benjamin Pierce defined it as „Mathematics is the science that draws necessary

conclusions‟.

• Haskell Curry defined mathematics simply as “the science of formal systems”.

• Albert Einstein stated that “as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they
are not certain; and as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality”.

• More recently, Marcus du Sautoy has called mathematics “the Queen of Science
…… the main driving force behind scientific discovery”.

Thus, although all most all great mathematicians stated something for it, no generally
accepted definition could be produced.

For our context, Mathematics can be defined as:

• Mathematics is the branch of human enquiry involving the study of numbers,

quantities, data, shape and space and their relationships, especially their
generalizations and abstractions and their application to situations in the real
world.

• The word “Mathematics” can be shortened to “Maths”

Branches of Mathematics

Mathematics can be broadly grouped into the following branches:

• Arithmetic:

It is the oldest and the most elementary among other branches of mathematics, used by
almost everyone, for tasks ranging from simple day-to-day counting to advanced science and
business calculations. It involves the study of quantity, especially as the result of combining
numbers. It deals with numbers and the basic operations- addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division, between them.

• Algebra:

It is the branch of Mathematics that involves expressions and equations with variables.

• Geometry:

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It is the most practical branch of mathematics that deals with shapes, sizes, relative position
of figures, and the properties of space. The basic elements of geometry are points, lines,
angles, surfaces, and solids.

• Probability and Statistics

Statistics: is the discipline that deals the systematic method of collection, organization,
analysis, interpretation and presentation of data.

Probability: It is the branch of Mathematics concerning numerical descriptions of how likely

an event is to occur or how likely it is that a proposition is true.

• Logic

It is the use and study of valid reasoning

• Trigonometry

It is the study of relationships between angles and sides of triangles.

• Calculus

It is one of the branches of mathematics which deals with the study of continuous change.
The calculus mainly deals with the concepts of limits, derivatives, and integrals of various
functions.

3. Rational

Major Reasons for teaching Mathematics are its:

• Importance in everyday life and society

Mathematics is useful for everyone in meeting the demands of everyday living. It introduces
to children the concepts, skills and thinking strategies that are useful in everyday life. Many
everyday transactions and real-life problems, and most forms of employment, require
confidence and competence in a range of basic mathematical skills and knowledge – such as
measurement, manipulating shapes, organizing space, handling money, recording and
interpreting numerical and graphical data.

• Importance in relation to the learner’s intellectual development

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Learning experiences for children in mathematics should include a focus on the child’s
intellectual development, by providing opportunities to foster: (a) problem-solving strategies;
(b) deductive reasoning, which includes reasoning logically and systematically; (c) creative
thinking, which is characterized by divergent and imaginative thinking; (d) inductive
reasoning that leads to the articulation of patterns and generalizations, and (e)
communication of mathematical ideas orally and in writing, using both formal and informal
language, and in diagrams and symbols.

• Importance in other curriculum areas

Learning experiences for children that reflect the application of mathematics to other
curriculum areas could include, for example: (a) collecting, organizing, representing and
interpreting data arising in science experiments or in enquiries related to historical,
geographical and social understanding; (b) drawing up plans and meeting the demands for
accurate measurement in technology and in design; (c) using mathematical concepts to
stimulate and support the exploration of pattern in art, dance and music etc

4. Situational Analysis

Ministry of Education has been conducted assessments and studies including, National
Learning Assessment (NLA) Early Grade Mathematics Assessment (EGMA) by NEAEA in
2014, Grade 1 to 8 student’s assessment by Mathematics Understanding for Science and
Technology (MUST) in 2019 and Curriculum summative evaluation in 2019. From these
studies, the major Strengths and weaknesses of Mathematics curriculum are extracted as
follows:

Strengths

• The Ethiopian Mathematics curriculum for Grades 1 to 10 has a comparable

structure to other international curricula. It includes a good breadth of content
across the different strands of mathematics.
• The amount of content covered in the Mathematics curriculum for Grades 1 to 10
and the allocated number of teaching hours is appropriate.
• In very broad terms, the Mathematics curriculum is designed to progress in
difficulty and there are some examples of good progression.

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• There are good cross-curricular links between Mathematics and other subjects,
both explicit and implicit.
• The curriculum offers opportunities to develop a range of knowledge and skills,
evidenced by the initial words in the MLCs.
• A large number of the MLCs are clear and succinct.
• The curriculum is coherent in its goals to develop the principles, values and key
competencies set out in the Ethiopian General Education curriculum.
• Numerous Indigenous knowledge examples using the context of economy and
daily life in Ethiopia are included in the syllabuses. In the early grades, learners
are introduced to Ethiopian coins and practise buying and selling common objects
in birr.
• The spiral structure across the grades is adopted.
• The quantity of exercise is mostly adequate.
• Many group works and activities are used to solve mathematical problems.
• A lot of figures, tables, graphs, and illustrations are used effectively.

Weaknesses

• The National Learning Assessment (NLA) achievement in Mathematics is below

the expected 50% national standard.
Despite the efforts made in developing and launching successive programs and
projects to improve access, equity, student achievement and quality of education, the
student performance in Mathematics is far from satisfactory. The Ministry of
Education (MOE) through the National Education Assessment and Examinations
Agency (NEAEA) carried out a number of National Learning Assessments (NLA) on
grade four and eight students.

The national average achievements of the two grade levels at consecutive assessments
have been presented by the table below.

Grade 4

Year 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016

Average Score 39.31 39.69 40.3 37.06 51.32

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Grade 8

Year 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016

Average Score 38.2 40.93 34.1 25.53 35.2

Source: National Organization for Examination, General Education Quality

Assurance and Examinations Agency, National Educational Assessment and
Examinations Agency

Since the baseline assessment in 1999/2000, NEAEA has conducted an assessment in

every four years, and throughout the years, the results showed for both grades that the
achievement in Mathematics is below the expected 50% national standard. The
consecutive learning assessments pinpointed the existence of a problem.

As presented in the above table, the achievement in Mathematics is discouraging.

Except the mean score of grade 4 students in the 2016 NLA, all results are far below
the expected 50% average.

Moreover, the qualitative data showed that parents reported that their children are not
making improvements in their learning. Results have shown that students are not
interested and motivated to learning.

NLA has been conducted three times for Grade 10 and 12 students since 2010 and
revealed a very low performance of students over the years (NEAEA, 2017). For
example, the average percent-correct of the latest Mathematics test in 2017 was
33.2% in Grade 10 and 39.7% in Grade 12. Considered that all test items were four-
choice questions, where the random selection of answers would give 25%, the results
show that the vast majority of students had little clue in most questions.

There is a variation across different content domains, but even in the content domain
(Numbers) where students scored the highest, the percent-correct was 40.7%,
indicating most students faced major difficulties.

The result of Grade 12 students is a little better, but this needs to be understood with
caution in the context of the new education system. Under the old system, only a
minority of students, mostly higher performers, were allowed to advance from Grade
10 to Grade 11. In contrast, the new system allows almost all students to advance
from Grade 10 to Grade 11. In other words, the composition of students will

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drastically change under the new system, by including lower performing students. If
the same difficulty level of curriculum is maintained in Grade 11 and 12, the average
student performance is expected to become lower, as the student body diversifies.

In addition, NEAEA (2017) analyzes the trends of the student performance over time,
by using the equating technique based on the item response theory. The results of both
Grade 10 and Grade 12 students on Mathematics show a slight decline (0.13 and 0.03
standard deviations in Grade 10 and 12 respectively) between 2013 and 2017. This
indicates that the low performance of students continues over the years without
upward trends.

In the consecutive studies, teacher participants indicated that they did not cover all the
student textbooks teaching in the allocated periods of the academic years. In the
second assessment, participant teachers teaching up to grade four have indicated that
the curriculum is difficult for themselves, not just for students. The difficulty may be
attributed to teachers’ lack of the necessary qualifications and competence. At any
rate, the researchers in the fourth NLA recommended that in all subjects there is a felt
need to revisit the curriculum materials and the mode of delivery and intervene
immediately.

• There are excess contents on Grade 1. (e.g. Multiplication, division, and

fractions are all introduced in Grade 1.)
• There is a large content gap between Grade 3 and Grade 4. (The improvement
of the upper-grade students stops at the Grade-3 level.)
• Spiral structure not applied within a grade.
• Too fast generalization. lack of adequate explanations on the conceptual
meaning
• Unnecessary or excessive repetitions
• Presence of too difficult or too easy contents across grade level
• In Grades 1 to 10, there are examples where the Mathematics curriculum does
not reach the same depth typically seen in other international curricula.
• At Grades 11 and 12, preparatory classes for higher education, there are more
prominent differences in content between the Ethiopian General Education

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curriculum and other international curricula. The breadth of the content

coverage is too great considering the time allowed.

The curriculum for Grades 11 and 12 includes more content than can be taught in
the time currently allocated.

• There are many examples of where content is introduced in a grade without

sufficient prior learning in earlier grades
• There are missed opportunities to include teaching the skills of estimation and
mental arithmetic strategies.
• There are many MLCs where there are ambiguities in language or the exact
scope is not clear.
• Clarification on the general use of calculators is also needed and should be
encouraged where possible.
• There is also an opportunity to further embed indigenous knowledge in the
Mathematics curriculum, for example, by including the Ethiopic numbering
system.

Opportunities

 Increased government attention to improve Mathematics teaching and learning by

initiating Science Technology Engineering Art and Mathematics (STEAM) and
Mathematics Understanding for Science and Technology (MUST).

Threats

 Negative attitude of the society towards Mathematics. The society perceives

Mathematics as heavy and difficult subject.

 The presence of unqualified teachers to teach Mathematics.

 Unavailability of enough instructional materials to realize the concepts of

Mathematics.

5. Road Map Major Shifts

A national study has been conducted to evaluate the quality, access and equity in general
education, TVET and Higher Education. The findings revealed that there were strengths and

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weaknesses in the system. Following the national study, recommendations were proposed to
improve the access, equity and quality in the whole education system.

Based on the national study, the Ministry of Education has made the following major shifts
on issues related to Mathematics education.

 Preprimary education:- Providing two pre-primary education by opening

preprimary schools in the premises of primary schools with the participation of
government and private sectors.
 Grade one entry age:- The age of children while enrolled in grade one should be 7
year olds or should celebrate their 7th birth day until November 30 of the year of
enrollment.
 Instructional language:- First language should be considered as a medium of
instruction and as a subject matter in the pre-primary education.
 Curriculum:- The curriculum should be changed and integrate technology,
vocational skills and indigenous knowledge (Knowledge, skill and attitude) and
implemented starting from pre-primary level.
 Education System: General education follows 2-6-2-4 education system. This Means
students follow 2 year Pre-Primary (KG 1 and KG 2), 6 Year Primary (Grade 1 – 6),
2 Year Middle Level (Grade 7 and 8) and 4 Year secondary education (Grade 9 – 12).
 Assessment and Examination: Regional Examination will be provides at the end of
Grade 6 and 8. The Grade 8 regional Examination will be based on National table of
specification. National Examination will be provides at the end of grade12.
 Instructional Language: First Language will be instructional language from pre-
primary to grade 8 and English will be used from Grade 9 to 12.
6. Learner Profile
Learner profile refers to the totality of capacities and characteristics a learner is expected to
have developed at the end of a given level of learning. It is related to the kind of personal,
social, and professional attributes a learner is expected to have been equipped with after
completing education and training at a specific level. Moreover, it is drawn from societal,
educational, and personal developmental expectations which need to be met at the end of a
given level of education. In line with this, the profile of learners at the end of each level of
general education in Mathematics is drawn from the general education curriculum
framework and presented below:

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Pre-primary Education Children Profile

The pre-primary level of general education is taken as the most critical period where
foundations are laid for life-long development and full realization of the potentials of the
brain. The level is supposed to provide care, opportunities and experiences that lead to all -
round changes in children including physical, mental, social, emotional, and aesthetic
development. It is at this level that children are helped to gain knowledge, values and
foundational skills which make them ready to meet the requirements of learning in primary
school. Thus, through the process of learning Mathematics in pre-primary schools, children
are expected to exhibit the profile to develop foundational numeracy skills for
communication and computation.

Primary Education Pupil Profile

Primary Education is a level intended to help children acquire knowledge, values and skills
which make them ready for meeting the challenges of learning in middle schools and
developing basic technical and entrepreneurial skills. Thus, at the end of primary education,
pupils should demonstrate the following profile to apply basic Mathematical skills for
solving problems.

Middle level Education Student Profile

Middle level education represents the period of puberty which is accompanied by physical,
emotional and mental changes. The education provided should take this into account and
facilitate adjustment for the changes and ensure success and continuity in learning. In
addition to this, the education at this level is intended to consolidate knowledge, attitude and
skills developed during previous learning. It is also meant for helping students acquire
knowledge, values and skills which make them ready for meeting the rigors of learning and
developing foundational career, technical and entrepreneurial skills in secondary schools.
Therefore, at the end of middle level education, students would have the profile to apply
knowledge and skills of Mathematics to solve personal, social and environmental problems.

Secondary School Student Profile

Secondary school education is a period marking the beginning of developing abstract

reasoning and logical thinking abilities helpful to understand and generate knowledge
beyond the here and now. It is also time for widening and deepening knowledge, skills and
attitudes obtained during previous learning and getting prepared for further education at the

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tertiary level, further technical training, and the world of work. Thus, by the end of
secondary education, students should exhibit the profile to utilize Mathematics for
creativity, critical thinking, innovation, global competitiveness, and solving personal and
social problems.

7. Philosophy, Learning Theory and Method of Teaching

7.1 Philosophy of Mathematics Education

It is known that, philosophical Foundation of Mathematics Curriculum refers to the “why?”

of students’ activity in schools concerning mathematics. The Philosophy of mathematics
helps especially a curriculum designer of mathematics to answer questions like: What
schools are for? What subjects of mathematics are of value? What materials and methods are
to be used? And how students learn mathematics? The Philosophy of Mathematics also helps
to determine: The goals of Mathematics education, the contents and general organization of
mathematics curriculum, the process of teaching and learning of mathematics.

Usually, the practice of Mathematics learning in our schools involves the application of
learnt procedures where every mathematical problem is believed to have a unique and
objectively right answer. That is Mathematics is believed to be objective and certain.
However, living in the uncertain and dynamic world, nothing including Mathematics could
be certain, it corrugates or becomes obsolete. Moreover, the prevailing current view of
Mathematics is that it is human (the outcome of social processes) where mathematical
knowledge is understood to be open to revision, both in terms of its proofs and its concepts.

Mathematics education follows the Fallibilist Philosophy. According to Popper in Ernest

(1991), the Fallibilist believe that mathematical knowledge or objects of mathematics are
results of human activity (social and cultural results). Popper continued that Fallibilist is the
only philosophy of mathematics that believes history is germane to mathematics education
and to mathematics itself. Moreover, for the fallibilist philosophy of mathematics the focus
of teaching is not the content. It is the process aspect that is more important. But this does not
mean that the content has no place, but it must be combined with the method.

Content in Mathematics curriculum such as Numbers, Algebra, Geometry, Measurement,

Data analysis and Probability and Process Refers to Problem Solving, Communication,
Reasoning, Interconnection and Representation.

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The view of fallibilist philosophy on mathematics Curriculum has resemblance in many ways
with the views of the pragmatist’s school of thought. For the fallibilists just like the
pragmatists the focus is not on the subject matter rather on the process aspect of mathematics
in which reality is constantly changing, knowledge is not static which in turn shows that
mathematical objects are not static and absolute. Some of the properties of mathematics
Curriculum for the fallibilist philosophy of mathematics are summarized by Lakatos (1978),
Davis and Hersh (1980) and Ernest (1991) as follow:

 Children are liberated from traditional emphasis on rote learning, lesson recitation
and textbook authority.
 Learning is possible as the person actively engages in problem solving which is
transferable to variety of situations and subjects.
 The role of the teacher is helping students to identify their problems and seek
solution to the problem.
 Teaching and learning is child centered unlike the traditional philosophies.
 Learning is an integral part of life and a preparation for a future learning.
 The Curriculum is problem-centered that help students develop how to think. -
that is the organizing principle of such a curriculum.

7.2 Learning Theories

Learning is one of the significant features of current psychology. Learning theories and teaching
methods have been used in different educational systems around the world. Teaching methods
involve the use of learning theories and each theory has different outcomes in mathematics education.

In order to succeed in teaching mathematics, teachers need to enhance their understanding of

students’ learning abilities, experiences, reasoning, and logical abilities. In doing so, they can employ
this knowledge as a basis of their mathematics education strategies. The teachers strongly agreed that
mathematics teaching and learning is an ongoing process through which students must develop a solid
understanding of appropriate mathematics concepts and procedures at each academic level. These
teachers ought to give students enough confidence to discover mathematics problems and to think
critically to solve them as well as their lifelong problems.

Mathematics curriculum follows as eclectic approach of behaviorism, cognitivism and Constructivism

Learning theories.

Behaviorism

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The two main creators of behaviorist approaches to learning were Skinner (1972) and Watson (1996).
Watson stated that human behavior is a result of particular stimuli extracted from particular
responses, while Skinner remarked that habits each of us develop stem from our distinctive operant
learning experiences (Shaffer, 2000).

One of the most popular descriptions of learning is the one proposed by Kimble (1961, p. 6) stating
“learning as a relatively permanent change in behavioral potentiality occurs as a result of reinforced
practice.” Kimble’s definition has highlighted three aspects of learning. First, learning is manifested
by a change in behavior. Second, this behavioral change is relatively permanent. Third, the change in
behavior does not occur immediately following the learning experience (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2005).

In education, behaviorists apply rewards and punishments system in their classrooms effectively.
They believe that rewards have significant roles in learning. The teaching methods based on
behaviorism emphasize the claim that behavior can be shaped by reinforcement through drill and
practice. They set clear objectives to help students and teachers (Hergehahn & Olson, 2005).

In a mathematics class, using the behaviorist theory, the teacher reviews previous material and
homework, and then demonstrates low-level problem solving followed by seatwork imitating the
teacher’s demonstration (Stonewater, 2005). This pedagogical approach of placing the primary focus
on the teacher as a transmitter of knowledge (that is, teaching by telling) is representative of a
behaviorist theory (Hackman, 2004). The common method of teaching mathematics using the
behaviorists’ theory is teacher-centered and giving lecture is the dominant practice.

Cognitivism

The cognitive approach is another important theory. Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make
a systematic study of cognitive development. Cognitive development is a progressive reorganization
of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience. Cognitive
learning theory suggests that learning is based upon how people mentally process stimuli encountered
(Ormord, 1995). In reaction, as early as 1956, Benjamin Bloom created a taxonomy for cognitive
skills that included knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation,
which he believed teachers should help students, so that they use and develop. The six stages are
further elaborated and revised in the study by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) as Remembering,
Understanding, Applying, Analyzing, Evaluating, and Creating (Wilson, 2013).

A cognitive perspective implies that a behavioral analysis of instruction is often inadequate to explain
the effects of instruction on learning. Both cognitive and behavioral approaches continue to be a part
of educational psychology today. The main application of this theory in teaching of mathematics can
be seen in the skill of problem solving.

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Constructivism

The constructivist approach is a learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of

individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding through the guidance from the
teacher. In the constructivist view, teachers should not attempt to simply pour information into
children’s minds. Rather, children ought to be given confidence to discover their world, find out
knowledge, consider, and think critically with vigilant supervision and significant guidance of the
teacher (Eby, Herrel & Jordan, 2005).

Nowadays, constructivism might involve a focus on collaborations; children working together strive
to know and understand. Constructivism is identified as teaching that concentrates on the vigorous
function of the learner in making sense of information and establishing knowledge (Woolfolk, 2008).
Constructivists emphasize that students should form their own interpretation of evidence and submit it
for review. Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the activity is helping
them gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies, students in the constructivist
classroom ideally become "expert learners."

The constructivist approach was proposed by William James’ and John Dewey’s philosophies of
education and comes from many other people such as Jean Piaget, Maria Montessori, and Lev
Vygotsky and from educational movements such as education, inquiry or discovery learning, open
education and whole progressive language teaching (Gagnon & Collay, 2001).

Since the constructivist emphasizes that students form their own interpretation of evidences and
submit them for review, within mathematics education, students have to build their own
understanding of every concept of mathematics, so that the main responsibility of teaching is not
explaining, lecturing, or attempting to convey mathematical knowledge, but creating situations for
students that will promote students making the essential mental structures. Obviously, a lesson
according to constructivism varies significantly with the conventional class type of teacher-as-lecturer
(Hanley, 1994).

Constructivists believe that students are not passive recipients of knowledge but they create
(construct) new mathematical knowledge by reflecting on their physical and mental actions.
According to constructivists, learning reflects a social process in which children engage in dialogue
and discussion among themselves as well as others as they develop intellectually (Hanley, 1994). This
method is the best method to move away from the traditional method of teacher-centered practices,
and more empowerment to the teacher and students both for better critical thinking and creating
changes in old teaching methods (Sawada et al., 2002).

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Hanley (1994) explains in more detail on the implementation of constructivist teaching which
comprises the following procedures for teachers: seeking out and using students’ questions and ideas,
collaborating on and encouraging the use of alternative sources for information, encouraging students
to challenge each other's conceptualizations and ideas, encouraging self-analysis, involving students
in seeking information that can be applied in solving real-life problems, emphasizing career
awareness, especially those related to science and technology.

7.3 Teaching Methods

Teachers should also be adopted Proper teaching method according to the situation, learning
environment and educational background of the students. The following are some of the
major method of teaching for Mathematics.

Lecture Method
In this method, knowledge is delivered through a speech. This is the oldest and most
important teaching method because it is always remained a part of all other instructional
methodologies. In this method, a teacher takes part as an active participant and students are at
the receiving end most of the time. That is why; it is a teacher centred approach. This is also
referred to as direct instruction, training model (Joyce, Weil, & Shower, 1992), active
teaching (Good, Grouws, & Ebmeier, 1983) and explicit instruction (Rosenshine & Stevens,
1986). Lecture method is not only used for teaching theoretical concepts but it is also helpful
for giving training of complex skills and procedures.

As no practical work is involved in this method, so it can only be used to clarify the basic
concepts of each unit given in the textbooks of mathematics. It is applicable to teach all
branches of mathematics including sets, logarithms, algebra, matrices, statistics, geometry
and trigonometry. Mathematical problems related to these branches cannot be solved by this
method but the procedures and methods to solve them can be explained in a very good
manner. The historical perspective of these branches and their relevance to the real life can
also be described by this method.

Inductive Method

This method is also called scientific method in which we proceed from known to unknown,
from specific to general and from example to rule or formula. In this method based on
induction, students are presented some similar examples or problems related to one particular
domain. Then students try to establish a formula, rule, law or principal by observing them. If

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a generalised result is true for those similar examples or problems then it would also be true
for all other such kind of examples (Sidhu, 1995).

Inductive Method This method is also called scientific method in which we proceed from
known to unknown, from specific to general and from example to rule or formula. In this
method based on induction, students are presented some similar examples or problems
related to one particular domain. Then students try to establish a formula, rule, law or
principal by observing them. If a generalised result is true for those similar examples or
problems then it would also be true for all other such kind of examples (Sidhu, 1995).

Deductive Method
This method is totally different from inductive method. In this method, we proceed from
general to specific and from a rule to an example. Already constructed formulas, rules,
methods or principles are taught to the students and they apply them to solve the problems
(Sidhu, 1995). In this teaching approach, we can also prove a theorem with the help of
undefined terms, defined terms, axioms and postulates. Then with the help of that theorem
along with different rules and principles, we can derive other theorems as well (Singh, 2007).
Deductive method is the highly used method in mathematics. It is used to solve those
problems in which complicated procedures are not involved and they can be solved by
applying different kinds of already established laws, methods, formulas and principles
directly. Such kind of problems can be found in all units of syllabus of mathematics at
secondary level including sets, logarithms, algebra, matrices, variation, statistics, geometry
and trigonometry.
Heuristic Method
The word heuristic was drawn from a Greek word “heurisco” which means “I find out”.
Heuristic method is based on child’s psychology who always wants to discover something by
himself or herself. That is why it is also known as discovery method (Bruner, 1960, 1962,
1966). Sometimes a teacher only focuses on delivering lectures through speech in which
students do not actively participate and get bored most of the time. But in the heuristic
method, students are encouraged to reach the solution by constructing the knowledge
themselves. Teacher only facilitates them by raising relevant questions. That is why it is also
called inquiry method (Suchman, 1962). As students discover the solution under the guidance
of a teacher so it is also known as guided discovery method or programmed instruction. So
many researches (Ashton, 1962; Wills, 1967; Wilson, 1967) have proved that heuristic or
discovery method is more effective in teaching mathematics than expository approach.

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Heuristic method can be used to teach all branches of mathematics. It is helpful when
students are not master to solve problems related to one particular concept and they need
guidance. When students get master of different methods and formulas then they are
encouraged for deductive or problem solving methods to solve the same problems.
Analytic Method
In this method, we analyse the problem first by breaking up the problem in small segments
and then move towards solution. It is also called descriptive method. It leads us from the
unknown part of the problem to something already known or given in the problem statement.
This method emphasises on why we are applying different kinds of operations and what is
the relationship between the required solution and other portions of the problem (Rani, 2007;
Singh, 2007).

Because of discovery approach, only such kind of problems can be taught with the help of
this method in which we have to prove something. At secondary level, such problems can
only be found in the units of algebra, geometry, ratio and proportion (variation).
Synthetic Method
This method is completely opposite to the analytic method as we proceed from the given or
known elements in the problems to the desired solution or unknown. In this method, we
synthesise or put together separate elements or small portions given in the problems to draw
a series of conclusions until the unknown or desired result is found (Sidhu, 1995). This
method is quite simple and led by analytic method. Process of analysis in analytic method
clears the basics of any concept. On the other hand, synthetic method is based on already
learnt concepts. Therefore it is quite necessary to go through the analytic method to become
master of specific mathematical concepts then synthetic method can be used to solve the
problems more quickly. In this method, students are not bound to give reason for each and
every step while solving a mathematical problem. That is why it cannot be preferred alone to
derive mathematical proofs (Butler & Wren, 1965).

Just like analytic method, this method can be used for such problems in which we have to
prove something. It is also useful to find out something unknown with the help of given
conditions in the problem statement. These problems can be found in the units of algebra,
ratio and proportion (variation) and geometry at secondary level.
Problem Solving Method
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Instructional methodologies should improve reasoning ability in the students. In this way,
they become capable to find out the solutions of different kinds of problems not only during
the studies but in their daily routine matters as well. Every child has the curiosity to explore
the things and this psychology of the children can be utilised in a better way through problem
solving method. It is the most important instructional methodology for mathematics (Collier
& Lerch, 1969). Bruner, Oliver, Greenfield (1966) and Gagné (1970), the most famous
psychologists, also gave the top priority to this method. In this method, students are given
such problems which cannot be solved easily or their solutions are not obvious. A student
tries to reach the goals or solutions through the set of events or procedures. Gagné (1970)
calls these events or procedures as lower order capabilities in which formulas, rules and
concepts are used from which a student is already familiar. According to him, what the
student learns is called a higher order principle which is the result of lower order capabilities.

This method is used to solve those complicated problems which cannot be solved with the
help of single law or formula. Usually word problems are solved with it. At secondary level,
such kind of problems can be found in the units of algebra, trigonometry, ratio and
proportion (variation).
Laboratory Method
Mathematics is different from the subjects involving readings thus practical work is its major
part. Laboratory method has the capacity to deal with practical work in mathematics. It is a
method of “learning by doing”. That is why, different kinds of tools and equipments are used
in it to perform practical work which includes drawing of different shapes, taking
measurements of geometrical figures and making of charts and graphs. Students go through
different experiments in laboratory or classroom and learn by observing and calculating
themselves. During this process, they get opportunity to draw conclusions and generalise
different laws and formulas. Therefore, this method can be said an extended form of
inductive method (Sidhu, 1995).
The role of a teacher in this method is to supervise the whole process and give proper
instructions to the students at each step. He or she should keep some points in mind to make
this method successful (Singh, 2007).
i. Necessary equipments related to the laboratory work should be arranged in
advance.
ii. ii. Teacher should continuously observe the practical work of every student and
guide him or her accordingly.

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iii. iii. Every student should be encouraged throughout the practical work.
iv. iv. All necessary concepts should be cleared before starting experimental work.
If number of the students is high and required equipment is not enough then students can be
divided into small groups.

This method is mostly used for practical geometry. At the secondary level, it can also be used
to establish or verify the laws and theorems in sets and trigonometry. These laws and
theorems are usually proved through inductive method but laboratory method can be used at
alternative basis to create interest among the students.
Project Method
This method is also based on the philosophy of “learning by doing”. It was devised by
famous educationist Prof. Dr. William H. Kilpatrick who defined this method as “whole-
hearted purposeful activity” (Kilpatrick, 1918). In this method, students are engaged in such
kind of projects in which they get opportunity to apply their theoretical knowledge and learn
practically. In these projects, students work in natural environment outside or within the
boundary of school. During this process, they face different mathematical kind of problems
in real life and then try to solve them with previously gained knowledge. Projects may be
allocated at individual level but usually students are divided in the small groups to
accomplish them (Sidhu, 1995).

Project method provides cooperative learning in which not only students share the ideas and
knowledge but they also get motivated to complete the tasks as soon as possible. Famous
educationist John Dewey (1916) emphasised on social interaction of the learners for the first
time then Herbert Thelen (1954, 1960) also gave importance to cooperative learning in small
groups.

This method is not used to teach one particular concept of mathematics. When students get
master of different areas of mathematics like algebra, geometry or trigonometry with the help
of other teaching methods then project method provides opportunity to them to apply their
already learnt knowledge in real life scenarios.

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8. Values and Principles

The Mathematics Curriculum should reflect and promote the following values which are
held dearly by the Ethiopian society such as quality, collaboration, tolerance, respect,
equity, patriotism and hospitality.

The guiding principles for the design and implementation of Mathematics curriculum are
Use advanced Science and Technology, Provide Diverse Skills, Use Indigenous Knowledge
and Values, Ensure Relevance, Promote Integration and Cohesiveness, Ensure Balance,
Promote Cultural Heritages, Provide for Diversity, Promote National Unity and Diversity,
Provide for Inclusiveness, Provide for Entitlement and Apply Learner-Centered Learning.

9. Goal and objectives

9.1 Goals

The overall goal of Mathematics Education is to develop students’ ability to conceptualize

inquire, reason, communicate, formulate and solve problems mathematically; and their capability of
appreciating the aesthetic nature and cultural aspects of mathematics.

9.2 Objectives
General Objectives of Mathematics education are stated as follows:

 Acquire knowledge of facts, concepts, theories, laws, principles, proofs of

Mathematics;
 Develop the ability to communicate mathematical ideas with precision and
accuracy;
 Develop inertest and positive attitude towards Mathematics;
 Apply mathematical knowledge to solve real life problems;
 Develop the skill to use algorithms in problems solving;
 Appreciate the contributions of mathematicians;
 Develop mastery of algebraic skills, drawing skills, deducing interpretations,
finding patterns, making connections, analyze, organize data, reasoning, critical
thinking, etc.

To elaborate the above general objectives of Mathematics education the following are the
general objectives of Mathematics for pre-primary, primary, middle level and secondary.

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Pre-Primary

The objectives of pre-primary mathematics curriculum are:

 develop interest in mathematics and cognitive ability through a variety of activities

including play and experiment with objects, as well as everyday life experiences;
 apply simple preliminary mathematical concepts such as counting, ordering,
sequencing, sorting, comparing, etc.;
 learn to identify the properties of objects such as their colour, size, weight, shape,
etc., and build up basic concepts of space and time through a wide range of activities;
and
 develop thinking and problem-solving abilities through activities and observation,
analysis and discussion.

Primary

The objectives of primary mathematics curriculum are:

 stimulate the interest of students’ in the learning of mathematics;

 develop students’ understanding and acquisition of basic mathematical concepts and
computational skills;
 develop students’ creativity, and their ability to think, communicate and solve
problems;
 develop students’ number sense and spatial sense, and their ability to appreciate
patterns and structures of number and shapes;
 enhance students’ lifelong learning abilities through basic mathematical knowledge.

Middle Level

The objectives of Middle level mathematics curriculum are:

 Enable students to develop mathematical conceptualization, inquiry, reasoning, and

communication skills and the ability to use mathematics to formulate and solve
problems in everyday life, as well as in mathematical contexts
 Enable students to manipulate numbers, symbols, and other mathematical objects

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 Help students develop number, symbol, and spatial sense, as well as a sense of
measurement and the capability to appreciate structures and patterns
 Help students develop positive attitudes toward mathematics and the ability to
appreciate the aesthetic nature and cultural aspects of mathematics
Secondary

The objectives of Secondary mathematics curriculum are:

 further develop students’ mathematical knowledge, skills and concepts;

 provide students with mathematical tools for their personal development and future
career pathways;
 provide a foundation for students who may further their studies in mathematics or
related areas;
 develop in students the generic skills, and in particular, the capability to use
mathematics to solve problems, reason and communicate;
 develop in students interest in and positive attitudes towards the learning of
mathematics;
 develop students’ competence and confidence in dealing with mathematics needed in
life; and
 help students to fulfil their potential in mathematics.
[Link] Competencies

Core Competencies are fundamental in enabling students to learn how to learn. They can be
seen as both process skills and learning outcomes in the Mathematics Education. They are
developed through the learning and teaching of mathematics and serve as a means to help
students acquire and master the mathematical knowledge and concepts.

The following Core Competencies are identified as essential for student learning for the 21st
century in the Mathematics curriculum.

Learning to Learn

Self-learning skills refer to the ability to initiate, plan, carry out, evaluate and adjust learning
activities autonomously. Students with advanced self-learning skills can select or design
effective strategies for in-depth learning. These skills help students enhance their academic

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performance and self-efficacy. Self-learning skills form the core part of lifelong learning
and help students acquire new knowledge to adapt to the fast changing world.

Examples:

• listen to instruction carefully, participate actively and show interest in learning

activities in the class (e.g. exploring different types of triangles by using straws of
equal or different lengths to form triangles)
• understand concepts and do not learn only by rote memorisation (e.g. understand the
concept of multiplication instead of just memorising the multiplication tables)

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is drawing out meaning from available data or statements, and examining
and questioning their accuracy and credibility in order to establish one’s views and evaluate
the arguments put forward by oneself and others.

Examples:

• sort objects using various criteria such as shapes and sizes

• choose the right tools to measure objects such as using measuring tapes to measure
the circumference of a round table
• reason inductively (e.g. when exploring the commutative property of addition)

Problem Solving

Problem solving involves using various skills to resolve a difficulty. The process includes
investigating the problem, synthesising information and generating ideas to determine the
best course of action. Students need to adjust and evaluate strategies, as well as consolidate
experience for knowledge construction.

Examples

• solve problems by simple computations (e.g. using addition to find the sum of
money used in buying goods)
• solve problems by choosing the correct data (e.g. identifying the maximum sale
from a bar chart of daily sales)

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Creative Thinking and Innovation

Creativity brings in changes or transformations and is manifested in new ideas, acts or

products. It emerges spontaneously or through deliberate processes of divergent and
convergent thinking. It involves the integration of general or domain-specific knowledge for
a meaningful purpose.

Examples:

• design methods to draw parallel lines and perpendicular lines using

• objects in simple 2-D or 3-D shapes

Communication

Communication skills refer to the abilities to achieve the desired outcomes or goals in a
process where two or more people interact (be it in a face-to-face or virtual context) through
expressing or receiving messages using verbal and non-verbal means. To communicate
effectively, students should learn to listen, speak, read and write competently. Not only
should they express themselves in an accurate, organised and proper manner, but they
should also understand and respect others’ views and expectations, and use appropriate
information and means to convey a message in accordance with the purpose, context and
audience. They should also evaluate the effectiveness of their communication and identify
areas for improvement to achieve the best results.

Examples

• present findings with drawings and symbols

• present data with tables and graphs (e.g. bar charts)

Collaboration

Problem solving, planning and making decisions in a small group require collaboration
skills, namely the skills of communication, appreciation, negotiation, making compromises
and asserting leadership. Students with these skills will be able to effectively engage in and
contribute to tasks involving teamwork.

Examples:

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• Participate in group work in mathematics like collecting data, measuring objects and
presenting project results, and understand the benefits of working as a team
• Accept and follow the group decision on individual role in doing mathematical
group work with the understanding that member’s actions affect the product of group
work (e.g. whether a correct solution could be found)

[Link] areas

Thematic areas for Mathematics education are Number, Algebra, Geometry, Measurement,
Statistics and Probability, Logic, Trigonometry and Calculus.

Pre-primary

Thematic areas for Pre-Primary Mathematics education are Number, Geometry and
Measurement.

Pre-primary mathematics curricula should therefore comprise learning basic mathematical

concepts through manipulation of concrete objects and not abstract knowledge e.g, sort
objects of (by shape, size, color), “compose” and “decompose” quantities, use parts to make
up the whole set (combine two blocks and three blocks to make a set of five blocks). They
also divide the whole set into parts (e.g., separate five blocks into one block and four blocks).

Primary

Thematic area for Primary Mathematics includes Numbers and Operations, Relations and
Functions, Geometry, Measurement and Data Handling.
Numbers and operations: Cardinal, ordinal numbers, pattern, discrete and continues
quantity, fraction and decimal numbers and operations of numbers, introduction to equations
and Algebraic expressions.

Students learn these content domains to develop knowledge recursively and perform
fundamental operations on numbers, raise the flexible thinking power, imagination power
and improve creativity in their day-to-day life situations.

Measurements: Length, mass, capacity, time, money, area, volume with difference units and
their inter-conversion.

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Students learn this content domain to acquire detailed contextualized and systematic
understanding of the contents and functional network of knowledge. In these constructs,
students develop estimation and precision skills; create suitable ideas and new knowledge of
measurements to use and communicate in their activities.

Algebra: Ratio, proportion and percentage:

Students learn to define, interpret and apply the concepts of direct proportionality, ratios and
percentages and apply their knowledge in solving real-life problems.

Geometry: Plane figures (triangles, quadrilaterals, circles, lines, angles), solid shapes (cubes,
cuboids, prisms, cylinders) circumference and area.

Students learn to develop spatial visualization of geometry figures, forming solid shape
models, knotting style of rope, and folding paper and perform its mathematical applications

Data handling: Simple graph, table, bar graph, line graph, pie chart, and average.

Students learn this content domain to collect, organize and represent simple data graphically
and interpret data to make communication simpler.

Middle Level

Thematic area for Middle level Mathematics includes Numbers and Expressions, Relations
and Functions, Geometry and Data Handling.
Numbers and operations: Integers, fractions, decimals, rational numbers

Students learn to perform fundamental operations, interpret and use mathematical skills to
solve related problems.

Algebra: Equations and algebraic expression, multiplication of binomials and linear equation
and its applications, linear equation and its graphs, proportional relationship and its graph,
linear function and its graph.

Students learn to interpret and represent pictorially the concept of these contents, and solve a
given problems with reasoning. Students interpret, communicate and use the concept of
proportion and function in solving life related problems.

Geometry and measurements: Circles, cylinder, cone and sphere, congruence, Pythagoras
theorem

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Students learn to develop spatial visualization of geometric figures and perform its
mathematical applications.

Data handling: Histogram, mean, mode, median, probability

Students learn to understand statistical quantities such as mean and to interpret data and
information. In addition students learn the probability to understand the meaning of
probability and basic rules, and use them to find the probability of an event.

Secondary

Thematic area for Secondary Mathematics includes Number System, Algebra, Geometry, and
Measurement, Statistics and Probability, Logic and Calculus.
Number system: Rational and irrational numbers, real numbers, complex numbers.

Students learn these contents to perform numerical calculations, develop and consolidate
mathematical concepts and describe the world quantitatively and use this knowledge in their
day-to-day life activities.
Algebra: Sets, quadratics, polynomials, exponential and logarithmic, solving equations and
inequalities, rational expressions and functions, series and sequences, introduction to calculus
(introduce limits, continuity, differentiation and integration).
Students learn these contents to master numeracy and manipulating abilities skills, and to
organic relationships of each content for further learning and for solving some practical
problems.

Geometry and measurements: Polygons, circles, plane geometry solid figures, coordinate
geometry, Vectors in two dimensions

Students learn to develop spatial visualization of geometric figures and perform its
mathematical applications. It possesses rich practical background and potentials for
widespread applications.

Data analysis and probability: Collecting, organizing, representing, analyzing and

interpreting, probability models - experimental and theoretical

Student learn to recognize the usefulness of data analysis; to acquire the related knowledge
and skills to understand the meaning of variance, standard deviation and other statistical
quantities, and to organize the data into tables and graphs to find the statistical quantities; and
to acquire the process skills such as mathematical thinking and reasoning, judgement and

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expression through collecting and organizing different types of data according to the purpose,
and using appropriate statistics, graphs and techniques to analyze the data and understand the
trend in data and express the characteristics of the events. In addition, students learn
probability to deepen the understanding of the meaning of probability and basic rules, and
use them to find the probability and expectation of events, and to solve life-related problems.

[Link] of Indigenous Knowledge

Ethiopia has a lot of Mathematics indigenous knowledge, attitude and skills. Identify and
organize Mathematics indigenous knowledge and incorporate in the curriculum helps
students understand the lesson easily.
Some of Identified Indigenous Knowledge’s are:

 Number System: Introduction of Geez Numbers, Ethiopian Calendar, Ethiopian

System of Multiplication and Associate Numbers with things as a method of teaching
 Geometry: The Maximum Area of Circular Houses and Churches; Geometrical
objects could be used as instructional aids
 Games (As method of Teaching): ‘Gebeta’, ‘Riddle’, ‘Kelebelebosh’ etc

[Link]-cutting and National Pressing Issues

14.1 Cross-cutting Issues

This theme includes six issues: Education for Health and Well-being, Gender and Inclusive
Education, Education in Emergencies, Environment and Climate Change, Hygiene and
Sanitation, and Life Skills. Integrating cross-cutting issues in the curriculum and teacher
training materials is considered as a strategy to make the theme an integral dimension of
design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the curriculum.

Each of the six cross-cutting issues aims to promote positive attitudes, values and behavioral
changes necessary for meaningful personal and social life.

14.2 National Pressing Issues

This area is composed mainly of issues related to what is currently affecting the society
significantly. National pressing issues are the challenges faced by the country. Including
them as areas of learning is very critical for the very well-being of the society. Include are

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Peace Education, Consumer Protection, Road Traffic and Safety, Tax Education, and Child
Trafficking.

[Link] Materials Curriculum Support Materials

Learning and teaching materials provide students with a basis for enriching their learning
experiences. The effective use of learning and teaching materials helps students extend and
construct knowledge and consolidate what they have learned, and is therefore an important
factor for the successful implementation of the school Mathematics curriculum. Schools
need to select, adapt and, where appropriate, develop relevant resources to support student
learning. The major teaching and learning materials under curriculum materials and
curriculum support materials as follows:
15.1 Curriculum Materials
Curriculum materials are educational resources helpful to organize and implement curricular
and instructional experiences for learners from pre-primary to secondary levels. Syllabuses,
Textbooks, and Teachers Guides are the major curriculum materials that are essential for the
implementation of the general education Mathematics curriculum of Ethiopia.

• Syllabus

A syllabus is a plan for a course of study or a subject to be taught and learnt. The syllabus is
developed by including the following elements:-

 Out comes
 Competencies
 Contents
* Sub-contents
* Scope- breadth and depth of contents
* Organization – vertical and horizontal
 Activities
* Methods
* Approaches
 Materials of Teaching and Learning
* Teaching support materials
* Learning support materials
 Assessment tools and Techniques

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• Textbooks
A textbook is usually regarded as the most common type an official and comprehensive
print or electronic teaching and learning material designed to help students in the learning
process and enhance the effort exerted to achieve minimum learning competencies in school
subjects. Textbooks should be prepared in such a way that would make it possible to meet
the needs of all students including those with special needs and the talented.

Nowadays students learn in a dynamic learning environment and from a variety of learning
resources, resulting in broadened learning experiences. However, textbooks still play an
important role in mathematics education in such an environment, and have great influence on
the learning and teaching that takes place in the mathematics classroom. Textbooks are also
materials for students’ self-directed learning, preparation and revision. Therefore, well-
written Mathematics textbooks should align with the curriculum framework and Mathematics
syllabus and facilitate effective learning.

In the preparation of Mathematics textbooks, the following have to consider:

• Whether the sequencing of topics is compactable with the school Mathematics
curriculum and meets students’ abilities for effective development of mathematical
concept, generic skills, values and attitudes;
• Whether different learning activities are included for students to investigate, discuss,
make conjectures, and test hypotheses;
• Whether the examples and illustrations of mathematical concepts and skills meet the
needs and abilities of students;
• Whether the learning activities provided by the textbooks allow teachers to engage
students in applying their mathematical knowledge to solve problems, including real-
life problems; and
• Whether peer and self-assessments are incorporated in learning activities to help
students assess their own learning and reflect on what and how they have learned for
further improvement.
• The development of textbooks should observe standard procedures related to such
elements as illustration, size, paper quality, organization of contents, alignment of
contents with syllabuses, space for activity, etc
Teacher Guide

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A teacher guide is a material developed for the purpose of supporting and enhancing the
effort teachers exert to facilitate learning. Among its functions is found availing detailed
description of key concepts and presenting examples useful to support what the teacher does
to make learning an enjoyable experience and a purposeful activity. On the whole, a teacher
guide should be able to provide proper direction for teachers to facilitate student optimal
learning and achievement.

Mathematics teacher Guide have:

• Detail explanation with necessary steps for challenged questions.
• Additional note for teachers
15.2 Curriculum Support Materials

In addition to syllabus, textbooks and teacher guides, implementing the curriculum properly
and effectively requires using a wide variety of support materials. These materials which are
referred to as curriculum support materials are all those materials or resources developed by
the Ministry of Education, teachers or purchased from other providers. The major purpose
of these materials is supplementing, complementing and enriching syllabus, textbooks and
teacher guides. What is more, they serve as reference materials. The following are among
the most widely used support materials:

• Workbooks and Worksheets

Workbooks and worksheets are very important support materials. They are materials
designed to include a variety of exercises related to each chapter in textbooks. The exercises
presented in workbooks and worksheets help to reinforce learner understanding and mastery
of materials learnt.

In addition to what they do to consolidate learner understanding of what is learnt,

workbooks and worksheets enhance the development of skills and abilities to apply
knowledge to new situations.

• Supplementary Materials
Supplementary materials are print and electronic materials such as books and reading
materials developed for each subject whose major purpose is providing additional content
useful to have a much broader and deeper understanding of the material in the contents of
textbooks. Moreover, they contribute to the improvement of student ability to read and build
up their vocabulary while at the same time encouraging independent reading and learning.

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Supplementary materials should be directed toward enhancing self and independent learning
which leads to further inquiry and search for truth and knowledge. They should help
learners to nurture ability of employing diverse perspectives as well as solving practical
problems.

• Instructional Materials
Learning is a process of change. It requires active engagement on the part of the learner.
Learners learn effectively when they are both mentally and physically active. For this to
happen, they need to see, hear, smell, taste, and touch things. These necessitate employing a
wide variety of instructional materials or resources. These materials are categorized under
one of the following:

 Teacher support materials

 Learner support materials
 Teaching and learning support materials

Instructional materials or resources can be teacher made, purchased or locally available.

Examples of instructional media include any spoken, written or visual text or activity used
or conducted by schools, for example, textbooks, novels, films, plays, radio programs,
multimedia, digital learning resources including video, audio, text, animations and images,
lectures, speeches, performances, and classroom and outdoor play materials/equipment.

 Because of the very abstract nature of Mathematics the teaching and learning process
should be supported by instructional materials.
 Mathematics Instructional materials could be teacher made, purchased or locally
available.
 There should be Mathematics Kit for Pre-Primary, Primary, Middle level and
Secondary Mathematics
Instructional materials such as plane figures, real models of 3-D figures and ICT such as
computer software packages and mobile application software do play a key role in student’s
learning.

Non-electronic ICT and Instructional materials for the learning and teaching of mathematics
are indicated below.

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Non-electronic instructional materials

Major examples of non-electronic instructional materials are presented on the Mathematics

thematic areas are as follows:
Arithmetic: Abacus
Algebra:
Geometry:
Square grid,
Plane figure: triangles, quadrilaterals, circles etc
Solid figure: Prisms, Pyramids, cylinders, sphere etc
Compass, Protractor
Measurement: Meter, ruler, Beam balance
Probability: die, coin
Statistics:
Logic:
Trigonometry:
Calculus:
ICT instructional materials
Several researchers pointed at the contribution of ICT use in mathematics teaching and
learning. The It increases the collaboration among pupils and encourages communication
and knowledge sharing; it enables quick and accurate feedback for the pupils which
consequently leads for positive motivation; it allows the pupils to focus on strategies and
interpretations of answers instead of wasting valuable time on unnecessary computations;
and it supports constructive pedagogy, that is, the pupils use technology to discover
mathematical ideas and deeply understand them.

Many ICT tools are developed for teaching and learning Mathematics. Such tools make
students active participant in Mathematics learning. The nature of Mathematics has changed
considerably because of the availability of ICT.

Some of the tools for teaching Mathematics include projectors, Interactive white boards,
Television, Calculators and Computer, Mobile.

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[Link] Time Allocation

Pre-Primary

The contents of pre-primary curriculum will be organized in thematic approach. There will
no teaching and learning in standalone learning area as primary, Middle Level and Secondary
school Mathematics. Pre-Primary Mathematics for KG 1 will have 2 Hr and 5 Min per week
(25 Min per day) and KG 2 will have 2 Hr and 30 Min per week (30 Min per day).

Primary

Five periods per week and 40 Min for one period

Middle Level

Five periods per week and 40 Min for one period

Secondary

Five periods per week and 45 Min for one period

[Link]

Pre-primary Mathematics education will be organized in a thematic approach with other

learning areas. It will be harmonized with Physical Development and Health, Language and
Communication, Socio-Emotional Learning, Environmental Science and Aesthetics and
Creativity learning areas and Mathematics from Grade 1 to 12 will be organized in a
standalone subject.

17. Assessment

Guiding Principles

Assessment is the practice of collecting evidence about student learning, interpreting

information and making judgement about students’ performance with a view to providing
feedback to students, teachers, schools, parents, other stakeholders and to the education
system, which are fundamental for facilitating and improving students learning. It is not a
separate add-on activity but an integral part of the learning and teaching process. It also

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plays a critical role in helping students become self-directed learners. Suitable assessment
enables

 Students to understand their abilities and hence improve their ways of learning;
 Teachers to understand the performance of their students and the effectiveness of the
learning and teaching strategies adopted so that suitable and timely measures can be
provided; and
 Parents to understand the performance of their children so that they can, in
collaboration with teachers, provide suitable support to help the learning of their
children.

As reflected in the Mathematics curriculum, both learning process and content of

mathematics are important in mathematics learning. Therefore, to obtain a complete picture
of students’ performance, assessments should be aligned with the aims and objectives of the
curriculum. In general, assessment in mathematics should not only focus on the answers
provided by students in solving problems, but it should also reflect students’ learning
process, the skills used in solving mathematical problems and the development of thinking
abilities as well as values and attitudes. A balanced and diversified assessment is definitely
helpful to obtain a comprehensive view of students’ achievement and performance.

Assessment in appropriate frequency is useful to inform student learning. Over-assessment

disrupts learning and teaching and causes overburden to students and teachers.

Formative and Summative Assessment

By considering purposes, one can distinguish between formative and summative assessment.
The former one focuses more on providing a comprehensive and summary description of
student performance and progress in learning while the latter one is mainly diagnostic
aiming to identify students’ strengths and weaknesses and to provide feedback for the
review of teaching strategies.

Purposes of Assessment

When formulating appropriate modes of assessment for Mathematics, the formative

“Assessment for Learning” and “Assessment as Learning” can be used to collect evidence of
the process of student learning, provide feedback to enhance learning and establish students’
roles and responsibilities in their learning. “Assessment of Learning”, being summative, is

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usually conducted at the end of a teaching module, a school term or a school year, to
summarise students’ learning performance. No matter what kind of assessment is
undertaken, students should be encouraged to make use of assessment feedback for self-
reflection and teachers could carefully analyse the results of formative and summative
assessment to revise class instructions.

Modes of Assessment

Different modes of assessment serve for different purposes. Teachers may use them
deliberately to focus on the learning process, learning progress and product of learning. As
both the learning process and product are important in the mathematics curriculum, different
modes of assessment in the form of various assessment activities are necessary. Various
assessment activities are needed to provide teachers with opportunities to collect, judge and
interpret information about students’ performance in the areas of mathematical knowledge,
attitude and skills. Designing appropriate and diversified assessment activities according to
learning targets and students’ learning needs is essential in the Assessment as Learning
process. Some common assessment activities in mathematics include:

 Questioning and Answering

In the learning and teaching of mathematics, discussion, questioning and answering between
teacher and students (or among students) are often involved. Discussion in class not only
enables teachers to discover what students understand about a particular topic, but also
provides opportunities for students to present their views. It helps foster their
communication skills. Teacher could also understand students’ attitudes and abilities in
applying thinking skills through discussions. Criteria that can be used include: Can they
explain how they got to the solutions they have put forward and what strategies they have
employed? Do they know how to raise questions? Do they raise questions actively?
Constructive feedback from teachers allows students to understand the correctness of their
response and achieve an in-depth analysis of the topic. Topics suitable for discussion
include: Why ? Why ? How can the height of the school

building be estimated? Are the areas of figures with the same perimeter equal? How can a
right-angled triangle be constructed by using a straight rule and a pair of compasses? How
statistics be applied in real life?

 Class work and Homework

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It is a common practice for teachers to assign class work and home work to students. These
can help students consolidate concepts in mathematics and help teachers assess the
performance of their students. It is important to give an appropriate amount of assignments
and to ensure that they are at a suitable level of difficulty. Teacher may consider assigning
different class work to students of different abilities. Moreover, each assignment should be
appropriately related to specific objectives. It is inappropriate, for example, to give students
an assignment on the drilling of addition and subtraction while the aim is to assess the
application of addition and subtraction. Finally, class work and homework should not be
confined to routine mathematical problems. They may include open-ended questions,
reading assignments, hands-on assignments and preparatory work for discussion in class.
For example, newspaper cutting on the uses of statistics in daily life can be used for
discussion on the misuse of statistics; containers marked with volume in liter collected at
home can be used for measuring activities in school.

 Project Work

Project is a useful activity to assess students’ performance. In addition, project learning is an

effective learning and teaching strategy to promote self-directed learning and enable
students to connect knowledge, skills, values and attitudes. It can also foster students’
critical thinking skills, creativity and problem solving skills. Teachers should note that
collaboration and communication skills will be more effectively developed by projects done
in groups rather than individually. Teachers may assess student performance using the
following criteria: Comprehension of the project; Use of strategy and approach; Coverage,
depth, accuracy of content; Presentation and communication; and Attitude.

It should be noted that students’ reflections and peer assessment can be an integral part of
assessment and parents can also contribute their views. Using assessment rubrics is a good
practice for these two kinds of assessments for achieving self-directed learning.

Typical examples of project work include investigating students’ favourite extra-curricular

activities, comparing the heights of boys and girls in the school, an investigation into the
relationship between students’ eye sight and time spent watching TV or using display screen
equipment, story of , design of containers that with the optimaluse of materials, sports and
mathematics, statistical survey on students’time management, etc.

 Exploratory Task and Performance Task

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 Elaboration of Curriculum Framework on Mathematics

Exploratory task and performance tasks are class activities that require students to apply
various skills to perform mathematical investigations or solve problems in a hands-on way.
Through getting students to complete the tasks in groups, teachers can look at students’
problem solving skills and collaboration skills. Criteria of assessment can also include
comprehension of the problem, the use of strategy and approach, the degree of participation
and attitude, etc. Typical examples of exploratory task and performance task include
constructing parallel lines, measuring volumes of irregular objects, geometric constructions
by compasses and straightedge (or by dynamic geometry software), constructing special
sequences by spreadsheet, making 3-D models of polyhedrons, constructing loci by dynamic
geometry software, etc.
 Tests and examinations

Generally, there are both tests and examinations in schools. Nevertheless, teachers should
pay attention to the following points when setting tests/examination papers.
- The coverage in the paper should be complete and the item format should be
diversified
- Each item should have clear assessment objective (s)
- The levels of difficulty of items should reflect students’ abilities and cater for their
learner diversity
- The number of items in each paper should be reasonable
- The language used in the paper should be simple and clear
Before setting a test or an examination paper, teachers should prepare a table of
specifications with allocation of marks on different learning units/objectives being clearly
shown. Appropriate amount of marks should be allocated so as to reflect the aims and focus
of the paper and to ensure the proper coverage of topics. The paper should embrace various
types of item, like explanatory-type items, fill-in-blank items, multiple-choice items, etc. to
assess students’ knowledge in various aspects of mathematics. Open-ended questions should
also be included to assess students’ thinking abilities like critical thinking skills, creativity
and communication skills.
The incorporation of peer assessment and self-assessment in various assessment activities is
also beneficial as they allow students to learn from peers and understand their own learning.
The assessments also direct students to consider the main learning objectives, skills
involved and perform self-reflection on the learning process and attitude. Learner diversity
should also be considered in designing assessment activities. For example, a balance among

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the number of elementary, intermediate and advanced problems should be achieved in tests
and examinations.

On the whole, the most appropriate method or procedure for gathering information is best
decided by considering the purpose for which the information will be used and the kind of
performance that will provide the information required. No matter what kind of assessment
activities are adopted in collecting information of students’ learning, it should be borne in
mind that the main purpose of assessment is to enhance the learning and teaching process.
[Link]

For the effective implementation of Mathematics curriculum, the following should be

considered.

• One to one distribution of Student textbook and teachers guide

• The presence of qualified teachers. The Mathematics pre-service teachers training

should depend highly on the Ethiopian general curriculum in general and
Mathematics curriculum in particular.

• Availability of Mathematics instructional materials

• Introduce the revised curriculum for all teachers. Before implementing the revised
curriculum all teachers should be well introduced about the curriculum and its
implementation.

• Parents/Guardians follow up to their children to study and exercise Mathematics

daily

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References
Hurrell, D. (2013). Effectiveness of teacher professional learning: enhancing the
teaching of fractions in primary schools. Retrieved from [Link]

Miyazaki, T. (2019). Analysis of Mathematics Skills of Grade 7-8 Students and Teachers

MoE, & JICA. (2019a). Recommendations on the Primary Mathematics Curriculum.

MoE, & JICA. (2019b). Report on the School Baseline Survey.

MSIC. (2016). Research on Basic Arithmetic (Grade 1-4).

MSIC. (2018a). Baseline Assessment for LAMS Follow-up Activities.

MSIC. (2018b). Endline Assessment for LAMS Follow-Up Activities.

NEAEA. (2017). Ethiopian Third National Learning Assessment of Grade 10 and 12

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (Ed.). (2000). Principles and standards for
school Mathematics (Vol. 1). National Council of Teachers of.

Rossiter, J., & et. al. (2017). Young Lives School Survey, 2016–17: Evidence from Ethiopia.
Young Lives.

Suurtamm, C., Thompson, D. R., Kim, R. Y., Moreno, L. D., Sayac, N., Schukajlow, S., ...
& Vos, P. (2016). Assessment in Mathematics education: Large-scale assessment
and classroom assessment. Springer.

Thompson, D. R., & Kaur, B. (2011). Using a multi-dimensional approach to understanding

to assess students’ mathematical knowledge. In B. Kaur & K. Y. Wong (Eds.),
Assessment in the Mathematics classroom: 2011 Association of Mathematics
Educators Yearbook (pp. 17–32). Singapore: World Scientific Publishing.

Woldehanna, T., & Gebremedhin, A. (2016). Learning Outcomes of Children Aged 12 in

Ethiopia: A Comparison of Two Cohorts. Young Lives.

Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, M., & Becker, J. (2003). Towards a didactic model for
assessment design in Mathematics education. In A. J. Bishop, M. A. Clements, C.
Keitel, J. Kilpatrick, & F. K. S. Leung (Eds.), Second international handbook of
Mathematics education (pp. 686–716). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer
Academic Publishers.

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Attachment
Attachment 1: Mathematics working group members

[Link]. Full Name Qualificati Organization Position Phone email

on Number
1 Asnakew Tagle Gared MA, MED BahirdarUniversity Assistent professer 0918703244
2 Tilahun Alemu Gutema MBA Oromia Education Mathematics 0920709080
Bureau Curriculum expert
3 Yeshimebet Jira Ateya MSC Oromia Region Secondary school 0912376314
Mathematics Teacher
4 Mustafa Kedir Edao BED Addis Ababa Region Secondary school 0912688713
Mathematics Teacher
5 Mitsiwat Mesfin Hagzom Diploma Tigray Region Primary School 0914400626
Mathematics Teacher
6 Yeshitila Fantaye Merin MSC Amhara Region Secondary school 0910973109
Mathematics Teacher
7 Amsalu W/Gebriel MSC Hawassa University Instructor 0938651972
W/Micheal
8 Bayush Birlie Birhanu MSC Amhara Education Mathematics 0996740860
Buearu Curriculum Expert
9 Bimerew Kerie Tesfaw MED MoE, MSIC Mathematics Trainer 0912116359
10 FirehiywotDesalegn MED DirDewa CTE Lecturer 0915760131
W/Tsadik
11 GojamNhialKeat BSC Gambela Region Secondary school 0982430411
Mathematics Teacher
12 Getahun HaileMicheal MED MoE, CDID Curriculum Expert 0940211720
Demisse
13 Matebie Alemayehu MSC MoE, CDID Mathematics 0991713022 Matebie1010@[Link]
Wasihun Curriculum Expert
14 Takeshi Miyazaki PhD JICA, MUST Project Education Advisor 0943190133
15 Nahoko Chiku MA JICA MUST Project Deputy Team Leader 0902644818
16 Takele Alemu MA JICA MUST Project Research Assistant 0911063581
Takelemariam

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