Environment & Ecology

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INDEX
CHAPTER NAME PAGE NO.
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION OF ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY 2
CHAPTER-2 FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM 7
CHAPTER-3 TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS 15
CHAPTER-4 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM 26
CHAPTER-5 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND 33
DEGRADATION
CHAPTER-6 BASICS OF BIODIVERSITY 51
CHAPTER-7 INDIAN BIODIVERSITY 54
DIVERSE LANDSCAPE
CHAPTER-8 ACTS AND POLICIES RELATED TO 57
BIODIVERSITY
CHAPTER-9 PLANT DIVERSITY OF INDIA 64
CHAPTER-10 MARINE ORGANISMS 71
CHAPTER-11 PROTECTED AREA NETWORKS 73
CHAPTER-12 NATIONAL PARKS, TIGER RESERVES 78
AND ELEPHANT RESERVES IN INDIA
CHAPTER-13 MAJOR WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES IN 92
INDIA
CHAPTER-14 RAMSAR SITES IN INDIA 96
CHAPTER-15 BIOSPHERE RESERVES 112
CHAPTER-16 CONSERVATION EFFORTS 121
CHAPTER-17 INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE 126
CHAPTER-18 CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION STRATEGIES 131
CHAPTER-19 OCEAN ACIDIFICATION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES 133
CHAPTER-20 CLIMATE CHANGE CONFERENCES 135
CHAPTER-21 OZEAN DEPLETION 142
CHAPTER-22 INDIA AND CLIMATE CHANGE 145
CHAPTER-23 ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS 147
CHAPTER-24 ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) 150
CHAPTER-25 INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS 152
155
Conventional Environment related Current Affairs

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION OF ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY

1. Ecology: Scientific study of the reciprocal relationship between organisms (including microbes,
plants, animals, man) with their environment; derived from two Greek words ‘Oikos’ meaning
home and ‘logos’ meaning study.
• Autoecology: Study of individual organism or individual species.
• Synecology: Study of group of organisms of different species which are associated together as
a unit in form of a community.
2. Environment: Everything which affects an organism during its lifetime known as environment;
comprises both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components.
3. Components of Environment
• Biotic components: Green plants, non-green plants, parasites, decomposers and man.
• Abiotic components: Energy, radiation, temperature and heat flow, water, atmospheric gases
and wind, fire, gravity, soil, topography etc.
4. Levels of organizations in ecology
a. Individual: Individual living being, has ability to function independently + It may include
plant, animal, bacterium, fungi etc.
b. Population: Community of interbreeding organisms (same species), occupying a defined
area during a specific time.
c. Community: refers to the populations of different kinds of organisms living together and
sharing the same habitat.
o Major community: Large-sized, relatively independent + Depend only on sun’s energy
from outside + Independent of inputs and outputs from adjacent communities + Example
is Tropical Evergreen forests.
o Minor communities: Dependent on neighboring communities + these are secondary
aggregations within a major community-> not completely independent units as far as
energy concerned + Examples are a mat of lichens on a cow dung pad.

d. Ecosystem: Structural and functional unit of biosphere; consists of community of living

beings and physical environment, both interacting and exchanging materials between them.
o Components of Ecosystem
§ Abiotic components: Inorganic and non-living parts; consists of components such as
energy, rainfall, temperature, atmosphere, substratum, materials, latitude and altitude.
§ Biotic components:

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- Primary producers- Autotrophs (self-nourishing): Green plants and certain

bacteria; synthesize carbohydrate by the process of photosynthesis for themselves;
supply indirectly to other non-producers. Examples include herbaceous and
woody plants (in terrestrial ecosystem); microscopic algae (in aquatic ecosystem).
- Consumers- Heterotrophs: incapable of producing their own food; depend on
organic food derived from plants, animals.
ü Herbivores: herbivores feed on plants ex Deer, rabbit
ü Carnivores- consume animals. Ex Lions, Polar Bear
ü Omnivores: consume both plants and animals. Ex pigs, crows
- Decomposers: They break down the remains and other wastes and release
simple inorganic molecules back to environment
ü Scavengers: Consume the soft tissues of dead animals. Ex vultures,
raccoons
ü Detritivores: Consume detritus of plants and animal origin. Ex
earthworms, millipedes and dung beetles
ü Saprotrophs: Feed on any remaining organic matter that is left after
other decomposers do their work. It includes fungi, bacteria and single-
celled protozoa.
o Ecosystem services:

e. Biome: large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a major habitat. E.g.
Rainforest biome or tundra biome; distinct from habitats because any biome can comprise a
variety of habitats.
f. Biosphere: includes all living organisms on earth, together with the dead organic matter
produced by them.
5. Ecotone: zone of junction between two or more diverse ecosystems. Examples are mangrove,
grassland, estuary and river bank.

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§Characteristics: It is a zone of tension (as it has conditions intermediate to

bordering ecosystems) + It could contain species that are entirely different from
those found in the bordering systems+ It can be natural or man-made+ For
example, ecotone between an agricultural field and a forest is a man-made one.
6. Edge Effect: Higher density of organisms and variety of species can be found within an ecotone.
7. Edge Species: Organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone.
8. Ecocline: It is a zone of gradual but continuous change from one system to another when there is
no sharp boundary between the two in terms of species composition.

9. Terms related to response to biotic or abiotic factors:

• Ecotope: Smallest ecologically distinct landscape features landscape features in mapping and
classification system.
• Ecological Amplitude: Every species has a specific range within which it can tolerate
ecological changes which is called Ecological amplitude.
• Ecophene: Also known as ecads, these are variation in phenotypes (observable physical
characteristics). For Example, European living in Africa will have different feature (E.g. higher
melanin in skin) than one living in Europe.
• Ecotype: It occur when ecophenes remain in their new environment for too long as a result
morphological changes become genetically fixed. As a result, these morphological changes are
permanent. However, interbreeding among two ecotypes to produce a viable offspring is
possible.
• Ecospecies: Among animal or plant of some species are kept separate environment for a very
long time the adaptations becomes permanent part of the genes. As a result, both morphological
and genetic variation is now permanent.
• Homeostasis: Maintaining constancy of internal body by physiological like ensuring constant
body temperature (Thermoregulation).

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10. Niche: Unique functional role of a species in an ecosystem; all the biological, physical and
chemical factors that a species need to survive; Types include habitat niche, food niche,
reproductive niche, physical and chemical niche.
Habitat Niche
A place or part of an ecosystem, occupied by The role of an organism within its
a particular organism. environment or ecosystem.
Physical space Function of activity
Reflects living place of an organism Reflects its biotic and abiotic association
with environment in terms of its diet,
reproduction and other activities

11. Aquatic zones: not called biomes, divided into distinct life zones with regions of relatively distinct
plant and animal life; differences due to salinity, levels of dissolved nutrients, water temperature,
depth of sunlight penetration.
• Fresh water ecosystem: Classified as lotic (moving water) or lentic (still or stagnant water).
Lotic includes freshwater streams, springs, rivers etc; Lentic water includes pools, ponds, bogs
and lakes; water on land is continuously cycling; low salt content (always less than 5ppt).
• Marine ecosystem: Salt concentration equal to or above that of seawater i.e., 35 ppt, about
90% of which is sodium chloride.
• Brackish water ecosystems: Salt content in between 5 to 35 ppt. Examples include estuaries,
salt marshes, mangrove swamps and forests.

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Ø Estuaries: Fresh water from rivers meet ocean water and two mixed by action of tides;
highly productive as compared to adjacent river; coastal bays, river mouths form the
estuaries.
12. Biosphere: Part of earth where life can exist; represent a highly integrated and interacting zone of
atmosphere (air), hydrosphere(water) and lithosphere(land) + Absent at extremes of north and
south poles + Energy required for life within biosphere comes from the sun.
13. Important Terms
• Biotic Potential: Maximum rate at which a population can increase when resources are
unlimited and environmental conditions are ideal.
• Carrying Capacity: Maximum number of individuals of a given species that an area’s
resources can sustain indefinitely without significantly depleting those resources.
• Gaia hypothesis: Earth is a complex living entity, with the sustenance of life dependent on
self-regulating interactions among organisms and their inorganic surroundings.
• Ecological Footprint: It is a resource accounting tool which measures how fast we consume
resources and produce waste in comparison to how fast nature generate new resources and
observe our waste + It is the only metric that measures nature we humans have and how much
nature we use.
• Six Mass Extinction: Mass extinction refers to a substantial increase in the degree of
extinction or when the Earth loses more than three-quarters of its species in a geologically short
period of time + The sixth, which is ongoing, is referred to as the Anthropocene extinction +
Researchers have described it as the “most serious environmental problem” since the loss of
species will be permanent.
14. Accounting of Ecosystems
• The Economics of Ecosystem and Biodiversity (TEEB): It was a study led by Pavan
Sukhdev from 2007-11 + It is a global initiative focused on “making nature’s values visible” +
Its principal objective is to mainstream the values of biodiversity and ecosystem services into
decision-making at all levels + It is based in Geneva, Switzerland at the International
Environment House, the TEEB office is hosted by UNEP under the Economics and Trade
Branch (ETB) of the Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE).
• The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
(IPBES): It is an independent intergovernmental body, established by member States in 2012
+ Its objective is to strengthen the science-policy interface for biodiversity and ecosystem
services for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, long-term human well-being
and sustainable development + Note: It is not a United Nations body + UNEP provides
secretariat services to IPBES + Four complementary areas-> Assessments, policy support,
Building capacity and knowledge and Communications & Outreach.
• Wealth Accounting and valuation of Ecosystem services (WAVES): It is a World Bank-led
global partnership that aims to promote sustainable development by ensuring that natural
resources are mainstreamed in development planning and national economic accounts + It is
part of the broader World Bank umbrella initiative, the Global Program for Sustainability
(GPS) + It was launched at 2010 Convention on Biological meeting in Nagoya, Japan.
• The Economics of Land Degradation (ELD) initiative: It is a global initiative established in
2011 by UNCCD, the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development,
and the European Commission. It is coordinated and supported by the ELD Secretariat + It
highlights the reward of investing in land management and provides a universal approach for
analysis of the economics of land degradation.

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CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

1. Energy Flow: The flow of energy from producers to top consumers is called energy flow which
is UNIDIRECTIONAL.
Characteristics: Energy always flow from lower (producer) to higher (herbivore,
carnivore) trophic level + It never flows in reverse direction + There is loss of some energy
in form of unsuable heat at each trophic level.
2. Trophic level interaction: It is representation of energy flow in an ecosystem; trophic level is the
position it occupies in a food chain.

3. Food chain: Transfer of food energy from green plants (producers) through a series of organisms
with repeated eating and being eaten link is called a food chain + It starts with producers and ends
with top carnivores + Example: Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk/Eagle.
i. Grazing food chain: Consumers start food chain utilising plant as their food; For example
o In a terrestrial ecosystem, the grass is eaten by a caterpillar, which is eaten by lizard
and lizard is eaten by a snake
o In Aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton (primary producers) eaten by zooplanktons
which are eaten by fishes and fishes are eaten by pelicans.
o Grazing food chain is maximum at Aquatic ecosystem.

ii. Detritus food chain: Starts from dead organic matter of decaying animals and plant bodies
consumed by microorganisms and then to detritus feeding organism called detrivores + It is
maximum in terrestrial/land.

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4. Food web: Multiple interlinked food chains make a food web + It represent all possible paths of
energy flow in an ecosystem + It has more than one alternative for food to most of organisms->
increase the chance of survival(Example: Grasses may serve food for rabbit or grasshopper or
cow).

5. Ecological Pyramids: Steps of trophic levels expressed in a diagrammatic way are referred as
ecological pyramids.
a. Pyramid of numbers
o Pyramid of numbers - Upright: Grasses occupy lowest trophic level-> herbivores->
primary carnivore-> Secondary carnivores-> Top carnivores + In this, with each higher
trophic level, the number of individual decreases.

o Pyramid of numbers - Inverted: Number of individuals increased from lower level to

higher trophic level + Example: Tree ecosystem

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b. Pyramid of Biomass: Individuals in each trophic level are weighed instead of being
counted i.e, the total dry weight of all organisms at each trophic level at a particular time + It
overcomes size difference problem.
o Upright pyramid: Biomass of producers (autotrophs) is at the maximum; the high trophic
level has very less amount of biomass.

o Inverted pyramid: In aquatic ecosystems, pyramid of biomass is inverted because

producers are tiny phytoplanktons that grow and reproduce rapidly.

c. Pyramid of Energy: It is used to compare the functional roles of trophic levels in an

ecosystem + It represents the amount of energy at each trophic level and loss of energy at each
transfer to another trophic level + Always Upward, with large energy base at bottom + The 10

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per cent energy law states that there is only 10 per cent of the transfer of energy from one
trophic level to another.
6. Bioaccumulation: Increase in concentration of a pollutant from the environment to the first
organism in a food chain.
7. Biomagnification: There is increase in concentration of a pollutant from one link in a food chain
to another; to biomagnify a pollutant must be long-lived, mobile, soluble in fats, biologically
active.

8. Biotic Interaction

Examples
• Mutualism : Sea anemone gets attached to the shell of hermit crabs for the benefit of
transport and obtaining new food while the anemone provides camouflage and protection
utilizing its stinging cells to the hermit crab.
• Competition : An example would be competition between cattle and antelope on western
rangelands.

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• Parasitism : Tap worm, roundworm, malarial parasite, many bacteria, fungi, and viruses
are common parasites of humans. The parasite gets its nourishment and often shelter from
its host..
• Commensalism : Suckerfish often attaches to a shark. This helps the suckerfish get
protection, a free ride as well as a meal from the leftover of the shark’s meal. The shark
does not, however, get any benefit nor is it adversely affected by this association
• Amensalism : The bread mould fungi Penicillium produce penicillin an antibiotic
substance which inhibits the growth of a variety of bacteria. A large tree shades a small
plant, retarding the growth of the small plant. The small plant has no effect on the large
tree..
• Predation : owls that eat mice, and lions that eat gazelles.
9. Bio-Geo-Chemical cycle: The cycling of the nutrients in biosphere is called biogeochemical or
nutrient cycle. It involves movement of nutrient elements through various components of an
ecosystem.
a. Nutrient cycling

- Perfect nutrient cycling: Nutrients are replaced as fast as they are utilized; most gaseous
cycles are perfect cycles. Example : Carbon cycle, Nitrogen cycle
- Imperfect nutrient cycle: Sedimentary cycles are relatively imperfect (some nutrients are
lost from the cycle and get locked into the sediments).
10. Gaseous cycles:
§ Hydrological (Water) cycle: Continuous circulation of water in Earth-atmosphere system
driven by solar energy + Water moves from one reservoir to another by the process of
evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration and
ground water flow.

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§ Carbon cycle: Carbon is present in the atmosphere in form of CO2 + Cycle involves
continuous exchange of carbon between the atmosphere and organisms + Carbon from
atmosphere -> green plants by photosynthesis + Carbon from animals -> Through
respiration and decomposition of dead organic matter, it returns to the atmosphere + It is
usually a short term cycle; also accumulates as un-decomposed organic matter in the peaty
layers of marshy soil in bottom sediments of aquatic systems which take a long time to be
released + Ocean is the second largest carbon sink + CO2 is a greenhouse gas and traps
heat in the atmosphere. Without it and other GHGs, Earth would be a frozen world.

§ Nitrogen cycle: Elemental form of Nitrogen cannot be used directly by most living
organisms. It needs to be fixed to ammonia, nitrites or nitrates before it is taken by plants.
It occurs in three ways:
- By microorganisms (bacteria and blue-green algae)
- By man using industrial processes (fertilizer factories): It exceeded amount
fixed by natural cycle and has became a pollutant which can disrupt balance of
nitrogen lead to acid rain, eutrophication etc.
- Atmoshperic phenomenon such as thunder and lightning

o Step 1: N2 Fixing ==> Nitrogen → Ammonia or Ammonium Ions

o Step 2: Nitrification ==> Ammonia or Ammonium Ions → Nitrite → Nitrate
o Step 3: Ammonification ==> Dead Matter + Animal Waste (Urea, Uric Acid) → Ammonia or
Ammonium Ions.
§ Most of the ammonia escapes into the atmosphere. Rest is Nitrified (Step 2) to nitrates.
§ Some of the nitrates is available for plants. Rest is Denitrified (Step 4).
o Step 4: Denitrification ==> Nitrate → Nitrogen

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• Oxygen cycle:

§ Oxygen-> most vital element on Earth- roughly 21% of the atmosphere.

§ Processes that produce oxygen: Photosynthesis in plants; Sunlight + water vapour =
some oxygen is produced.
§ Processes that consume oxygen: Breathing, decomposition, combustion and rusting.
§ Cycling of oxygen
Ø Highly complex process
Ø Oxygen + nitrogen = nitrates
Ø Photosynthesis- oxygen is released as a byproduct
Ø Animals and humans consume oxygen during respiration and release CO2 into
the atmosphere.
Ø This carbon dioxide is then again utilised by plants for photosynthesis and thus
the cycle moves on.
• Sedimentary cycle:
o Phosphorous cycle: Occurs in large amounts in phosphate rocks and enters cycle from
erosion and mining activities + Main storage is earth’s crust and it is available by
weathering and erosion + Phosphates also enters rivers and ocean + After million years
crustal plates rise and expose phosphates on land and the geochemical phase begin again.
o Excess phosphorous and nitrogen from fertilizer runoff and sewage-> excessive
growth of algae-> Death and decay of these organisms deplete Dissolved oxygen-> Death
of acquatic organisms such as shellfish and fish (Dead zones).
o Dead zone: It is an area in lakes and oceans where large areas are periodically depleted of
their normal flora and fauna + These zones caused by eutrophication coupled with other
factors including oil spill, dumping toxic chemicals and other human activities.

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o Sulphur cycle: Reservoir is in soil and sediments (locked in coal, oil etc) and inorganic
deposits (pyrite rock and sulphur rock) in the form of sulphates, sulphides and organic
Sulphur + It is released through weathering of rocks, erosional runoff and decomposition
of organic matter and is carried to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in salt solution.
§ Sulphur enters the atmosphere from several sources like volcanic eruptions, combustion of
fossil fuels, from the surface of the ocean and gases released by decomposition.
§ Atmospheric sulphur dioxide carried back to earth after being dissolved in rainwater as
weak sulphuric acid (acid rain).
§ Sulphur in the form of sulphates is taken up by plants and incorporated through a series of
metabolic processes into sulphur bearing amino acid which is incorporated in the proteins of
autotroph tissues. It then passes through the grazing food chain.
§ Sulphur bound in a living organism is carried back to the soil, to the bottom of ponds and lakes
and seas through excretion and decomposition of dead organic material.
9. Succession: Universal process of directional change in vegetation on an ecological time scale +
This process continue until a stable, mature community develops
• First plant to colonize called as pioneer community
• Intermediate stage found in ecological succession is known as Sere or Seral community
• Final stage of succession is climax community.

o Primary succession: It takes place an over where no community has existed previously +
It include rock outcrops, newly formed deltas and sand dunes, emerging volcano islands
and lava flows, glacial moraines + new site is first colonised by hardy pioneer species such
as microbes, lichens and mosses.
o Secondary succession: Sequential development of biotic communities after complete or
partial destruction of the existing community.
o Autogenic and Allogenic succession: When succession brought by living inhabitants of
that community itself (autogenic succession) + If change brought by outside forces
(allogenic succession)
o Autotrophic and Heterotrophic succession: Succession in which green plants in great
quantity (autotrophic succession) + If heterotrophs greater (heterotrophic succession) +
Both of these occur faster in area existing in the middle of the large continent.
o Hydrarch succession and Xerarch succession : Hydrarch succession is a form of plant
succession that starts in a shallow water and eventually culminates in a forest. Xerarch
succession is a form of plant succession, which starts from a very dry place and eventually
culminates in the mature forest.

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CHAPTER 3: TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS

1. Introduction: Interrelations between organisms and environment on land constitute terrestrial
ecology + Most important limiting factors are moisture and temperature.
2. Forest Ecosystem: Classified majorly into coniferous forest, temperate forest and tropical forest.
• Coniferous forest (Boreal forest):
- Region: covers most of inland Canada and Alaska, Sweden, Finland, Russiaand
northern parts of Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Japan.
- Climate: Present in cold regions with high rainfall + Strong seasonal climates with long
winters and short summers;
- Flora: Evergreen plant species such as spruce, fir, pine trees;
- Fauna: Animals such as red fox, porcupine, bear etc;
- Soil: Soils characterized by thin podzols, acidic and are mineral deficient;
- Productivity and community stability is lower.
• Temperate deciduous forest: Characterized by moderate climate and broad-leafed deciduous
trees
- Region: The world’s largest deciduous forests are typically concentrated in North
America, Europe, and parts of Russia, China, and Japan.
- Climate: Fairly uniform precipitation & average rainfall is in range of 30-60 inches
annually.
- Flora: Three levels of plants- Lichens, moss, ferns found on the forest floor; shrubs in
middle and hardwood trees like maple, oak, beech at third level;
- Fauna: Animal life includes Red-crowned crane, Owls, Hawks, Squirrels, Lynx,
Siberian tiger, Otters, Red panda etc
- Soil: Soils are podzolic and fairly deep.
• Temperate Evergreen forest:
- Region: Parts of world which have Mediterranean type of climate such as Southern
Chile, California, Cape town of Africa and Southern Australia.
- Climate: warm, dry summers and cool, moist winters.
- inhabited by low broad leaf evergreen trees+ fire is hazardous factor + flora like oak,
pine, eucalyptus found here.
- Fauna: Animal Life includes Red-crowned crane, Black bears, Wolves, Leopard,
Lynx, Siberian tiger, Otters, Red panda
• Temperate rain forests:
- Region: The main is along the northwestern coast of North America from northern
California through southern Alaska+ small areas in southern Chile and Australia.
- Climate: Marked seasonality w.r.t temperature and rainfall + do not experience
extreme cold or hot temperatures+ fog contributes 18-30 cm of precipitation every
summer+ average annual precipitation up to 350cm annually.
- Flora: Tallest trees have leaves 15-30 cms from ground + undergrowth is lush mainly
of mosses, lichens+ sciophilus plants developed mechanism to utilize low light
intensity+ main trees include oaks, beeches, walnut trees, lime trees etc.
- Fauna: Grizzly bears are the common mammals found in Alaska.
• Tropical rain forests:
- Region: Occur near the equator; Found in Central and South America, western and
central Africa, western India, Southeast Asia, the island of New Guinea, and Australia.

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-
Climate: Most diverse and rich communities on earth; temperature and humidity
remain high and uniform; annual rainfall exceeds 200cms and distributed throughout
the year.
- Flora: vertically stratified with tall trees covered with vines, epiphytic orchids.
- Soils are red latosols + high rate of leaching-> useless for agri purposes + undergrowth
restricted by lack of sunlight at ground level.
- Fauna: The fauna species encompass okapi, tapir, rhinoceros, spider monkey etc.
• Tropical seasonal forests:
- Region: Found in S.E Asia, Central and south America, northern Australia,
western Africa and tropical islands of pacific as well as in India.
- Climate: Occur in regions where total annual rainfall is very high + segregated into
wet and dry periods.
- Flora: Ferns, lichens, mosses, orchids, and bromeliads etc.
- Fauna: Jaguar, boa constrictor, African gray parrot, keel-billed toucan etc.
• Subtropical rain forests:
- Region: Occur in Central America, the West Indies, India, Madagascar, mainland
Southeast Asia, and the Philippines.
- Climate: Found in regions of fairly high rainfall but less temperature differences
between winter and summer.
- Flora and Fauna: epiphytes are common;
- Flora: Animal life similar to that of tropical forests; It is home to a number of birds,
snakes and lizards, as well as predators such as jaguars and leopards.
3. Forest types in India

• Tropical wet evergreen forests: Found along western Ghats, Nicobar and Andaman islands
and some regions in purvanchal hills + It is characterized by tall, straight evergreen trees +
Shrubs cover layer closer to ground, followed by short structured trees + Annual rainfall
exceeds 250 cms + Dry season is distinctly short + Mesosphytic plants + Thick canopy + Trees
struggle for sunlight result in layer arrangement + Undergrowth formed mainly of bamboos,
ferns, climbers + Important species are mahogany, mesua, white cedar, jamun, canes,
bamboo etc.

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• Tropical semi-evergreen forests: Found in Western Ghats, Andaman& nicobar islands,

Assam, Odisha and Eastern Himalayas+ Transitional forests between tropical wet evergreen
and tropical deciduous forests+ Annual rainfall is 200-250cm and relative humidity is about
75%+ More gregarious (live in colonies), buttressed trunks with abundant epiphytes+
Important species are laurel, rosewood, thorny bamboo, white cedar etc.
• Tropical Moist deciduous forests: Found throughout India except in western and north-
western regions + Annual rainfall 100-200cm+ Trees drop their leaves during spring+ Heavily
buttressed trees and complete undergrowth+ main species are teak, sal, laurel, rosewood, amla,
jamun etc; easy to exploit due to high gregariousness.
• Littoral and swamp: Found along the A&N islands, delta area of Ganga and Brahmaputra+
Occur in and around deltas, estuaries prone to tidal influences + Dense mangroves present in
sheltered estuaries, tidal creeks-> Sunderban in Ganga delta+ Important species are Sundri,
agar, rhizophora, screw pines and canes.
• Tropical Dry Evergreen: Found along the coasts of Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka coast+ Annual rainfall of 100cm+ Mean annual temperature is about 28 degrees
Celsius+ Short statured trees with complete canopy+ Important species are jamun, tamarind
and neem+ Predominance of casuarina plantations; wood suitable for paper pulp and
manufacture of paper; wasteland development+ Intercrops such as groundnut, cucumber and
pulses can also be raised.
• Tropical Dry deciduous forest: Found throughout northern part of country except in North-
east; also found in M.P, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu+ Shed their
leaves in dry season, closed but even canopy-> enough light reaches to ground for growth of
grass and climbers+ Important species are teak, sal, acacia, common bamboo, red sanders,
satinwood etc+ Suffer from over grazing, fire etc.
• Tropical Thorn forests: Found in the areas of south west Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh+ trees do not grow beyond metres+ Annual rainfall less
than 75 cm+ Trees are low (6 to 10 metres maximum) and widely scattered+ Important species
are spurge, caper, neem and cactus.
• Subtropical broad leaved forests: Found in western Himalayas and western ghats+ Species
are evergreen oaks, chestnuts, ash, beech, sal and pines+ Climbers and epiphytes are common.
• Sub-tropical Pine forests: Found in steppe dry slopes of Shivaliks, Western and Central
Himalayas, Khasi, Naga and Manipur hills+ Important trees in these areas are chir, oak,
rhodendron, and pine as well as sal, amla found in the lower regions.
• Sub-tropical Dry evergreen forests: Found in Bhabar, Shiwaliks and western Himalayas+
Annual rainfall is 50-100cms + Summers are sufficiently hot and winters are very cold+ Low
scrub forest with small evergreen stunted trees+ Important species are olive, acacia modesta
and pistacia.
• Montane Wet temperate forests: Found in higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, in Eastern
Himalayan region+ Mean annual rainfall is about 150-300 cm+ Average relative humidity is
over 80%+ Closed evergreen forests and trunks have large girth+ Branches clothed with
mosses, ferns and other epiphytes+ Deodar, Chilauni, Indian chestnut, birch, plum, machilus,
cinnamomum, litsea, magnolia, blue pine, oak, hemlock, etc. are important species.
• Himalayan Moist temperate forests: Occurs in temperate zone of Himalayas between 1500
and 3300 metres+ Mainly composed of coniferous species; Pines, cedars, silver firs, spruce,

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etc. form high but fairly open forest with shrubby undergrowth+ Provides fine wood which is
of much use for construction, timber and railway sleepers.
• Himalayan Dry temperate forests: Found in Lahul, Kinnaur, Sikkim and other parts of the
Himalayas+ Precipitation below 100 cm and mostly in form of snow+ Coniferous forests with
xerophytic shrubs like deodar, oak, ash, olive etc.
• Sub alpine forests: Extend from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh+ Vegetation mainly consists
of juniper, rhodendron, willow and black currant+ In eastern parts, red fir, black juniper, birch
are the common trees+ Heavy rainfall and high humidity-> timber line in this part is higher
than that in the west.
• Alpine forests: Altitudes ranging between 2,900 to 3,500 + Occur lower alpine scrub and
grasslands + It has mixture of coniferous and broad-leaved trees; attain a height of about 30 m
while the broad leaved trees reach only 10 m+ Fir, spruce, rhododendron, etc. are important
species.
o Moist alpine scrub: Found all along Himalayas and on higher hills near Myanmar border+
low evergreen dense growth of rhododendron, birch etc. which occurs from 3,000 metres
and extends upto snowline.
o Dry alpine scrub: Uppermost limit of scrub xerophytic, dwarf shrubs, over 3,500 m above
sea level+ Found in dry zone+ Black juniper, honeysuckle, willow etc. are important
species.
4. Biome: Terrestrial part of biosphere divisible into enormous regions are called as biomes+
Climate is major factor that determines boundaries of a biome and abundance of plants and
animals+ Other most important factors are temperature and precipitation.

• Tundra biome: Means a barren land-> environmental conditions are very severe.
§ Distribution: Arctic tundra: Continuous belt below polar ice cap and above tree line
in northern hemisphere; North region of Canada, Alaska, Siberia and island group of
Arctic ocean+ Alpine tundra: Occurs at high mountains above w.r.t to Arctic
mountains found at all latitudes; shows day and night temperature variations.
§ Temperature: Low mean annual temperature + Summers are relatively warmer + Not
more than four months have above freezing points; ground remains solidly frozen and
inaccessible to plants.
§ Precipitation: Convectional rainfall is absent + Present usually in the form of snow
and sleet
§ Flora and Fauna: Devoid of trees due to permafrost in tundra + Typical vegetation
is cotton grass, willows and lowest form of vegetation like lichens + Coastal lowlands
support hardy grasses and reindeer moss + Animals like reindeer, musk ox, arctic
hare, lemmings are found; most of them have long life (E.g: Arctic willow-life span

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of 150-300 years) + Animals protected from chillness by the presence of thick cuticle
and epidermal hair or fur + Reptiles and amphibians are almost absent.
§ Human activities: Largely confined to coast; semi-nomadic life + In Greenland,
northern Canada and Alaska live the Eskimos; during winter they live in
compact igloos + Food derived from fish, seals, walruses and polar bears.
• Taiga/Boreal biome:
§ Distribution: It extends in cool temperate continental margin (45-65 degrees) only
in Northern hempishere + The regions include Siberian region of Russia, Northern
Canada and Scandinavian countries. (Note: It does not extend in Southern Hemisphere
because of absence of land mass beyond this latitude extent).
§ Climate: Very cold winter and mild warm summer+ Frost occur as soon as the
month of august+ The number of days in which rivers are frozen increases from south
to north.
§ Temperature: Summers are brief and warm reaching 20-25 °C whereas winters are
long and brutually cold – always 30-40 °C below freezing + Annual temperature
range is the greatest (Almost 50-60 °C in Siberia).
§ Precipitation: Rainfall annually is not high because of absence of maritime
influence+ Typical annual precipitation ranges from 38 cm to 63 cm + Maximum
rainfall in summer is by convectional rainfall + In winter, the precipitation is in the
form of snow.
§ Natural vegetation: Predominant vegetation is evergreen coniferous forest such as
spruce, fir and pine + Greatest single band of coniferous forest is termed as Taiga+
Softwood is found in cool temperate (USSR, USA, Canada are leading producers of
softwood) + Juniper, spruce, fir, pine are examples of coniferous.
§ Fauna: Animals include Siberian tiger, wolverine, wolf, bear, red fox and amphibians
like Hyla, Rana etc.
• Temperate decidious forests (British type climate):
§ Distribution: Extend over Britain, North France, North Germany, Norway,
Tasmania, New Zealand, Southern Chile and Western Canada.
§ Climate: Moderately warm summers and cool winters + Temperature is moderate
and is best suited for human habitation + Less annual range of temperature.
§ Temperature: The mean annual temperatures are between 5° C and 15° C + Winters
are abnormally mild.
§ Precipitation: Adequate rainfall throughout the year with a tendency towards a
slight winter maximum + Western margins have the heaviest rainfall due to westerlies.
§ Natural vegetation: Deciduous forestry+ It has tall trees with good canopy layer
+ Multiple species not found-> commercially viable + Trees shed their leaves in
cold season+ It comprises a multitude of evergreen trees that yield tropical
hardwood, e.g. mahogany, ebony, greenheart, cabinet wood and dyewoods.
§ Fauna: European Hedgehog, Wood Mouse, Grey Seal etc.
§ Economic activity: Lumbering (cutting of trees for commercial purposes) +
winter cutting is done where they would make wood logs float on frozen rivers.
• Tropical rain forest:
§ Distribution: Central and South America, western and central Africa, western India,
Southeast Asia, the island of New Guinea, and Australia.

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§ Climate: Rainfall exceeds about 1,800 to 2,500 mm (about 70 to 100 inches) annually and
occurs fairly evenly throughout the year.
§ Vegetation: High temperature and rainfall support luxuriant tropical rain forest + Presence
of multiple storey of broad-leaf evergreen tree species in abundance + Small palm trees,
climbing lianas-epiphytic or parasitic plants concentrated in the canopy or tree top zones
+ Multitude of evergreen trees like mahogany, ebony, deywoods etc.
§ Epiphytes: Plant that grows harmlessly upon another plant and derives its moisture and
nutrients from air, rain and debris accumulating around it.
§ Fauna: Sloths, Jaguars, toucans etc.
• Savannah:
§ Distribution: West African Sudan, East Africa, South America (Llanos and campos),
Australia (Queensland).
§ Climate: It is a transitional type of climate found between the equatorial rainforests
and hot deserts.
§ Temperature: Mean annual temperature is greater than 18° C + Extreme diurnal range
of temperature+ Confined dry and wet season.
§ Precipitation: Annual precipitation is around 80 cms + rainfall is confined to limited
period+ In northern hemisphere, rainy season begins in May and lasts till September + In
southern hemisphere, the rainy season is from October to March.
§ Natural vegetation: Typified by tall grass and short trees (elephant grass) + It has
presence of deciduous trees like Acacius + Trees are deciduous and shed their leaves in
the cool, dry season to prevent excessive loss of water through transpiration + Broad
trunks with water storing devices to survive droughts + Presence of grasses with scattered
trees and fire resisting thorny shrubs + Boabs trees is special feature of this ecosystem
§ Fauna: Antelopes, buffaloes, elephants and rhinoceros; carnivores include lion, cheetah,
hyena and many rodents.
§ Other names: Brazil (Campos) + Venezuela (Llanos).
• Temperate grasslands:
§ Distribution: Found in various regions north and south of the equator including Argentina,
Australia, and central North America.
§ Climate: They have cold winters and warm summers.
§ Temperature: The temperatures can vary from -40 degrees Fahrenheit to more than 100
degrees Fahrenheit
§ Precipitation: The annual rainfall is in the range of 25 cm to 75 cm + It is mostly in the
form of dew and snow.
§ Vegetation: Cacti, sagebrush, perennial grasses, buffalo grass clovers, and wild indigos,
etc.
§ Other names: Pampas (Argentina), Prairie (America), Velds (South Africa), Steppe (Asia)
and Downs (Australia).
• Desert:
§ Distribution: Major hot deserts of the world are located on tropics on western margin of
the continent.
§ Climate: Continental interiors with low and sporadic rainfall with low humidity + The
days in these regions are very hot but nights are cold.
§ Temperature: Temperature is high throughout the year + Annual average temperature is
30-35 degree Celsius + Diurnal range of temperature is very high.
• Vegetation: Drought resistance vegetation such as cactus, euphorbias, sagebrush + Presence
of long roots and well-spaced out to gather moisture + The seeds of many species of grasses
have thick, tough skins to protect while they lie dormant.

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5. Deforestation: Felling of trees as a result of urbanization, industrialization, mining and use of

wood for domestic and other purposes, shifting cultivation.

•UN REDD Program = It is collaborative initiative of FAO, UNDP and UNEP + Multilateral
body which partners with developing countries by assisting them to develop capacities needed
to meet UNFCCC REDD+ requirements + It has country-based approach that provides
advisory and technical support tailored to national circumstances.
• Introduction to REDD+: Climate change mitigation solution developed by parties to
UNFCCC + It incentivizes developing countries to keep their forest standing by offering
results-based payments to remove forest carbon emissions.
o REDD+ in UNFCCC: First negotiated in UNFCC 2005 (COP-11) + In 2013, seven
decisions on REDD+ produced known as “Warsaw Framework on REDD-Plus” + REDD+
goes beyond deforestation and forest degradation and includes role of conservation,
sustainable management of forests and enhancement of carbon stocks + UNFCCC rulebook
on REDD+ finalized in COP-21 in 2015.
• India’s REDD+ Strategy: Prepared by Indian Council for Forestry Research and Education
(ICFRE), Dehradun + It builds upon existing national circumstances updated in line with
NAPCC, Green India Mission and INDCs + Please Note: ICFRE is an autonomous
organisation or governmental agency under the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Government of India
6. REDD and REDD+
• UN REDD: Headquarters at Geneva, Switzerland + 64 partner countries + multilateral
collaborative programme of FAO, UNDP and UNEP + created in 2008 in response to the
UNFCCC decisions on the Bali Action Plan and REDD at COP-13 + It partners with
developing countries to support them in establishing the technical capacities needed to
implement REDD+ and meet UNFCCC requirements for REDD.
• REDD+: Voluntary climate change mitigation approach developed by parties to the
UNFCCC + It goes beyond simply deforestation and forest degradation + It incentivize
developing countries to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation,
conserve forest carbon stocks, sustainably manage forests + Developing countries would

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receive results-based payments for results-based actions. +In addition to UN-REDD

programme, World Bank’s Forest Carbon Partnership Facility, GEF and GCF also assist it.
7. Grassland Ecosystem: Found where rainfall is about 25-75 cm per year + It is found mainly in
the high Himalayas in India; the rest of India’s grasslands mainly composed of steppes and
savannas.

• Indian Grasslands and Fodder research institute: Located at Jhansi (Uttar Pradesh)
• Central Arid zone research institute: Located at Jodhpur (Rajasthan).
8. Desert ecosystem: Found in regions with less than 25 cm of rainfall + It is also found in hot regions
where there is more rainfall but unevenly distributed in annual cycle.
• Adaptations of Desert plants
o Conserve water: Leaves are absent or reduced in size, succulent and water soring; even
stem contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis; root system spread over large area.
o Animal adaptations: Fast runners, nocturnal in habit to avoid sun’s heat, conserve water
by excreting urine, long legs to keep body away from hot ground, camel is known as ship
of desert; few species of nocturnal rodents also present.
• Indian Desert- Thar desert (hot): Excessive drought, rainfall is scanty and irregular; relative
humidity of atmosphere is always low + Flora includestrees and shrubs like Acacia
jacquemontii, Acacia nilotica, Calligonum polygonoides+ slender stems and root systems, rain
perennials (visible above ground only during rainy season) + Fauna: Sanctuary for Great
Indian Bustard + Blackbuck, wild ass, chinkara, caracal inhabit open plains, grasslands and
saline depressions + It has nesting ground for Flamingoes and only known population of
Asiatic wild ass.
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9. Desertification: Process by which the biological productivity of drylands is reduced due to natural
or manmade factors. It does not mean the expansion of existing deserts; Almost 30% (96.4 million
hectare) of India’s land mass is under desertification.
• UNCCD: One of three conventions finalized in 1992 Earth Summit + Established in 1994 +
Sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and development to
sustainable land management + Only convention stemming from a direct
recommendation of the Rio conference’s Agenda 21 + India became a signatory to
UNCCD on October 14, 1994, and ratified in 1996 + MoEF&CC is the nodal Ministry
+ Focus areas are improved living condition of people in drylands; maintain and restore soil
productivity; mitigate the effect of drought.
o COP 14 in New Delhi (2019): First time that India hosted an edition of the UNCCD COP;
theme was ‘Restore land, Sustain future’ + Key outcomes were:
§ Delhi declaration: Commitment for issues, including gender and health, ecosystem
restoration, taking action on climate change, private sector engagement.
§ Peace Forest initiative: Initiative of South Korea + Aims to use ecological restoration as
a peace-building process; addressing the issue of land degradation in conflict-torn border
areas.
§ Drought Toolbox launched to assess drought risks in their regions.
§ Roadmap for scaling up African-led Great Green wall initiative which aims to restore
100 million hectares of land and create 100 million green jobs by 2030.
§ International coalition on sand and dust storms: Develop an SDS source base to
improve response to these storms.
§ Initiative of Sustainability, Stability and Security (3S): Launched by 14 African
countries to address migration driven by land degradation.
o COP 15 in Cote d'Ivoire (Western Africa) + Theme: ‘Land. Life. Legacy: From scarcity
to prosperity' + It was built on the findings of the second edition of the Global Land Outlook
o New UNCCD 2018-2030 Strategic framework
§ Most comprehensive global commitment to achieve Land degradation neutrality
(LDN).
§ LDN Target setting program: Global mechanism (GM) and Secretariat on UNCCD
supporting countries in national LDN target setting process.
§ LDN Fund: Impact investment fund + Resources from public, private and
philanthropic sectors will be used to achieve LDN and land restoration projects
implemented in private sector + officially launched at COP 13 in Ordos, China.
• National initiatives to combat Desertification
o National Afforestation Programme (NAP)” for ecological restoration of degraded
forest areas implemented by National afforestation and Eco-development board (NAEB)
of MoEFCC.
o Multiple schemes like Green India Mission, fund accumulated under CAMPA, Nagar Van
Yojana etc. MoEF&CC promotes tree outside forests for increasing Trees Outside Forest
(TOF).
10. Land Degradation Neutrality: It is a condition where further land degradation (loss of
productivity caused by environmental or human factors) is prevented and already degraded land
can be restored.

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11. Bonn Challenge: Launched by Government of Germany and IUCN in 2011 + It is a global goal
to bring 150 million hectares of degraded and deforested landscapes into restoration by 2020 and
350 million hectares by 2030 + The Challenge exhorts the achievement of their stated goals through
an approach to restoration called forest landscape restoration (FLR) + India joined the Bonn
Challenge in 2015 with a pledge to restore 21 mha of degraded and deforested land + This was
raised to target of 26 mha by 2030 during UNCCD COP 14.
12. Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas: It is a study recently published by ISRO, reveals
that land degradation and desertification have risen considerably in recent years + Some 97.85
million hectares (29.7%) of India’s total geographical area (TGA) of 328.72 mha underwent land
degradation during 2018-19.
13. About India state of Forest report: Report for assessment of India’s forest and tree cover + It is
published every two years by the Forest Survey of India(FSI) + First survey was done in 1987 and
ISFR 2021 is the 17th in the series + Three categories of forests surveyed – very dense forests
(canopy density over 70%), moderately dense forests (40-70%) and open forests (10-40%) +
Scrubs (canopy density less than 10%) are also surveyed but not categorised as forests.
14. Forest Survey of India (FSI) = Established in 1981 + Premier national organisation under the
Ministry of Environment + It is responsible for assessment and monitoring of the forest resources
of the country regularly. In addition, it is also engaged in providing the services of training,
research and extension
15. Indian State of Forest Report 2021 = ISFR is a biennial (every two years) report on India’s forest
and tree cover prepared by the Forest Survey of India (FSI) + The ISFR 2021 is the 17th edition in
the series since 1987. The last such report was published in 2019 + The ISFR-2021 provides
information on forest cover, tree cover, mangrove cover, growing stock, carbon stock in India’s
forests, forest fire monitoring, above ground estimates of biomass using SAR data & climate
change hotspots in Indian forests + It also provides for the first time the forest cover in tiger reserve
areas, tiger corridors and the Gir forest that houses the Asiatic lion + Key findings:

• New features: First time assessed forest cover in tiger reserves, tiger corridors and the Gir forest
were accounted + Forest cover in tiger corridors increased by 37.15 sq km (0.32%) between 2011-
2021; decreased by 22.6 sq km (0.04%) in tiger reserves.

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• Total forest and tree cover of the country is 80.9 million hectare (24.62% of the geographical area
of the country). As compared to the assessment of 2019, there is an increase of 2,261 sq km in the
total forest and tree cover of the country
• Increase in forest cover has been observed in open forest followed by very dense forest. There is a
decline in the moderately dense forests or “natural forests”
• Highest losses found in Kawal (Telangana), Bhadra (Karnataka) and the Sunderbans reserves (West
Bengal).
• Pakke Tiger Reserve (Aru.P)-> highest forest cover of 97%.
• Top 3 states showing increase in forest cover: Andhra Pradesh > Telangana > Odisha [Northeast
reported the biggest losses in forest cover]
• Area-wise Largest Forest Cover: Madhya Pradesh > Arunachal Pradesh > Chhattisgarh > Odisha
> Maharashtra
• Forest cover as percentage of total geographical area: Mizoram > Arunachal Pradesh >
Meghalaya
• The present assessment reveals that 17 states/UT’s have above 33% of the geographical area under
forest cover
• Mangroves: Top three states showing mangrove cover increase - Odisha, Maharashtra and
Karnataka + Total mangrove cover in the country is 4,992 sq km. An increase of 17 sq Km in
mangrove cover has been observed as compared to the previous assessment of 2019
• Bamboo Resources: MP > Arunachal Pradesh > Maharashtra > Odisha > Assam + Total area under
bamboo is decreased + State with highest increase in bamboo bearing area: Mizoram
• Carbon stock: Total carbon stock in India’s forest is estimated to be 7,204 million tones. There is
an increase of 79.4 million tonnes in the carbon stock of country as compared to the last assessment
of 2019. The annual increase in the carbon stock is 39.7 million tonnes
• It also identifies 35.46% of the forest cover as prone to forest fires
• Climate Change Hotspots - The report has also mapped the climate change hotspots in Indian
forests, based on projections for 2030, 2050 and 2080. It predicted that Himalayan states and UTs
(Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, J&K and Ladakh) will record the maximum increase in
temperature and may experience decrease in rainfall. Extreme rainfall may also increase in the states
of the North East.
• New initiative of FSI documented where the ‘Above Ground Biomass’ has been estimated

Miyawaki method: It is a technique pioneered by Japanese botanist Akira Miyawaki, that helps build
dense, native forests in a short time. It has revolutionised the concept of urban afforestation by turning
backyards into mini-forests.

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CHAPTER 4: AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

1. Introduction: Ecosystems consisting of water as main habitat known as aquatic ecosystems.
2. Classification based on salt content
• Fresh water ecosystems: Less than 5ppt + Examples include lakes, ponds, springs and rivers.
• Marine ecosystems: Salt content 35 ppt or above + Examples are seas and open ocean.
• Brackish water ecosystem: Salt content in between 5 to 35 ppt + Examples are estuaries, salt
marshes, mangroves etc.
3. Various Zones

4. Aquatic organisms
• Neuston: unattached organisms live at air-water interface; E.g: beetles and backswimmers
• Periphyton: Attached to stems of rooted plants+ live submerged in water; E.g: Sessile algae.
• Plankton: Includes both microscopic plants and animals like crustaceans+ limited
locomotory power-> distribution controlled largely by currents; E.g: Algae and crustaceans.
• Nekton: Swimmers; live under water; large and powerful to overcome water currents; E.g:
All sea animals.
• Benthos: Attached to bottom of water mass. Example: macroalgae, seagrasses, corals,
barnacles, mussels, sea urchins, and sea stars.

5. Lentic is standing water system E.g: Pond; Lotic-> Moving water system E.g: River
6. Factors limiting productivity of Aquatic habitats
• Sunlight
o Photic zone: Upper layer up to which light penetrates and photosynthesis takes place +
The depth depends on the transparency of water.

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o Aphotic zone: Light does not penetrate so plant growth restricted + Only respiratory
activity takes place + It is also known as profundal zone.
• Dissolved Oxygen: Escapes water body through air-water interface & respiration of organisms
+ When dissolved oxygen falls below 3-5 ppm, many organisms die.
• Transparency: SPM such as clay, silt etc. make water turbid-> limits light participation and
photosynthetic activity.
• Temperature: Water temperatures are less subject to change + The aquatic organisms have
narrow temperature tolerance limit.
7. Lake Ecology: Large body of water with huge area and depth + It is born from geological or
geomorphic process + It receive water from surface run-off; ageing occurs as lakes accumulate
mineral and organic matter.
8. Lakes in India
• Artificial lakes are more in number than natural lakes + natural lakes predominantly in
Himalayan regions, floodplains of Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.
• Lakes classified on the basis of salt content: On nutrient content basis they are classified as
oligotrophic (very low), Mesotrophic (moderate) and Eurotrophic (high rich).
• Removal of nutrients technique: Deep water abstraction + Flushing + algae skimming +
plants to suck nutrients + harvest fish and macrophytes + Sludge removal + Filters for algae
removal.
9. Eutrophication: Response to addition of artificial or natural nutrients such as nitrates and
phosphates through fertilizers, sewage etc. + It results in growth of green algae + Algal bloom
restricts penetration of sunlight + It leads to reduced oxygen levels-> organisms suffocate leads
to degradation of ecosystem and death of organisms.

• Effects of Eutrophication:
o Loss of freshwater lakes: It creates detritus layer in lakes and produces
successively shallower depth of surface water.
o Death of aquatic plants: Algal bloom-> restrict penetration of sunlight-> death of aquatic
plants and restrict replenishment of oxygen.
o New species invasion: cause ecosystem competitive by transforming the normal
limiting nutrient to abundant level.

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o Loss of coral reefs: Occurs due to decrease in water transparency.

o Affects navigation due to increased turbidity + smell and water treatment problems +
increases biomass of inedible toxic phytoplankton, benthic and epiphytic algae +
unsuitable for aesthetic recreation.
• Mitigation: Restoration and preservation of ecosystems + Create buffer zones for sediments
to collect + Nitrogen testing + Industrial waste treatment and efficiency + reduce livestock
densities + Reduce non-point source
10. Harmful Algal Bloom: When algal bloom produces toxins, it affects marine organisms thus
making it difficult to breathe + Produces diatoms, cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates + Blooms can
occur due to nutrient enrichment and warm waters.
Producing High Biomass (Green Tides) Producing Toxins (Red Tides)
Mechanical disturbance Shellfish poisoning
Shading Direct lethal toxicity
Clogging water and overgrowth Ambush predation
Mucus and foam formation
11. Sea Snot and its Formation: Recently, Turkey’s Sea of Marmara, which connects the Black Sea
to the Aegean Sea, has witnessed the largest outbreak of ‘sea snot' + It is marine mucilage that is
formed when algae are overloaded with nutrients as a result of water pollution combined with the
effects of climate change + The nutrient overload occurs when algae feast on warm weather caused
by global warming + It has caused mass deaths among fish populations + It looks like a viscous,
brown and foamy substance.
12. National plan for conservation of aquatic ecosystems: Single conservation programme for both
wetlands and lakes + It is a centrally sponsored scheme, currently being implemented by Ministry
of Environment + It seeks to promote better synergy and avoid overlap of administrative functions.
13. Comparison between Lakes and Wetlands
• Lakes: Minimum depth 3 mts (NLCP), origin from multiple sources, small pelagial ratio, low
productivity and biodiversity, oligotrophic status, thermal stratification.
• Wetlands: Minimum depth < 3 mts, origin due to geomorphic processes, large pelagial ratio,
high productivity and biodiversity and no thermal stratification.
14. Estuary ecosystem: Areas where river meets the sea (exhibiting gradient in salinity), resulting
in mixture of fresh river water with salty ocean water, subject to tidal variations.
• Conditions: rising sea level, movement of sand and sandbars, glacial processes and tectonic
processes.
• Characteristics: Free connection with open sea, complete salinity range from 0-35 ppt, filter
for river water, heavily populated, little wave action + It is the biologically most productive
region and receives high amount of nutrients from fresh and marine water.
• Flora: Home to unique animals such as sea turtles and sea lions, sea catfish, saltworts,
eelgrass, salt grasses, cord grasses, sea grass, sedge and bulrush.
• Benefits of Estuarine ecosystems: Commercial fishing + Travel and tourism + Economic and
social benefits + Water purification + Breeding hotspot + Recreational and community benefits
+ Erosion protection + Stores and recycles nutrients.
15. Mangroves: small tree or shrub that grows along coastlines, taking root in salty sediments, often
underwater + It belong to the families Rhizophoraceae, Acanthaceae, Lythraceae, Combretaceae,
and Arecaceae.

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• Characteristics: Mostly evergreen forests grow in sheltered low lying coasts, estuaries,
mudflats etc+ Highly productive ecosystems + It protect shoreline from the effect of
cyclones+ Best example of ecotone + Grow below high water level of spring tides + Salt
tolerant trees (halophytes) + Adapted to the low oxygen (anoxic) conditions of waterlogged
mud + Produce pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome the respiration problem + Occur
worldwide mainly between latitudes 25° N and 25° S + Succulent leaves (store fresh water
in leaves), viviparous (Their seeds germinate while still attached to the parent tree. Once
germinated, the seedling grows into a propagule).
• Types: Rhizophora (send arching prop roots down into the water), Avicennia (send vertical
“Pneumatophores” up from the mud), Adventitious roots emerge from the main trunk of a
tree above ground level are called stilt roots.

• Largest Mangrove Forest: Sundarbans in West Bengal are the largest mangrove forest
regions in the world + listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site + Home to the Royal Bengal
tiger, Gangetic dolphins and Estuarine crocodiles.
• International Day for conservation of Mangrove: UNESCO celebrates on July 26; raising
awareness about mangrove ecosystems and to promote their sustainable management and
conservation.
• CRZ rules are also protecting mangroves.
• SMART (Special Monitoring and Reporting Tool) monitoring in Sundarbans empowers
local administration contributing to more effective management of natural resources.
• Gujarat uses direct seed sowing, raised bed plantations and fishbone channel plantations to
restore degraded mangroves + Andhra Pradesh has established Eco-Development committees
and Van Samrakshan Samiti to implement conservation projects in mangrove areas.
• Mangroves for the Future Initiative: initiative by IUCN and UNDP + It promote investment
in coastal ecosystem conservation called the “Mangroves for the Future” + India is part of
this initiative.
• India State of Forest Report, 2021
o Mangroves have increased by 17 sq km making India’s total mangrove cover as 4,992 sq
km.

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o Top 3 states showing mangrove cover increase: Odisha (8 sq km), Maharashtra (4 sq km),
and Karnataka (3 sq km).
o Overall Mangrove cover increased by 0.34% as compared to the previous assessment.
16. Coral reefs
• Coral: Colonial organisms made up of individual polyps (tiny animals related to anemones)
+ symbiotic relationship with ‘Zooxanthellae’ microscopic algae which live on coral + use
calcium and carbonate ions from water to form a hard-cup shaped skeleton of calcium
carbonate.
• Symbiotic relationship between Coral and algae
o Zooxanthellae assist coral in nutrient production through photosynthetic activities +
Provide corals with fixed carbon compounds for energy, nutrition and enhance
calcification.
o Corals-> Provide algae a protected environment to live within and steady supply of CO2
for photosynthesis.
• Types of corals
o Black Corals: Black corals (Anthozoa: Antipatharia) can be found growing both in shallow
waters and down to depths of over 26,000 feet (8,000 metres), and some individual corals
can live for over 4,000 years + However, the taxonomy of black corals is poorly known
compared to many other anthozoan groups + Many of these corals are branched and look
like feathers, fans or bushes, while others are straight like a whip.
o Hard corals: Hard corals extract calcium carbonate from seawater to build hard, white
coral exoskeletons. Hard corals are in a way the engineers of reef ecosystems and
measuring the extent of hard coral is a widely-accepted metric for measuring the condition
of coral reefs.
o Soft corals: Soft corals attach themselves to such skeletons and older skeletons built by
their ancestors. Soft corals also add their own skeletons to the hard structure over the years.
These growing multiplying structures gradually form coral reefs.
• Coral reefs: Large underwater structure composed of skeleton of corals + It is built by
coral polyps as they secrete layers of calcium carbonate from under their skin + It grow best in
warm water and prefer shallow range with lots of sunlight for their symbiotic algae.
o Features: Occur in shallow tropical areas + It is one of the most productive ecosystems
with high biological diversity + Corals are generally slow growing colonies of animals
while zooxanthellae are fast growing plants + They live in nutrient poor waters + They
high capability to recycle scarce nutrients; extremely high productivity and biodiversity->
Tropical rainforests of the oceans.
o Temperature
§ The water's temperature should not be less than 20°C.
§ The optimal temperature range for coral reef growth is between 23°C and 25°C.
§ A temperature of no more than 35°C should be used.
§ Corals can only thrive in saline settings with an average salinity of between 27% and
40%.
§ Coral reefs thrive in shallow water less than 50 metres deep. The water depth should
not exceed 200m.
o Classification of coral reefs based on location

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§ Fringing reefs: Grow near coastline around islands and continents + Separated
from shore by narrow and shallow lagoons + Examples include reefs of Andamans.
§ Barrier reefs: Parallel to coastline separated by deeper, wider lagoons + Can reach
water’s surface forming a ‘barrier’ to navigation + E.g: reefs in Nicobar and
Lakshadweep.
§ Atolls: Rings of corals that create protected lagoons and usually located in middle of
sea; circular barrier reefs but without their central land mass + Example is Atolls
of Lakshadweep and Nicobar.
§ Patch reefs: Small, isolated reefs that grow up from open bottom of island platform +
They usually occur between fringing reefs and barrier reefs.

o Important Facts: Great barrier reef is the largest coral reef in the world+ most of the
coral reefs located between Tropic of cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.
o Significance
§ Biodiversity protection-> highest productivity, occupy less than 1% of the ocean floor
but home to 25% of marine life (Tropical rainforests of the oceans).
§ Coastal protection: act as a barrier and protect the coastal areas from strong ocean
currents and waves.
§ Medicinal properties-> medicine chests of the sea; tourism potential.
§ Others: Provide substrate for mangroves; largest biogenic CaCO3 producer.
17. Coral Bleaching: When corals are stressed by changes in conditions such as temperature, light
or nutrients; expel symbiotic algae living on their tissues-> causing them to turn completely
white.

18. Initiatives for protection of coral reefs

• Corals included in Schedule-I list of WPA, 1972 by Ministry of Environment.

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• Aichi Target 10: Concerns reducing pressures on coral reefs and other vulnerable
ecosystems impacted by climate change or ocean acidification
• Biorock Technology: Also known as Mineral Accretion Technology, it is a coral reef
restoration technology that utilizes low voltage electricity to improve the health and
growth rates of corals and other marine organisms. The technology works by passing a
small amount of electrical current through electrodes in the water + When a positively
charged anode and negatively charged cathode are placed on the sea floor, with an
electric current flowing between them, calcium ions combine with carbonate ions and
adhere to the structure (cathode) + This results in calcium carbonate formation. Coral
larvae adhere to the CaCO3 and grow quickly.
• Glowing Glowing Gone Initiative: In partnership with the United Nations
Environment Programme, the Ocean Agency has launched Glowing Glowing Gone, a
creative awareness campaign that draws attention to coral fluorescence due to climate
change.
• Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network report (2021): Operational network of
ICRI with the primary task of reporting on the condition of the world’s coral reefs.
o Between 2009 and 2018, rising ocean temperatures destroyed approximately 14% of the
world's coral reefs.
o Coral bleaching events induced by rising sea surface temperatures have been identified
as the primary cause of coral loss.
o The report concluded that global warming due to climate change, overfishing, coastal
expansion, and deteriorating water quality have put coral reefs under relentless stress.

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CHAPTER 5: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND DEGRADATION

1. Green Chemistry/Sustainable chemistry: It deals with the design and optimization of processes and
products in order to lower, or remove altogether, the production and use of toxic substances.
2. Water Pollution: It is addition of undesirable substance to water such as organic, inorganic,
biological and others which degrades the quality of water so that it becomes unfit for use.
• Causes of water pollution: Natural causes such as soil erosion, leaching of minerals from rocks
and decaying of organic matter; Community waste water, industrial wastes, excess fertilizers
reach groundwater by leaching, thermal pollution, marine pollution etc.
• Effects
o Aquatic ecosystem: Polluted water-> less dissolved oxygen (DO) content-> eliminates
plankton, molluscs etc.; biocides and PCBs affect sensitive aquatic organisms.
o Human health: Water borne diseases like jaundice, typhoid etc; mercury compounds in
waste water cause numbness of limbs, blurring of vision; Cadmium causes itai itai disease
also called ouch-ouch disease; lead in water cause anaemia, headache, bluish line around
the gum.
o Ground water pollution: Excess fluoride cause neuro muscular disorders and, hardening of
bones and stiff, skeletal fluorosis.
• Key terms
o Dissolved oxygen: Higher organic and inorganic wastes -> Increased rates of decomposition
and O2 consumption-> less dissolved oxygen.
§ DO < 8.0 mg L-1 is contaminated.
§ DO < 4.0 mg L-1 is highly polluted.
§ Factors: Surface turbulence, photosynthetic activity, O2 consumption by organisms and
decomposition of organic matter determine amount of DO in water
o Biological oxygen demand: Water pollution by organic wastes measured in BOD + It is
amount of dissolved oxygen needed by bacteria in decomposing the organic wastes present
in water + It is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per litre of water + Higher value of BOD
-> low DO content of water.
o Chemical oxygen demand: Measure of oxygen equivalent of requirement of oxidation of
total organic matter (both biodegradable and non-biodegradable) present in water.
o Putrescibility: It is the process of decomposition of organic matter present in water by
microorganisms using oxygen.
o Biological Magnification: Increase in the concentration of non-biodegradable toxic
materials at each trophic level of a food chain. Examples include DDT, BHC, Heptachlor,
Aldrin, Endrin etc.
o Eutrophication: When a water body becomes overly enriched with minerals and nutrients
which induce excessive growth of algae or algal bloom + It leads to oxygen depletion of the
water body.
§ Phytoplankton thrive on the excess nutrients and their population explosion covers
almost entire surface layer. This condition is known as algal bloom.

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• Water (Prevention and control of pollution) act, 1974: It provides for prevention and control
of water pollution and for maintenance of wholesomeness of water in the country + It was
amended in 1988.
Important Provisions:
o Establishment of Central, state and joint pollution control Boards for the prevention and
control of water pollution
o to evolve methods of utilization of sewage and suitable trade effluents in agriculture
o to inspect sewage or trade effluents, works, and plants for the treatment of sewage and trade
effluents
o It vests regulatory authority in SPCBs to establish and enforce effluent standards for
factories.
o The Act grants power to SPCB and CPCB to test equipment and to take the sample for the
purpose of analysis.
• Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977: To provide for levy and
collection of cess on water consumed by persons operating and carrying on certain types of
industrial activities + Augment resources of Central board and State boards for prevention and
control of water pollution under Water act, 1974 + Creates economic incentives for pollution
control and requires local authorities and certain designated industries to pay a cess for water
effluent discharge + Act gives a polluter a 70% rebate of the applicable cessupon installing
effluent treatment equipment.
3. Soil Pollution: Addition of substances which adversely affect physical, chemical and biological
properties of entire soil and leads to reduced productivity.
• Causes: Indiscriminate use of fertilizers, pesticides + Dumping of large quantities of solid waste,
deforestation and soil erosion + pollution due to urbanization etc.

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• Sources: Industrial wastes (mercury, lead, cynides, chromates etc.), pesticides (insecticides,
fungicides, rodenticides), discarded materials (concrete, asphalt, rungs, leather, carcasses),
radioactive wastes (mining and nuclear power plants).
• Effects: Agriculture (reduced nitrogen fixation, increased salinity), Health (bio magnification,
radioactive rays), Environment (reduced vegetation, ecological imbalance).
4. Noise pollution: Presence of such levels of nose in environment that are disturbing, irritating to
living beings.
• Causes: Transportation vehicles, factories and industries, loudspeakers, domestic appliances etc.
• Effects: Loss of hearing, cardiac disturbance, sleeplessness, headache, stress tension and
aggressiveness, mental imbalance and also affects biodiversity.
• Measurement: Sound is measured in decibels; an increase of about 10 Db is double the increase
in loudness; WHO recommends that indoor levels of sound should be less than 30 Db.
• Ambient noise levels: Noise pollution control and regulations Rules, 2000 notified under EPA,
1986.
o Industrial areas 70-75 dB
o Commercial areas 55-65 dB
o Residential areas 45-55 dB
o Silence zone 40-50 dB
• National Ambient noise monitoring network (NANMN): Through CPCB and State pollution
control boards to monitor noise on 24*7 basis in India’s seven largest cities.
5. Radioactive Pollution: Spontaneous emission of proton (α particles), electrons (β particles) and
gamma rays due to disintegration of atomic nuclei of some elements.
• Types of radiation particles
o Alpha particles: Can be blocked by a piece of paper and human skin.
o Beta particles: Penetrate through skin + Blocked by pieces of glass and metal.
o Gamma rays: Penetrate to human skin and damage cells + Blocked by a thick massive piece
of concrete.
• Non-ionising radiation: Short wave radiations such as ultraviolet rays + It has low penetrating
power + It damages eyes and injures cells of skin and blood capillaries.
• Ionising radiations: Include X-rays, cosmic rays; high penetration power and cause breakage
of macro molecules.
6. E-Waste: Electronic and electrical equipment such as desktops, air conditioners etc discarded after
their end of life.
• Three types: White goods (household appliances), Brown goods (TVs, cameras) and Grey goods
(computers, printers, scanners etc.)
• India is the fifth largest generators (around 2 mt annually) of E-waste after China, USA, Japan
and Germany.
• Impacts: They are repositories of hazardous and toxic substances such as lead, halogenated
substances, polychlorinated biphenyls etc + Refrigerators contain CFCs, HFCs-> Ozone

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depletion and climate change + Damage central nervous systems, effect brain development of
children, kidney and reproductive system.
• E-Waste Management Rules, 2016
o MoEF&CC notified the rules in supersession of e-waste (Management and Handling) rules,
2011.
o Definition of E-waste: Now includes CFL and other mercury containing lamps.
o Extended producer responsibility: Recovery of 10% of waste generated by 2017-18, which
increases by 10% every year to reach 70% 2023 onwards.
o Separate producer responsibility organization (PRO) can be established by producers.
o Cost for sampling and testing of hazardous substances shall be borne by the government
for RoHS test. If product does not comply-> cost should be borne by producers.
o Role of state governments: Ensure safety, health and skill development of workers
involves in recycling operations.
o Provision for penalties + One system authorization (CPCB) for process of dismantling and
recycling.
o Deposit Refund Scheme: Producer charges an additional amount as a deposit at the time
of sale of the electrical and electronic equipment and returns it to the consumer along with
interest when the end-of-life electrical and electronic equipment is returned.
o Urban Local Bodies: Duty to collect and channelize the orphan products to authorized
dismantlers or recyclers.
• First E-waste clinic: The Bhopal Municipal corporation and CPCB joined hands to set up
country’s first e-waste clinic in Bhopal + E-waste will be collected door to door in exchange for
a fee.
7. Solid Waste: These are discarded materials which include any garbage, refuse, sludge from a
wastewater treatment plant and other discarded materials.
• Treatment and disposal of solid waste
o Open dumps: Uncovered areas used to dump solid waste of all kinds + It act as breeding
ground for flies, rats + Rainwater run-off from these dumps contaminates nearby land and
water spreading disease.
o Landfills: Garbage is dumped and pit is covered with soil, preventing breeding of flies and
rats.
o Sanitary landfills: More hygienic, lined with materials that are impermeable such as plastics
and clay and built over impermeable clay.
o Incineration plants: Process of burning waste in large furnaces at high temperature is known
as incineration + Recyclable material is segregated and rest of material is burnt and ash is
produced.
o Pyrolysis: Process of combustion in absence of oxygen or material burnt under controlled
atmosphere of oxygen + It is alternative to incineration. The gas and liquid obtained can be
used as fuels.

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o Composting: Biological process in which microorganisms decompose degradable organic

waste into humus in presence of oxygen + It increases the soil’s ability to hold water and
makes the soil easier to cultivate.
o Vermiculture: Also known as earthworm farming + Earth worms added to compost which
break the waste and add excreta, making the compost very rich in nutrients.
o Bioremediation: Use of bio-culture to degrade organic waste + Environment altered to
stimulate growth of micro-organisms and degrade pollutants
§ Bio-stimulation: Widely used approach to bioremediation; stimulate natural microbial
communities with nutrients to break down contaminant.
§ Bio-augmentation: Organisms selected for high degradation abilities used to inoculate a
contaminated site.
• Bio-mining: Use of separator machines to separate waste material of different sizes, obtaining
plastic, wood and metal in isolation for appropriate processing.
8. Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016
• Beyond Municipal Areas: now applicable beyond municipal areas and extend to urban
agglomerations, census towns, notified industrial townships, SEZs, state and Central Government
organizations etc.
• Source Segregation of waste has been mandated; Responsibility of Generators have been
introduced to segregate waste in three streams: Wet (Biodegradable), Dry (Plastic, metal, wood
etc), Domestic hazard wastes (diapers, napkins, empty containers of cleansing agents, mosquito
repellants, etc).
• Integration of waste pickers and dealers in the formal system by State governments, and
SHGs, or any other group to be formed
• User Fee and Spot Fine: Generator will have to pay ‘User Fee’ to waste collector and for ‘Spot
Fine’ for Littering and Non-segregation.
• Provisions for Bulk and institutional generators
o All Resident Welfare and market Associations, Gated communities and institutions with an
area > 5000 sq.m should segregate waste at source in to valuable dry waste like plastic, tin etc
and handover recyclable material to either the authorized waste pickers or authorized recyclers,
or to urban local body.
• The Biodegradable waste treated through composting or bio-methanation within the premise
as far as possible.
• New township to develop in-house waste handling, and processing arrangements for
biodegradable wastes.
• Industrial Estate to earmark 5% of the total area of the plot or minimum 5 plots/sheds for
recovery and recycling facility.
• All manufactures of disposable products shall provide necessary financial assistance to local
authorities for the establishment of waste management system.

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• All industrial units using fuel and located within 100km from a solid waste based RDF plant
shall make arrangements within 6 months of notification of these rules to use at least 5% of their
fuel requirement by RDF so produced.
• Non-recyclable waste having calorific value of 1500K/cal/kg or more shall not be disposed of
on landfills and shall only by utilized for generating energy either or through refuse-derived fuel.

AIR POLLUTION
1. Introduction: Air pollution is presence of any solid, liquid, gaseous and other substances in the
atmosphere in such concentration that may interfere with the normal environmental processes.
2. Causes: It is aggravated because of increasing traffic, growing cities, rapid economic development
and industrialization.
3. Primary and Secondary air pollutants
Primary Pollutants Secondary Pollutants
Directly emitted from the sources to Result of chemical and photochemical reactions
the atmosphere of of primary pollutants

Affect Living things directly and indirectly Affect living things directly. Although, they can
(by forming secondary pollutants) also affect indirectly via some intermediate

Usually Unstable pollutants Usually stable or inert

They can be control by reducing Complicated to stop because of the interlinked
anthropogenic emissions chemical reactions.
Examples: Particulate Matter, Examples: Tropospheric Ozone (O3), acid rain,
Carbon Monoxide, Sulfur dioxide, VOCs Secondary particulate matter (SPM) etc.
etc.

4. Major Air pollutants

• Carbon Monoxide: Colourless, odourless gas produced by incomplete burning of carbon-based
fuels, cigarettes etc. + It lowers amount of oxygen entering blood + Major role in the formation
of ground-level ozone and can elevate concentrations of methane.
• Carbon dioxide: It is a colorless and non-flammable gas at normal temperature and pressure,
emitted as a result of burning of coal, oil and natural gas + Concentrations of 7% may cause
suffocation, even in the presence of sufficient oxygen.

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• Chloroflorocarbons (CFCs): Gases emitted from air conditioning systems and refrigeration +
Rise to stratosphere-> reduction of ozone layer.
• Lead: Present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints etc + It cause nervous system damage and
digestive problems.
• Ozone: Occurs naturally in upper layers of atmosphere + It shields earth from harmful
ultraviolet rays.
• Ground level ozone: Pollutant with high toxicity, vehicles and industries are major sources + It
lowers our resistance to cold and pneumonia + It is formed when nitrogen oxides and VOCs
interact in the presence of sunlight.
• Benzene: Natural constituent of crude oil and is one of the elementary petrochemicals + It
increase the risk of cancer, bone marrow failure and other illnesses.
• Nitrogen Oxide: Causes smog and acid rain; produced from burning fuels like petrol, diesel;
make children susceptible to respiratory diseases; Agricultural fertilisation and the use of
nitrogen-fixing plants also contribute to atmospheric NOx.
• Suspended Particulate matter: Solids in air in form of smoke, dust, vapour suspended for
extended periods + The main source of haze-> reduces visibility.
• Sulphur dioxide (SO2): India is largest emitter of anthropogenic SO2 + It is a colourless gas,
nasty and sharp smell + It reacts with other to form sulfuric acid, sulfurous acid etc.; largest
source is burning of fossil fuels by power plants and other industrial facilities + Other sources
include extracting metal from ore, volcanoes, locomotives, ships etc + It react with other
compounds to form Particulate matter (PM) + It harm trees by damaging foliage and
decreasing growth.
o Major SO2 hotspots in India: Singrauli (MP), Nevyeli (Tamilnadu), Talcher and Jharsuguda
in Odisha, Ramagundam in Telangana and Chandrapur in Maharastra.
o Norilsk smelter complex in Russia is the largest SO2 emission hotspot in the world followed
by Kriel in Mpumalanga province in South Africa.
5. Smog: Term used by HA Des Voeux; smoke + fog (smoky fog) caused by the burning of large
amounts of coal, vehicular emission and industrial fumes (Primary pollutants) + Smog contains soot
particulates like smoke, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide.
• Photochemical Smog: Also known as Los Angeles smog + It occurs most prominently in urban
areas that have large numbers of automobiles (Nitrogen oxides) + It is formed when pollutants
such as nitrogen oxides (primary pollutant) and organic compounds (primary pollutants) react
together in the presence of sunlight-> Ozone is formed + It causes a light brownish coloration
of the atmosphere, reduced visibility, plant damage, irritation of the eyes, and respiratory
distress.

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Fig: Photochemical Smog

• Sulfurous smog: Also called London smog + It results from a high concentration of Sulfur
dioxide in the air and is caused by the use of sulfur-bearing fossil fuels, particularly coal + It is
aggravated by dampness and a high concentration of suspended particulate matter in the air.
6. Indoor air pollution: Rural areas at greatest risk-> rely on traditional fuels such as firewood,
charcoal etc. + release of particulates, carbon monoxide, organic matter and formaldehyde + Urban
areas-> construction of sealed buildings, use of synthetic materials etc.
7. Pollutants
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): Indoor sources are perfumes, hair sprays, air fresheners
etc; cause irritation of eye, nose and throat, suspected to damage liver and other parts of the
body.
• Tobacco: Smoke generates chemicals which are carcinogenic + Health effects include burning
eyes, nose and throat irritation.
• Biological pollutants: Includes pollen from plants, mite and hair from pets, fungi, parasites
and some bacteria.
• Formaldehyde: Mainly from carpets, particle boards, and insulation foam; causes irritation to
eyes and nose.
• Radon: Gas emitted naturally by the soil. Poor ventilation-> confined inside the houses and
cause lung cancers.
• Particulate pollutants: These are matter suspended in air such as dust and soot. Major source
are industries, vehicles, power plants, construction activities, oil refinery, etc + Size ranges
from 0.001 to 500 micrometres (µm) in diameter. As per CPCB, particulate size 2.5 µm or less
in diameter (PM 2.5) are greatest harm + It can be inhaled deep into the lungs and can cause
respiratory symptoms, irritation, pneumoconiosis, coughing, and fibrosis – excess deposition of
fibrous tissue.
8. Fly Ash: It is a coal combustion byproduct produced in coal based thermal power plants. It is
mainly composed of Aluminum silicate, Silicon dioxide and Calcium oxide + It is oxide rich and
consist of silica, alumina, oxides of iron, calcium and magnesium and toxic metals like arsenic,
cobalt and copper + It is captured by electrostatic precipitators.

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• Environment effects: Pollute air and water; causes respiratory problems, settles on leaves and
crops near -> lowers the plant yield.
• Advantages: It is a Pozzolan, a substance containing aluminous and siliceous material that
forms cement in the presence of water. Cement can be replaced by fly ash upto 35% + fly ash
bricks (light weight, high strength and durability) + reclamation of wastelands + filling
abandoned mines + enhances water holding capacity of the land + utilized in agriculture as soil
conditioners + tiles manufacturing and road embankments construction etc.
• Reducing Fly ash pollution: Washing the coal at its place of origin, capturing fly ash before it
is released in air by Chimney.
• Steps taken to Promote Fly ash
o Various notification for fly ash utilization since 1999
§ 2016 notification: Every agency engaged in construction within a radius of 300km of coal
based thermal power plant should use ash based products for construction.
§ Maharastra: First state to have Fly Ash Utilization policy.
§ GST rates on fly ash and its products reduced to 5%.
§ ASHTrack Mobile app for better management of fly ash -> act as an interface between
flyash producers and potential users such as road contractors, cement plants etc.
9. Control measures: Destroying pollutants by thermal combustion; collection of the pollutant;
arresters (separate particulate matters from contaminated air); Scrubbers (clean air for both
dust and gases); control of automobile exhaust; catalytic converter filters in vehicles; lead free petrol
etc.

10. Stubble burning: It is the practice of intentionally setting fire to straw stubble that remains after
grains, such as rice and wheat, have been harvested + Every year, when winter sets in, Delhi’s air
pollution peaks with the air quality index (AQI) often plunging to the ‘severe’ and ‘hazardous’
categories.
• Torrefaction: It is a thermal process to convert biomass into a coal-like material, which has
better fuel characteristics than original biomass + Torrefied biomass is more brittle, making
grinding easier and less energy-intensive.

• Pusa bio-decomposer: It is developed by scientists at the Indian Agricultural Research

Institute, which turns crop residue to manure in 15-20 days by accelerating the decomposition
process.
• Turbo Happy Seeder (THS): It can uproot stubble and also sow seeds in the area cleared; can
then be used as mulch for the field.

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11. Acid Rain: Normal rain has a pH of about 5.6. When pH falls below this; it is called acid rain (pH 4.2
to 4.4) + Caused by atmospheric pollution from acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide and oxides of
nitrogen emitted from the burning of fossil fuels.

12. Taj Trapezium zone: SC ruling, 1996-> Banned the use of coal/ coke in industries located in the
TTZ; ordered switching over from coal to natural gas + Central Government in exercise of the powers
conferred under EPA, 1986 constituted the Taj Trapezium Zone Pollution (Prevention and Control)
authority in 1998.
13. Bharat Stage Emission Standards: Instituted to regulate output of certain air pollutants by
vehicles and other equipment using internal combustion engine; standards set up by the CPCB
under MoEFCC; based on European regulations first introduced in 2000.
• BS-3: Since 2010, BS 3 norms have been enforced across the country.
• BS-4: Applicable throughout country from 1st April 2017.
• BS-5: GOI decided to skip the standards and directly move to BS-6 standards by 2020.
• BS-6: It will be applicable throughout the country from April 2020 for all vehicles.
14. Differences in BS4 and BS6 Standards
• Sulphur amount: The main difference is the reduction in amount of Sulphur in fuel -> equip
vehicles with better catalytic converters.
• NOX emission: NOX emission from diesel is expected to come down by 70% and by 25% in
petrol vehicles.
• Lower limit for HC and NOx in diesel engine.

g/km g/km g/km g/km g/km Sulphur

Petrol Emission Norms CO HC NOx HC+ NOx PM
BS 3 2.3 0.2 0.15 - -
BS4 1.00 0.1 0.08 - - 50ppm
BS6 1.00 0.1 0.06 - 0.005 10ppm (10 mg/kg)

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Diesel Emission Norms CO HC NOx HC+NOx PM

BS3 0.64 - 0.50 0.56 0.05
BS4 0.50 0.25 0.30 0.025 50ppm
BS 6 0.50 0.06 0.17 0.005 10ppm
15. Others:
• Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) and Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) are being introduced
with the roll-out of Bharat Stage VI norms.
• Real Driving Emission (RDE) will be introduced in India for the first time with the
implementation of Bharat Stage VI emission norms.
• Onboard Diagnostics (OD) has been made mandatory for all vehicles.
• Fuel Injection technology: Mandatory for two wheelers; first such norm in India, filter out PMs
and Nox etc.
• Sulphur conetnt: Sulphur traces in BS6 fuel is five times lower (10 ppm) as compared to sulphur
traces in BS4 fuel (50 ppm).
• Nitrogen oxide level for BS6-grade diesel engines and petrol engines will be brought down by
70% and 25%, respectively.
• Particulate matter: BS VI can bring PM in diesel cars down by 80 percent. The new norms will
bring down nitrogen oxides from diesel cars by 70 per cent and in petroleum cars by 25 per
cent.
16. International Efforts
• Alliance for Clean Air: Part of WEF’s shaping the future of cities to create a shared set of tools
for analyzing the current situation and prioritizing actions.
o Clean Air Fund: It aims to harness $20 million in initial funding to provide targeted grants to
a range of organizations that are combating air pollution.
o The new Clean Air Fund aims to support projects that “democratize” air quality data, making
knowledge about air quality more widely accessible to large numbers of people in cities.
• Climate and Clean air coalition: It aims to unite governments, civil society and private sector,
committed to improving air quality and protecting the climate by reducing short-lived climate
pollutants across sectors.
o Objective: To address short-lived climate pollutants.
o Initial focus: Methane, black carbon, and HFCs
o Initiated by the governments of Bangladesh, Canada, Ghana, Mexico, Sweden and the United
States, along with UNEP.
17. Government Initiatives
• Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA) : EPCA was constituted
with the objective of ‘protecting and improving’ the quality of the environment and ‘controlling
environmental pollution’ in the National Capital Region + The EPCA also assists the apex court
in various environment-related matters in the region + EPCA is Supreme Court mandated body
tasked with taking various measures to tackle air pollution in the National Capital Region + It was
notified in 1998 by Environment Ministry under Environment Protection Act, 1986.

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• Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM): It replaced Environment Pollution

(Prevention and Control) Authority + formed by an ordinance in 2020 + It will be a statutory
authority + It will supersede bodies such as the central and state pollution control boards of Delhi,
Punjab, Haryana, UP and Rajasthan + To be chaired by a government official of the rank of
Secretary or Chief Secretary + The chairperson will hold the post for three years or until s/he
attains the age of 70 years + It will have members from several Ministries as well as representatives
from the stakeholder States + It will have experts from the Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB), Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and Civil Society.
o Powers and functions: Can issue directions to these state governments on issues
pertaining to air pollution + It will entertain complaints as it deems necessary for the
purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the air in the NCR and adjoining areas
+ lay down parameters for control of air pollution.
• Air (Prevention and control of pollution) act, 1981: It was enacted to implement decisions taken
at Stockholm conference in 1972 + Aimed to improve quality of air and to prevent, control, and
abate air pollution + Expanded authority of the central and state boards established under the
Water act to include air pollution control.
Important Provisions
o Definitions of the terms: Section 2(a) defines an ‘air pollutants’ as any solid liquid or
gaseous substance which may cause harm or damage the environment, humans, plants,
animals, or even damage property + It defines air pollution as presence of any dangerous
pollutant that makes the air unbreathable + 1987 amendment also added ‘noise’ to the list of
harmful substances.
o Demarcation of high pollution areas: Declaration of certain heavily polluted areas as Air
pollution control area and no industrial plant shall be operated in these areas without prior
consent of the State Pollution Control Board.
o Emission control: The State Government and the respective Boards may give instructions to
under the Motor Vehicles Act, 1939 to ensure emission standards for automobiles.
o Consent from state board: All industries operating within designated air pollution control
areas must obtain a “consent” (permit) from the State Boards.
o States not having water pollution boards were required to set up air pollution boards.
o Amendment act empowered SPCB and CPCB to close a defaulting industrial plant.
o The 1987 amendment introduced a citizen’s suit provision into the Air Act and extended
the Act to include noise pollution.
o Penalties: failure to comply with CPCB directives would result in imprisonment of 1 year +
It is extendable to 6 years with a fine with the additional fine of Rs 5000 per day
• National Clean air program (NCAP)
o Launched by the MoEFCC in January 2019; first-ever effort in the country to frame a
national framework for air quality management with a time-bound reduction target.
o It seeks to cut the concentration of coarse PM10 and PM2.5 by at least 20% in the next five
years i.e, by 2024, with 2017 as the base year for comparison.

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o The plan includes 102 non-attainment cities, across 23 states and Union territories, which
were identified by CPCB on the basis of their ambient air quality data between 2011 and
2015.
o City specific plan: Separate emergency action plan will be created for each of the 102
cities.
o Maharashtra tops the list with 17 cities including Pune and Nagpur, while UP is second with
15 cities, including Lucknow and Varanasi.
• Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP): Formulated in 2016 and notified in 2017 for Delhi
NCR to take institutionalized measures when air quality deteriorates, hence works only as an
emergency measure.

• National Air Quality Monitoring Programme: CPCB is executing body + Objectives are to
determine the status and trends of ambient air quality; To ascertain whether the prescribed
ambient air quality standards are violated; to obtain the knowledge and understanding
necessary for developing preventive and corrective measures.
o Under the NAMP, four air pollutants SOx, NOx, Suspended Particulate Material (SPM)
and Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM) have been identified for regular
monitoring at all the locations.
• National Ambient Air Quality Standards:12 pollutants are covered under it which are Sulphur
Dioxide (SO2) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), PM 10, PM2.5, Ozone (O3), Carbon Monoxide (CO),
Ammonia (NH3), Lead, Benzene (C6H6), Benzo(a)Pyrene (BaP), Arsenic(As), Nickel (Ni). The
mandate provided to the CPCB under Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act empowers
it to set standards for the quality of air.
• National Air Quality Index: It is a number used by government agencies to communicate the
public how polluted the air quality is or how polluted it is forecasted to become.
o Launched in Sep 2014 as part of Swachh Bharat Abhiyan by MoEFCC.

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o Nodal Agency: CPCB is the nodal agency; developed color coded air-quality index to mark
hazardous levels for the public benefit.
o Six AQI categories: Good, Satisfactory, moderately polluted, poor, very poor and severe.
o 8 pollutants: PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, 03, NH3 and Pb.

• Clean Air better life Initiative: It is a joint initiative by NITI Aayog and CII aimed at coming
up with a roadmap to solve Delhi’s air quality crisis.
• Sameer App: It provides hourly updates on the National Air Quality Index + Developed by
the CPCB provides information on air quality for more than 100 cities + Represents the listed
cities in a colour-coded format based on their AQI levels + Also be used to file or track
complaints related to garbage dumping, vehicular emissions in a particular area.
• SAFAR App: National initiative introduced by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) to
measure the air quality of a metropolitan city, by measuring the overall pollution level and the
location-specific air quality of the city.
o Indigenously developed by IITM, Pune and is operationalized by IMD.
o It gives out real-time air quality index on a 24x7 basis with color-coding and also provides
72 hours advanced forecast.
o SAFAR is an integral part of India’s first Air Quality Early Warning System operational
in Delhi.
o Parameters: Temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed, and wind direction, UV radiation,
and solar radiation.
o Pollutants monitored: PM2.5, PM10, Ozone, Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Oxides
(NOx), Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Benzene, Toluene, Xylene, and Mercury.

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o The WMO has recognized SAFAR as a prototype activity on the basis of the high-quality
control and standards maintained in its implementation.
• Comprehensive Environment Pollution Index: It is an Environment assessment index
developed by CPCB and IIT Delhi; assess environment quality of identified industrial
clusters; help to plan individual pollution mitigation measures for air, water and soil in respective
industrial area.
• WAYU (Wind Augmentation PurifYing Unit)
o Developed to address air pollution at traffic intersections and dense traffic zones.
o Indigenously developed by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research - National
Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI).
o It has capacity to purify the air in an area of the 500-meter square.
§ Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) authority: Supreme court mandated
body to tackle air pollution in National Capital region; notified under EPA, 1986;
mandated to improve quality of environment and implement Graded response action plan
in NCR; can take complaints suo motu or on the basis of a filed complaint.
18. International Efforts
• CLRTAP: It is an international convention on controlling Air Pollution + It came into force
in March 1983 and has 51 parties + Formed within the ECE, the UN Economic Commission for
Europe, United States and Canada + Aimed initially to reduce effects of acid rain through control
of the emissions of sulphur, later widened to include nitrogen pollutants, VOCs and
photochemical oxidants.
• Gothenburg Protocol: It is also known as Multi-effect protocol + It aims to abate acidification,
eutrophication and ground level ozone + Adopted by the countries of UNECE on 30 November
1999 + It is a part of the convention on long Range Transboundary Air Pollution + It sets
emission ceilings for four pollutants Sulphur, NOx, VOCs and ammonia + By July 2019, the
revised protocol had finally been ratified by the needed eighteen Parties, and it entered into
force on 7 October 2019.

PLASTIC POLLUTION

7. Plastic pollution: India produces around 10 million tonnes of plastic per year of which around 5 million
tonnes is rendered waste every year.
• Effects of Plastic pollution
o Environment: Ingestion, choking and entanglement hazards to wildlife; eventually enter the food
chain for humans as well.
o Health: Toxic chemicals such as styrene and Benzene-> Carcinogenic; nervous, respiratory and
reproductive system; vector borne diseases like Malaria, dengue due to inadequate SWM.
o Economic: Visual pollution-> affects tourism sector.
o Exacerbate disasters like floods by blocking the drains etc.
• Plastic waste management rules, 2016:

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o Increased minimum thickness of plastic carry bags from 40-50 microns; minimum thickness of
plastic sheets increased to 50 microns.
o Phasing out of non-reusable Multi-layered plastic
o Expanded the coverage even to rural areas
o Extended producer responsibility (EPR) for producers and generators
o Shopkeepers and vendors-> register with local authority and money collected should be used for
sustainable management of waste.
o Gainful usage of plastic waste promoted in rail construction and waste to oil conversion.
• Plastic waste management (Amendment) rules, 2022
o Single-use plastic: The manufacture, import, stocking, distribution, sale and use of it will
be prohibited with effect from the 1st July, 2022.
o The ban will not apply to commodities made of compostable plastic.
o The permitted thickness of the plastic bags, currently 50 microns, will be increased to
75 microns from 30th September, 2021, and to 120 microns from the 31st December, 2022.
o EPR certificates: allow for sale and purchase of surplus extended producer responsibility
certificates.
o Centralized online portal: centralised online portal by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
for the registration as well as filing of annual returns by producers, importers and brand-owners,
plastic waste processors of plastic packaging waste by 31st March, 2022.
o For banning other plastic commodities-> government has given industry 10 years from
the date of notification for compliance.
o Environmental compensation: levied based upon polluter pays principle, with respect
to non-fulfilment of EPR targets by producers, importers and brand owners.
8. Types of Plastics
• Thermoplastics: Which can be melted when heated and hardened when cooled-> reheated, reshaped
and frozen repeatedly.
o Examples: Polyethylene Teraphtalate (PET), Low density polyethylene (LDPE) etc.
• Thermosets: After they are heated, these plastics cannot be re-melted and reformed.
o Examples: Polyurethane (PUR), Phenolic resins, Urea formaldehyde (UF) resins etc.
• Microplastics: Most plastics do not degrade; instead slowly breakdown into smaller fragments known
as microplastics.
9. Initiatives to fight plastic pollution
• Clean seas campaign: It is an initiative by UNEP launched in 2017 to reduce and eliminate use of
single use plastic, cosmetics and micro-plastic sources; engages governments, the general public and
the private sector in the fight against marine plastic pollution.
• India and Norway on sidelines of CMS COP-13 issued joint statement towards mitigating marine
plastic litter.
• World Environment Day, 2018 the world leaders vowed to “Beat Plastic Pollution” & eliminate its
use completely.
• Honolulu strategy: Framework for comprehensive and global collaborative effort to reduce
ecological, human health and economic impacts of marine debris worldwide.

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MERCURY POLLUTION
1. Mercury pollution: Mercury is global and ubiquitous metal that occurs naturally and has broad uses
+ Human activities like mining and fossil fuel combustion have led to widespread global mercury
pollution.
• Sources of pollution: Element in earth’s crust, natural sources like volcanic eruptions and
emissions from ocean; anthropogenic sources include coal burning power plants, burning
hazardous waste, producing chlorine, breaking mercury products and spilling mercury.
• Harmful effects: It is considered as one of top ten hazardous chemicals of major public health
concern (WHO) + Bio-accumulates and bio-magnify in food chain + Methy mercury is
neurotoxin which impacts function and development of central nervous system + The
reproductive problems (fish have difficult schooling and decrease spawning success) + It
impairs mammals motor skills which affect their ability to hunt.
2. Minamata Convention: It is an international treaty signed in 2013 aimed to protect human health
and the environment from anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and its compounds + It
also addresses interim storage of mercury and its disposal once it becomes waste + It
isagreed at 5th session of Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee in Geneva, Switzerland and
entered into force in 2017 + More than 140 countries including India have ratified the convention.
• Major highlights of the convention:
o Ban on new mercury mines
o Phase-out of existing mercury mines
o Control mercury air emissions from coal-fired power plants, certain non-ferrous metals
production, cement production etc.
o Regulation of the informal sector of artisanal and small-scale gold mining.
o Phase out to reduce mercury use in certain products such as batteries, switches, pesticides
etc.
o Provision for technical assistance, information exchange, public awareness and research
and monitoring.
• Others: Convention gives five-year time to India to control and reduce emissions from new
power plants and 10 years-time for already existing power plants.

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NITROGEN POLLUTION
1. Nitrogen Pollution: Nitrous oxide (N2O) is three hundred times more potent green-house gas than
carbon dioxide + Nitrogen pollution is caused by emission of excess of Nitrogen from the use of
chemical fertilizers, livestock manure and burning fossil fuels etc.

2. International Nitrogen Initiative: It is an international program set up in 2003 under sponsorship

of Scientific committee on problems of environment (SCOPE) and from International Geosphere-
Biosphere program (IGBP) + It aims at optimizing nitrogen’s beneficial role in sustainable food
production and minimize negative effects on health and environment resulting from food and
energy production.
3. UNEP Colombo Declaration: It has been developed with technical support of International
Nitrogen Management System (INMS), a joint activity of the UNEP and the International Nitrogen
Initiative supported by Global Environmental Facility + It aims to halve nitrogen waste by 2030 +
It calls upon UN agencies, other international organizations, academic and civil society
organizations to support its implementation.
4. Miscellaneous
Disease Potential Sources/Cause and their effects
Pneumoconiosis Coal dust, asbestos
Byssinosis Byssinosis
Minamata Neurological disease caused by severe mercury
poisoning
Blue Baby Syndrome It is a bluish discoloration of infants skin
because of poorly oxygenated blood due to
Nitrate contamination in water.
Itai-Itai Cadmium pollution causing softening of bones;
lungs and liver cancer.
Skeletal Fluorosis Fluoride contamination causing teeth deformity,
hardening of bones and joint pains.
Trachoma Infectious eye disease caused by unclean water.
Black Foot disease Arsenic

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CHAPTER 6: BASICS OF BIODIVERSITY

1. Definition: It refers to “the variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial,
marine and other aquatic ecosystems. This includes diversity within species, between species and of
ecosystems; term popularized by socio-biologist Edward Wilson.

2. Levels of Biodiversity
• Genetic diversity: Variations in genes within a particular species.
o Features: Greater genetic diversity -> Better chances of survival + allows species adapt to
changing environment + survival of species ensures survival of population.
o Example: India has more than 70,000 genetically different strains of rice.
• Species diversity: Diversity at species level. It is ratio of one species population over total no. of
organisms across all species in the given biome. (Zero= infinite biodiversity; one represents
only one species is present)
o Features: Species differ from one another, in their genetic makeup, do not interbreed in
nature + Species diversity high in tropical rainforests and coastal zones + low in isolated
islands and polar regions.
• Ecosystem/Community diversity: Different types of habitats.
o Features: The variety of species in ecosystem influenced by nature of ecosystem.
o Example: India with its deserts, mangroves, wetlands, estuaries has a greater ecosystem than
a Scandinavian country like Norway.
3. Measurement of Biodiversity
• Species richness
o Alpha diversity: Diversity within particular ecosystem; expressed by number of species i.e,
species richness in that system.
o Beta diversity: Differences in species composition among ecosystems; metric of
dissimilarities between the sites.
o Gamma diversity: Measure of diversity of the entire landscape.
• Species Evenness: Measures proportion of species at a given site.
o Example: Low evenness indicate that only few species dominate the site.
4. Factors determining degree of Diversity
• Habitat stress: Low diversity in habitats under stress like harsh climate and pollution.
• Geographical Isolation: Diversity is less in isolated regions like islands and deserts.
• Availability of Ecological niches: Complex community-> Greater variety of niches-> greater
diversity.

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• Edge effect: Greater diversity at ecotones or transition areas between the ecosystems.
• Geological history: Old and stable ecosystems – High diversity + Changing ecosystems – low
diversity as it does not allow species to establish themselves.
• Species diversity: It decreases as we move away from the equator towards the pole + Tropics
harbor more species than temperate or polar areas-> Because of no glacial cycles, uniform
temperature and precipitation and consistent solar radiation.
5. Key terms
• Endemic species: Found only in a specific geographical location and not found anywhere else.
For instance, Nilgiri Langur is endemic to Western Ghats.
• Keystone species: Species which have disproportionately large effect on the communities that
it occurs. Disappearance of keystone species could result in series of extinction of other species.
For instance, Wolves and Wild durian.
• Indicator species/Sentinel species: These are species whose presence, absence reflects a specific
environmental condition+ Sensitive indicators of environmental problem. For example,
Lichens are very sensitive to SO2 pollution.
• Flagship species: They act as an ambassador, icon for a defined habitat or environmental cause.
Achieving conservation of these species also help in improving the status of many other species.
For example, Bengal Tiger and Jerdon’s Courser.
• Priority species: It is a term used by WWF solely for purpose of planning and communication.
It is chosen to represent a region. Examples of priority species in India include One Horned
Rhino, Snow Leopard, Asian Elephant etc.
• Invasive species: A species is termed invasive if it is previously absent in that ecosystem and has
been introduced in that area from outside mostly by human intervention. For example, African
Catfish in Keoladeo National park.
• Biopiracy: Practice in which indigenous knowledge of nature, originating with indigenous people
is used by others for profit, without authorization to indigenous people themselves.
• Bioprospecting: Systematic and organized search for useful products from bio resources in plants,
microorganisms etc that can be developed further for commercialization and overall benefits of
the society.
• Biomining: Process of using microorganisms (microbes) to extract metals of economic interest
from rock ores or mine waste.
• Bioassay: A test in which organisms are used to detect presence or effects of any other physical
factor, chemical factor or any other type of ecological disturbance.
• Hopespots: Concept introduced by [Link] Earle; these are special places that are critical to the
health of the Ocean + They allow us to plan for future and look beyond current Marine protected
areas + Anyone can nominate a spot that is special to him or her ,a site that gives a HOPE +
Important examples are Coral Triangle Hope Spots in Indo Pacific, Sargasso Sea Hope Spots in
Atlantic Ocean + Hope spot sites from India include Lakshadeep and Andaman Nicobar Islands.
6. Mega Diverse Countries: These are world’s top biodiversity rich countries identified by
Conservation International to promote awareness of biodiversity conservation.
• Criteria: The major criterion is Endemism at species level and at higher levels such as genus and
family. To qualify the countries must:
o Endemic plants: The country must have at least 5,000 of the world’s plants as endemics.

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o Marine ecosystem: It should have marine ecosystem within its borders.

• Note: It complements the concept of Biodiversity hotspots and High-Biodiversity wilderness areas
to achieve coverage of world’s biological resources.

Fig: Megadiverse Countries

7. Biodiversity Hotspots: These are regions having exceptional concentrations of plant endemism
and experiencing high rates of biodiversity loss. Norman Myers discussed about the concept in his
work “The Environmentalist” (1988).
• Total sites: Globally 35 sites have been identified as biodiversity hotspots for increased attention
towards the conservation.
• Criteria for Biodiversity hotspots
o Plant Endemism: It must contain at least 0.5% of the world’s total or 1500 species of
vascular plants as endemics.
o Habitat loss: It has to have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.
• Sites in India: There are total 4 sites in India:
o Eastern Himalayas, Nepal and India
o Indo-Burma, India and Myanmar
o Western Ghats, India
o Sundalands: It includes Nicobar group of islands and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei
and Philippines.
8. High Biodiversity Wilderness Areas: These are large intact ecosystems of the world which have
significant levels of global biodiversity declared by Conservation International.
• 5 HBWAs sites: These include Amazonia, the Congo forest of Central Africa, New Guinea,
Miombo-Mopane woodlands of Southern Africa and the North American desert complex.
9. Modes of Conservation
• Ex-Situ conservation: It means the conservation of species outside their natural habitats.
Examples include Zoological parks and botanical gardens.
o Purpose: Rescuing threatened germplasm, produce material for reintroduction, translocation,
reinforcement, habitat, and management.
• In-Situ conservation: It is a method of conserving the animals and plants in their natural habitats.
Examples include national parks, sanctuaries, Biosphere reserves, protected forests etc.

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CHAPTER 7: INDIAN BIODIVERSITY DIVERSE LANDSCAPE

1. Introduction: India is a Mega diverse country + It is ranked seventh in terms of species richness,
ninth in birds and fifth in reptiles and accounts for 7% of recorded species.
2. Biogeographic Realms: Large spatial regions in which ecosystems share a similar biota.
• Realms in India: The Himalayan region represented by Palearctic realm and rest of sub-
continent by Malayan realm.
3. Biomes: It is a large community of vegetation and wildlife adapted to a specific climate. There are
a total of five biomes in India:
• Tropical Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen forests
o Location: Found in warm and humid areas with an annual precipitation of over 200 cm
and mean annual temperature above 22 degree celsius. Majorly found in western slope of
the Western Ghats, hills of the north eastern region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
o Characteristics: Well stratified, layers closer to the ground and covered with shrubs and
creepers + Height of trees is up to 60 m or above + No definite time for trees to shed their
leaves.
o Species: Rosewood, Mahogony, Aini, Ebony, etc.
• Tropical Deciduous forests: Most widespread in India; also called monsoon forests. These are
found in regions which receive rainfall between 70-200 cm.
o Most deciduous: Rainfall between100 to 200 cms + It is found in the north eastern states
along the foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes of the Western Ghats and Odisha.
§ Species: Teak, sal, shisham, mahua, and sandalwood etc.
o Dry deciduous: Rainfall ranges between 70 -100 cm; found in rainier areas of the Peninsula
and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
§ Species: Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, etc.
• Tropical Thorn forests
o Location: Rainfall less than 50 cm. It includes semi-arid areas of south west Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
o Characteristics: Plants are leafless for most part of the year and give an expression of
scrub vegetation.
o Species: Babool, ber, and wild date palm, khejri, palas, etc.
• Montane Forests: These are classified into two types, the northern mountain forests and the
southern mountain forests.
o Montane temperate: Located in Northern middle Himalayas ranges and Southern Niligiri
higher Mountain ranges. Some significant trees of montane temperate forest are
Rhododendrons, ferns, oak, maple, juniper, deodar.
o Montane Subtropical: Located in the state of Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, etc. mountain
ranges of western Ghats are also the abode of these types' forests. Major plant species are
poonspar, cinnamon, rhododendron, sal, sandan, laburnum, pomegranate, olive, oleander,
etc.

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• Littoral and Swamp Forests: Consist of a number of salt-tolerant species of plants. Mangroves
grow along the coasts in the salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and estuaries. Highly developed
in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Sunderbans of West Bengal.
4. Ten Bio-geographic zones of India
• Trans-Himalayas: Extension of Tibetan plateau, harboring cold desert in Ladakh and Lahaul
spiti.
o Species: Presence of Snow Leopard and the migratory Black-necked Crane etc.
• Himalayas: Entire mountain running chain running from north-western to northeastern India.
o Species: Important habitat for endangered species of bovids such as Bharal, Ibex, Markhor,
Himalayan Tahr. Other rare and endangered species restricted to this zone include Hangul
and Musk Deer.
• Deserts: It includes the Thar and Kutch deserts; constitutes 6.9% of the country’s landmass.
o Species: Several endangered species of mammals such as Caracal, Desert Cat and birds such
as Houbara Bustard and the Great Indian Bustard.
• Semi-arid: It is a transition zone between the desert and the dense forests of Western Ghats.
o Species: The cervid species of Sambar and Chital are restricted to the better wooded hills and
moister valley areas respectively. The Lion, Caracal Jackal are some of the endangered
species that are characteristic of this region.
• Western Ghats: The hill ranges running along western coastline covering an extremely diverse
range of biotic provinces and biomes.
o Species: Nilgiri Langur, Lion Tailed Macaque, Grizzled Giant Squirrel, Malabar Civet,
Nilgiri Tahr and Malabar Grey Hornbill.
• Deccan Peninsula: India’s largest biogeographic region making 42 per cent of the total
geographical area.
o Species: Chital, Sambar, Nilgai and Chousingha and Gaur, Elephant, Wild buffalo etc.
• Gangetic plain: Defined by the Ganges river system, these plains are relatively homogenous.
o Species: The characterstic fauna of this region include Rhino, Elephant, Buffalo, Swamp
Deer, Hog-Deer and Hispid Hare.
• North East India: Represents the transition zone between the Indian, Indo-Malayan and Indo-
Chinese bio-geographical regions as well as being a meeting point of the Himalayan mountains
and peninsular India.
o Species: Northeast India is very rich in faunal diversity. There are as many as 15 species of
non-human primates such as hoolock gibbon, stumptied macaque, pigtailed macaque,
golden langur etc.
• Islands: One of the three tropical moist evergreen forests zones in India. These islands are
centres of high endemism and contain some of India’s finest evergreen forests and support a
wide diversity of corals.
o Example: Narcondam hornbill, South Andaman krait etc.

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• Coastal region: It constitutes 2.5 per cent of the total geographical area with sandy beaches,
mangroves, mud flats, coral reefs and marine angiosperm pastures. Lakshadweep islands are
included in this with percent area being negligible.
5. Fauna classification
• Vertebrates: Animals with backbones and spinal columns; most advanced organisms. It
includes fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
• Invertebrates: Do not have backbones. 98% of animal species in the world are invertebrates.
o Annelids: Body into segments; well-developed internal organs; no limbs. Examples include
earthworms, roundworms etc.
o Mollusks: Soft, skin-like organ covered with a hard outside shell. Examples include osier,
mussel etc.
o Echinoderms: Marine animals that live in ocean; arms and spines radiate from center of their
body. Examples are sea star, sand dollar and sea cucumber.
o Protozoa: Single celled, smallest of all animals. Examples include amoebas and flagellates
etc.
o Arthropods: Have limbs with joints; exoskeleton. These include crustaceans and insects.
o Arachnids: Do not have antennae; 2 body parts and four pair of legs.
6. Floral Diversity
• Bryophytes: Amphibians of the plant kingdom because these plants can live in soil but are
dependent on water for sexual reproduction. These include the various mosses, marchantia and
liverworts that are found commonly growing in damp, humid and shaded localities.
• Pteridophytes: The plant body is differentiated into roots, stem and leaves and has specialized
tissue for the conduction of water from one part of the plant body to another. Some examples
are marsilea, ferns and horse-tails.
• Gymnosperms: These are a group of plants which produce seeds that are not contained within an
ovary. The seeds are open to air and are directly fertilized by pollination.
• Angiosperms: Angiosperms are plants that produce flowers and bear their seeds in fruits.
They are the largest and most diverse group within the kingdom Plantae, with about 300,000
species. Examples include Mango, Apple, Banana, Peach, Cherry trees.

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CHAPTER 8: ACTS AND POLICIES RELATED TO BIODIVERSITY

1. Wildlife (Protection) act, 1972
• Definition of wildlife: It include any animals, bees, butterflies, fish and moths; and aquatic or
land vegetation which form part of any habitat.
• Jurisdiction: The act extends to whole of India. After enactment of Jammu & Kashmir
Reorganization Act, 2019, Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 also became applicable to the Union
territory of Jammu & Kashmir.
• Five types of protected areas: National parks, Wildlife sanctuaries, community reserves,
conservation reserves and tiger reserves.
• Key provisions: Prohibition of hunting, protection and management of wildlife habitats,
establishment of protected areas, management of zoos etc.
• Prohibition of Hunting
o Prohibition of hunting: It prohibits the hunting of any wild animal specified in Schedules
I, II, III and IV of the act.
§ Exception: A wild animal listed under these schedules can be hunted only after getting
permission from the Chief Wildlife Warden of the state if it becomes dangerous to
human life or to property or is disabled or suffering from a disease that is beyond
recovery.
• Six schedules
o Schedule I and Part II of Schedule II: It provides for absolute protection-> highest
penalties.
o Schedule 3 and 4: The penalties for offences under these schedules are less and these animals
are protected.
o Schedule 5: Vermins includes animals which can be hunted. For instance, common crow,
mice and rats.
o Schedule 6: Plants which are prohibited from cultivation and planting. These mainly include
medicinal plants such as Beddomes cyad, Blue vanda, Kutch, Ladies slippers orchids,
pitcher plant, red vanda.
§ The schedule 6 has been added to include specified plants species to be protected by
Wildlife (Protection) amendment act of 1991.
• Authorities appointed under act
o Director of wildlife preservation: The Central Government appoints the Director of
Wildlife Preservation and assistant directors and other officers subordinate to the Director.
o Chief wildlife warden: The State Governments appoint a Chief Wildlife Warden
(CWLW) who heads the Wildlife Wing of the department and exercises complete
administrative control over Protected Areas within a state.
• Amendment act of 1991: The state governments are not empowered to declare any wild animal
as vermin. Further, immunization of livestock within a radius of 5km from a national park or
sanctuary has been made compulsory.

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• Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Bill 2022 : Reduces the number of schedules from Six
(currently) to Four now: Currently, there are six schedules: protected plants (one), specially
protected animals (four), and vermin species (one). The new bill removes the schedule for vermin
species (Vermin refers to small animals that carry diseases and destroy food e.g. Monkeys, Nilgai)

New Schedules
Schedule I Animal species that will enjoy the highest level of protection

Schedule II Animal species that will be subject to a lesser degree of protection

Schedule III Protected Plant species

Schedule IV Specimens listed in the Appendices under CITES (scheduled specimens)

2. Environment Protection act, 1986

• Objective: It was enacted with objective of providing for protection and improvement of the
environment.
• Enabling act: It empowers Central Government to establish authorities with the mandate of
preventing environmental pollution in all its forms.
• Evidence for offences: The central government or any other person authorized empowered to
collect air, water etc. samples as evidences for offences under EPA,1986.
• Relaxation of Locus standi: Even a common citizen can approach court provided he has given
notice of sixty days of the alleged offence.
• Debars civil courts: The act debars civil courts to entertain any suit in respect of an action, order
issued by central government or other statutory authority.
3. Indian Forest act, 1927
• Objective: To consolidate the then existing laws of forests and duties that can be levied on forest
products.
o Reserved Forest: Notified by states on any forest land to which government has ownership
rights.
o Protected Forest: The state government can declare any portion of protected forest as closed
for a term not exceeding 30 years during which rights of private persons can be suspended.
o Village Forest: The State government may assign to any village community the rights of
Government to any land which has been constituted as reserve forest.
• Powers to Central Government: It gives power to central government to regulate timber
production and its transportation.
4. Forest Conservation act, 1980
• Objective: The act was enacted to help conserve the country’s forests.
• Provisions of the act
o It prohibits the felling of forests for any “non-forestry” use without prior clearance by the
central government.

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o The clearance process includes seeking consent from local forest rights holders and from
wildlife authorities.
• The act also covers
o Requirement for declaring an area as a protected forest, wildlife sanctuary or a national
park.
o Maintenance of water supply in springs, rivers and tanks.
• Forest Conservation Division: Mandated to regulate diversion of forest land for non-forestry
purposes through effective implementation.
• Forest (Conservation) Rules, 2022 :
o Formation of Committees: It constituted an Advisory Committee, a regional
empowered committee at each of the integrated regional offices and a screening
committee at State/Union Territory (UT) government-level.
o Advisory Committee : The role of the Advisory Committee is restricted to advise or
recommend with regards to grant of approval under relevant sections in respect of
proposals referred to it and any matter connected with the conservation of forests
referred to it by the Central government.
o Project Screening Committee: In each state/UT for an initial review of proposals
involving diversion of forest land + The five-member committee will meet at least
twice every month and will advise the state governments on projects in a time bound
manner.
• Proposed Amendments
o Exemption for national security projects: It allows exempting agencies involved in national
security projects and border infrastructure projects from obtaining prior forest
clearance from the Centre.
o Private plantations: Facilitate private plantations for harvesting and exploration of oil and
natural gas deep beneath forest land by drilling holes from outside the forest areas.
o Building in forests: To ease the grievances of the individuals whose land fall in state specific
private forests act, it proposed to allow them the right to construct structures for bonafide
purposes including forest protection measures and residential units up to an area of 250 sq
mtr as onetime relaxation.
o Punishments: It proposes to make offences under the modified Act punishable with simple
imprisonment for a period which may extend to one year and make it cognizable and non-
bailable.
5. National Forest Policy, 1988
• Aim: To ensure environmental stability and maintenance of ecological balance including
atmospheric equilibrium which are vital for sustenance of all life forms, human, animal and
plant.
• Objectives
o Environment stability: Maintenance of environmental stability through preservation and,
where necessary, restoration of the ecological balance that has been adversely disturbed.

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o Natural heritage: Conserving the natural heritage of the country by preserving the remaining
natural forests with the vast variety of flora and fauna, which represent the remarkable
biological diversity and genetic resources of the country.
o Soil erosion: Checking soil erosion and denudation in the catchments areas of rivers, lakes,
reservoirs in the “interest of soil and water conservation, for mitigating floods and droughts.
o Forest cover: Increasing substantially the forest/tree cover in the country through massive
afforestation and social forestry programmes.
o Creating a massive people’s movement with the involvement of women, for achieving these
objectives and to minimize pressure on existing forests.
6. Biological Diversity act, 2002
• Objectives: Conservation, sustainable utilization and fair and equitable sharing of benefits
arising out of use of biological resources and associated knowledge.
• Three tier structure
o National Biodiversity Authority (at central level)
o State Biodiversity Boards (at state level)
o Biodiversity management committees (at local level)
• National Biodiversity authority: It is an autonomous body that performs facilitative,
regulatory and advisory function for Government of India on issue of Conservation of biological
resources.
o Functions of NBA
§ Procedure and Guidelines: It lays down procedure and guidelines to govern activities for
obtaining biological resource, for transferring the results of any research, certain
collaborative research projects exempted.
§ Advising the government: To advise the Central government on specific areas such as:
- Notification of threatened species
- Designated institutions as repositories for different biological resources.
- Exempt certain biological resources, normally traded as commodity.
• Recognition to contribution of indigenous local communities: Companies using the indigenous
local resources is required to share 0.5% of the sales post tax to the Indigenous local communities
whose turnover is more than 3 crores.
• Biological Diversity (Amendment) Bill, 2021
o Medicinal plants: It seeks to reduce the pressure on wild medicinal plants by encouraging
the cultivation of medicinal plants.
o Exemption to AYUSH practitioners: It proposes to exempt AYUSH practitioners from
intimating biodiversity boards for accessing biological resources or knowledge.
o Research activities: The Bill also facilitates fast-tracking of research, simplify the patent
application process, decriminalises certain offences.
o Foreign investments: The Bill seeks to attract more foreign investments in biological
resources, research, patent and commercial utilisation, without compromising the national
interest.

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o State Biodiversity boards: The Bill has strengthened the role of state biodiversity boards.
7. Forest Rights act, 2006
• Objective: It provides for restitution of deprived forest rights across India, including both
individual rights to cultivated land in forestland and community resources over common property
resources.
• Nodal Agency: Ministry of Tribal affairs
• National parks and sanctuaries included along with reserve forest, protected forests for recognition
of rights.
• Definition of Minor Forest produce: It includes all non-timber forest produce of plant origin,
including bamboo, brush, wood, stumps, tendu, kendu leaves etc.
• Four types of rights
o Title rights
§ It gives Forest dwelling scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers the right to
ownership to land farmed by tribals or forest dwellers subject to a maximum of 4 hectares.
§ Ownership is restricted for land that is actually being cultivated by the concerned family and
no new lands will be granted.
o Use rights
§ The rights of the dwellers extend to extracting Minor Forest Produce, grazing areas, to
pastoralist routes, etc.
o Relief and development rights
§ To rehabilitation in case of illegal eviction or forced displacement, subject to restrictions for
forest protection.
o Forest management rights
§ Right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest resource which they
have been traditionally protecting and conserving for sustainable use.
• Nature of rights: The rights under the act shall be heritable but not alienable or transferrable.
• Competent authority: The Gram Sabha has been designated as competent authority for initiating
process of determining the nature and extent of individual or community forest rights that may be
given to forest dwelling scheduled tribes.
• Important fact: Baigas, the vulnerable tribe in Madhya Pradesh is the first to get habitat rights in
India.
8. Compensatory Afforestation Fund act, 2016
• Objective: It seeks to provide an appropriate institutional mechanism to ensure expeditious
utilization in the efficient and transparent manner of amounts released in lieu of forest land
diverted for the non-forest purpose.
• Important Provisions
o It seeks to establish the National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public
Account of India, and a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account
of each state.
o The act provides legal backing to centre and state funds and regulate how this money will
be utilized.

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o Major sources of the Fund

§ Payment for compensatory afforestation
§ Payment for loss of forest ecosystem at net present value
§ Payment for violation and diversion of forest land guidelines
§ Additional payment for specific projects.
o As per the rules, 90% of the CAF money is to be given to the states while 10% is to be
retained by the Centre.
o Usage of Fund: The funds can be used for the treatment of catchment areas, assisted
natural generation, forest management, wildlife protection and management, relocation
of villages from protected areas, managing human-wildlife conflicts, training and
awareness generation, the supply of wood saving devices, and allied activities.
o Auditing: The act provides for annual audit of the account by Comptroller and Auditor
General (CAG).
9. Protection of Plant varieties and Farmer’s right act, 2001
• Introduction: It was enacted by India in 2001 to grant IPRs to plant breeders, researchers and
farmers who developed any new or extant plant species. It is in conformity with International Union
for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV), 1978.
• Rights under the Act
o Breeders Rights: They will have exclusive rights to produce, sell, market, distribute, import or
export the protected variety. Breeder can appoint licensee and may exercise for civil remedy in
case of infringement of rights.
o Researchers Rights: Researcher can use any of the registered variety under the Act for conducting
experiment or research. It includes the use as an initial source of variety for the purpose of
developing another variety but repeated use needs prior permission of the registered breeder.
o Farmers Rights
§ A farmer who has evolved or developed a new variety is entitled for registration and
protection in like manner as a breeder of a variety. Farmers variety can also be registered as
an extant variety.
§ Right to save, use, sow, re-sow, exchange, share or sell his farm produce including seed of
a variety protected under the act in the same manner as he was entitled before the coming into
force of this Act provided farmer shall not be entitled to sell branded seed of a variety
protected under the PPV&FR Act, 2001.
§ Farmers are eligible for recognition and rewards for the conservation of Plant Genetic
Resources of land races and wild relatives of economic plants.
§ Compensation: There is also a provision for compensation to the farmers for non-
performance of variety under Section 39 (2) of the Act, 2001.
§ Farmer shall not be liable to pay any fee in any proceeding before the Authority or Registrar
or the Tribunal or the High Court under the Act.
10. Central pollution control board (CPCB): It is a statutory body constituted under the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; entrusted with the powers and functions under Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981; serves as field formation and provide technical
services to MoEF&CC of provisions of EPA,1986; coordinates activities of SPCBs; promote

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cleanliness of streams and wells in different States; improve the quality of air and to prevent
or abate air pollution in the country.
11. National Board of wildlife: It is a statutory body constituted under WPA, 1972; advises central
government on measures for conservation of wildlife; its role is advisory in nature; has power
to review all wildlife-related matters and approve projects in and around national parks and
sanctuaries; no alternation of boundaries in national parks and wildlife sanctuaries can be
done without approval of the NBWL.
• Composition
o Chairman: NBWL is chaired by Prime Minister and responsible for promotion of
conservation and development of wildlife and forests.
o Members: It has 47 members including the Prime Minister. Among these, 19 members
are ex-officio members. Other members include three Members of Parliament, five
NGOs and 10 eminent ecologists, conservationists and environmentalists.
o Standing committee: approves all the projects falling within protected wildlife areas or within
10 km; chaired by Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate change.

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CHAPTER 9: PLANT DIVERSITY OF INDIA

1. Classification of the Plants
• Herb: Plant whose stem is green + Tender with height not more than 1 meter.
• Shrub: Woody perennial plant, woody stem, low stature and branching from the base.
• Tree: Large woody perennial plant, single well defined stem, definite crown.
• Parasites: Organism that draws its nourishment from other living organism + It grow on some
living plant called host and penetrate their sucking roots called haustoria into host plants.
• Epiphyte: Plant grow on host plant but not nourished by host plant + It take help of host plant
only in getting access to light.
• Climbers: Herbaceous or woody plant that climbs up trees by twining round them by trendrills,
hocks, aerial roots etc.
2. Effect of Abiotic components on Plants
• Intensity of light: Extremely high intensity favours root growth-> increased transpiration,
short stem, smaller thicker leaves + Low intensity-> retards growth, flowering and fruiting
+Only red and blue are effective in photosynthesis.
• Frost action: Killing of young plants + It leads to death of plants due to damage to cells,
formation of canker.
• Snow: Act as blanket, prevents further drop in temperature->protect seedlings from excessive
cold + It also shortens period from excessive cold and frost.
• Temperature: High temperature leads to death of plant due to coagulation of protoplasmic
proteins + It causes desiccation of plant tissues and depletion of moisture.
• Die back: Progressive dying usually backwards from tip of any portion of the plant (adaptive
mechanism to avoid adverse conditions) + The roots remain alive for years but shoots die.
Example include Sal, Red sanders, tomentosa etc.
o Causes: Dense over-head canopy, dense week canopy, frost, drought, grazing.
3. Insectivorous/Carnivorous plants: Derive most of their nutrients from consuming animals,
insects and others + They are adopted to grow in areas which lack nutrients like swamps + These
plants extract water and minerals from soil + They have chlorophyll and also do photosynthesis.
• Active Insectivorous: Use movements to trap the insect. Example: Venus fly trap.
• Passive Insectivorous: Use pitfall mechanism to trap the insects.
• Conservation Status: The Endangered species of carnivorous plants in India are Drosera Peltata,
Aldrovendavesiculosa and Nepenthese Khasiana.
• Threats: Gardening trading for medicinal properties, Habitat destruction, pollution caused by the
effluents.
4. Major Insectivorous plants
• Nepenthes: Also known as pitcher plant + It is found generally in Asia, Sri Lanka, and
Australia + The insects attracted by odour of the plant + It relies on pool of water to trap its
prey + It feed on mice and frogs too + The Plant start secrete digestive liquid.

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Fig: Nepenthes Khasiana

• Drosera: It has long tentacles on its leaves + It inhabit wet infertile soils or marshy places + It is
commonly known as sundews (tentacles secrete liquid that shines in sun like dewdrops) + The
insects stick to leaves and leaves coil around their prey to slowly digest it + It is majorly found in
region poor in nitrogen and phosphorous.

• Pinguicula: Also known as Butterworts + It is grown for pretty orchard like flowers + The leaves
emits faint fungal scent that attracts prey which gets struck to glandular surface + Pinguiculais
absent in India.

• Utricularia/Bladderworts: Largest genus of carnivorous plant, more than 200 species

occurring globally + The plant festooned with utricles + It mostly prey on worms, frogs, scuds.

• Aldrovanda: Free floating, rootless aquatic plant, only species found in India + Itoccurs in salt
marshes of Sunderbans.

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• Genlisea: Also known as the corkscrew plant commonly grown in wet terrestrial to the semi-
aquatic environment + It contains the Lobster pot trap that has small hair lined at the entrance.

5. Invasive plant species: These are species that occur outside the natural range and threaten native
plants and animals or other aspects of biodiversity.
• Important Invasive species in India
o Prosopis Julifora/Angreji Babool: Native to Mexico, South America and become an invasive
weed in Africa, Asia and Australia + It is an aggressive colonizer distributed throughout the
country + It is awater-greedy plant that depletes ground water + It is one of the world’s top 100
least wanted plants + It is also affecting wild ass population in Kutch, Gujarat + It is also used
to erect fences.
o Black Mimosa :It is a woody invasive shrub originates from tropical America + It is now
widespread throughout tropics + It forms dense, thorny, impenetrable thickets in wet areas + It
isdistributed throughout India + It is abundant especially in still or slow floating waters.
o Parthenium hysterophorus (Carrot Grass): Annual herb native to American Tropics + It is
invasive species in India + It is also known as Congress grass or Gajar Ghans + It produces
allelopathic chemicals that suppress crop and pasture lands that affects humans and livestock.
o Lantana Camara: Also known as red sage and tickberry + It is native to American tropics + It
outcompetes more desirable species + It spread from native Central and South America to 50
different countries.
o Siam weed: Common invasive species of kerala, locally known as Communist pacha as it spread
all over the state within a short span of time just like Communism + Siam weed is native to South
America.
o Senna Spectabilis: Plant species of legume family + It is an invasive species in India caused
threat to wildlife habitat in the Nilgiri Biosphere reserve.
o Needle Bush: Native to tropical south America + It is distributed throughout India + It is found
occasional in thorny scrub and dry degraded forests.

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o Black Wattle: It is native to South East Australia + It is primarily present in Western Ghats + It
is introduced for afforestation in Western Ghats + It regenerates rapidly after fire and forms dense
thickets.
o Goat Weed: Native to tropical America + It is distributed throughout India + It is aggressive
colonizer + It is considered astroublesome weed in gardens and forests.
o Prickly Poppy: Native to tropical central and South America + It isdistributed in throughout
India + It is aggressive colonizer and fringes of forests.
o Water Hyacinth: Native to Tropical America + It is an aggressive colonizer + It isabundant in
still or slow floating waters.
o Impatiens, Balasam: It is native to Tropical America, distributed throughout India + It is
common along streams of moist forests and occasionally along railway tracks + It also runs wild
in gardens.
o Touch Me Not, Sleeping Grass: It is native to Brazil + It is distributed throughout India + It is
acommon weed of cultivated fields, scrub lands and degraded forests.
6. Important Medicinal Plants
• BeddomesCyad: Found in Eastern peninsular India + Themale cones of the plant used for curing
rheumatoid arthritis and muscle pains.
• Blue Vanda: It is distributed across Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya and Nagaland +
It is also known as Autumn Ladies Tresses orchids + The blue flowers produce interspecific and
intergeneric hybrids.
• Ladies Slipper Orchid: Used as a component of formulas intended to treat anxiety + It is also
sometimes used topically as a poultice or plaster for relief of muscular pain.
• Sarpagandha: Rauvolfia roots used for treating various central nervous system disorders + It has a
depressant action on central nervous system produces sedation and lower blood pressure + The root
extracts used for treating intestinal disorders, cholera + The juice of the leaves used as a remedy
for opacity of the cornea.
• Cycads: It is a Gymnosperm tree also known as living fossil + It is distributed across Western Ghats,
North East India, Eastern Ghats and Andaman &Nicobar Islands + The regular consumption of starch
from cycads is factor for development of Lytico-Bodig disease + Major threats are over harvesting,
deforestation and forest fire.
• Aryogyapacha: Highly potent medicinal plant endemic to Agasthya hills + It is used by Kani Tribal
community to combat fatigue + It has varied spectrum of pharmacological properties such as anti-
oxidant, aphrodisiac, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, immunemodulatory, anti-tumor, anti-
ulcer, hepatoprotective and anti-diabetic.
7. Parts of a Tree
• Roots: Keep tree from tipping over; collect water and nutrients from soil + The conduction of
absorbed water and nutrients to stem + storage of food + vegetative reproduction and competition
with other plants.
• Crown: It is made up of leaves and branches at top of tree + It collects energy from the sun
(photosynthesis) and allows tree to remove extra water to keep it cool.

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• Leaves: Converts energy into food (sugar) + They are the food factories of a tree + They contain
chlorophyll which is an important biomolecule used in photosynthesis + They use sun energy to
convert CO2 from atmosphere and water from soil into sugar and oxygen.
• Branches: They provide support to distribute leaves + They act as conduits for water and nutrients
and as storage for extra sugar.
• Trunk: It provide its shape and support + It transport water and nutrients from the soil and sugar
from the leaves.
o Annual rings: New ring added for each year of tree’s life + Used to calculate Dendro-Chronology
(Age of a tree) + The size of growth ring determined by temperature, water availability.
o Bark: Inner layer made up of living cells + The outer layer made of dead cells + The inner layer
carry sap full of sugar from leaves to rest of tree + The items such as latex, cinnamon, poisons
are made from the bark.
o Cambium: Makes new cells allowing tree to grow wider each year.
o Sapwood (Xylem): Brings water and nutrients up from the roots to the branches, twigs and
leaves.
o Heartwood: Dead sapwood in center of trunk + It is the hardest wood of tree + It isdark in colour
than sapwood.
o Pith: Tiny dark spot in center of tree trunk + It is the most protected from damage by insects,
wind or animals.
• Root types
o Taproot: Descending root formed by direct prolongation of radicle of embryo.
o Lateral root: Arise from tap root and spread laterally to support tree.
o Buttresses: Out growths formed vertically above lateral roots and thus connect base of stem
with roots.
o Prop roots: Produced from branches of tree + It is suspended in air till they reach ground.
o Stilt roots: Adventitious roots emerged from butt of a tree above ground level. Example:
Rhizphora species of mangroves.
o Pneumatophore: Spike like projection of roots of mangrove tree above ground + It helps
submerged roots to obtain oxygen. Example: Heretieraspp
o Haustorial roots: Roots of parasitic plants + It absorb water and nutrients. Example Mistletoe
and dodder.
o Storage roots: Modified roots for storage of food + It include taproots and tuberous roots.
• Etiolation: Absence of adequate light-> plants become pale yellow.
• Autumn tints: Leaves undergo change in colour before falling from tree.
8. Naturalized exotic plant species: Common Guava (native to Mexico and Central Asia) + Lantana camara
(invasive, replaces undergrowth and prevents native plant from surviving) + Siam weed (native to South
America) etc.
• Tamilnadu (331) has highest number of naturalized plants followed by Kerala; Lakshadweep (17)
has least number of exotic naturalized plant species.
9. Important Parasitic plants of India

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• GleadoviaKonyakianorum: It is found in Nagaland + It is a holoparasite (complete parasite) + It

has no chlorophyll of its own + It is named in honour of Knoyak tribe of Nagaland + Conservation
status: Data deficient.
• Broomrape: Parasitic weed affecting tobacco cultivation + It completely lack chlorophyll + It bear
yellow, white or blue snapdragon like flower + It is totally dependent on other plants for nutrients;
recorded as principal weed in India + It affects tomato, eggplant, sunflower etc.
• Common stem parasites in India: Loranthus so, Mango trees and Cuscatareflexa.
• Root parasites: Sapriahimalayana (rare holoparasitic plant found in Arunachal Pradesh and
Meghalaya)
10. Important Plant species in news
• Fimbristylissunilii: Found in western ghats + It is Data deficient under IUCN red list + It is collected
from the grasslands of Ponmudi hills + It is named after plant taxonomist C.N. Sunil.
• NeanotisPrabhuii: It is a prostrate perennial herb + It is discovered in the Chembra Peak grasslands
of Wayanad + It grows on high-altitude grasslands + It grows up to 70 cm in length and is many-
flowered with the petals pale pink in colour + It is Data deficient under IUCN red list.
• Pyrostrialaljii: It is a new species belongs to genus of coffee family + It is discovered from the
Andaman Islands + It is usually found in Madagascar + The conservation status is Critically
endangered + It has umbellate inflorescence with 8 to 12 flowers + It is also located in Tirur forest
near Jarawa reserve forest in A&N islands.
• New genus Septemeranthus: It grows on the plant species Horsfieldiaglabra (Blume)Warb + It is
discovered from the Nicobar group of islands + It have a modified root structure spread on the stem
of the tree + It is anchored inside the bark of the host tree + It derives nutrients from its hosts has green
leaves capable of photosynthesis + It is endemic only to the Nicobar group of islands.
• SymplocosMohananii: Discovered in Ponmudi hills, kerala + It carries white flowers that usually
bloom in night + It is very endemic in nature + It is spotted from a hill which was about 3000 feet
above sea level + It is used to treat skin diseases by tribals and also for dye-making.
• Eugenia sphaerocarpa: Grow in the Kakkayam area of the Malabar wildlife sanctuary in Kerala
above 800m
• Goniothalamaussericeus: Found in Kanyakumari wildlife sanctuaryat an altitude of 1400m + It is
greenish-yellow to beige petals which are fragrant while the fruits are very showy and an attractive
golden yellow in colour.
• New Bamboo species: India is birthplace of Asian Bamboo + The new species are
Bambusiculmustirapensis and [Link] which are found in Tirap mine of Makum coalfield
of Assam.
• Living root bridge: Aerial bridges built by weaving roots of Indian rubber tree(FicusElastica) + They
act as connectors for generations in Meghalaya for Khasi and Jaintia people + Some root bridges
also found in Nagaland + They spans between 15 and 250feet + They are primarily a means to cross
streams & rivers.
• Dracaena Cambodiana: India’s first true dragon tree species + It is discovered in West Karbi
angling region of Assam + It yield’s dragon blood used as medicine, body oil, dye + It has anti-fungal
and anti-bacterial compounds, anti-oxidants etc.

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• Red sanders: Categorized as Endangered under IUCN red list + It is an endemic tree species
restricted to Eastern Ghats + It usually grow in rocky, degraded and fallow lands with Red Soil
and hot and dry climate + The threats include illicit felling for smuggling + It is known for their rich
hue and therapeutic properties + It is high in demand across Asia, particularly in China and Japan,
for use in cosmetics and medicinal products as well as for making furniture, woodcraft and
musical instruments + It is listed in Appendix 2 under CITES & Schedule 2 under Wildlife
protection act, 1972.
• Neelakurinji: Found in shola forests of Western Ghats + It got their name from purplish blue flowers
of Neelkurinji that blossoms every 12 years (monocarpic plant).
• Balsams: Commonly known as Balsams/jewel seeds + They are succulent plants with high endemism
+ They are found in North Eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim), eastern Ghats,
western ghats, Sri Lanka., South East Asia etc + They are sensitive to the climate change and act as
indicators.

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CHAPTER 10: MARINE ORGANISMS

1. Plankton: Includes both microscopic plants like algae (phytoplankton) and animals like crustaceans
and protozoans (zooplankton).
• Holoplankton: Organism planktonic for their entire life cycle; Examples include radiolarians,
amphipods, krills, copepods etc.
• Meroplankton: Organisms planktonic for only a part of their life cycle; Examples include larvae
of echinoderms, crustaceans etc. + After some time graduates into nekton or adopt a benthic
lifestyle on seafloor.
2. Phytoplankton: These are tiny microscopic floating plants found in water bodies like rivers, lakes
and oceans; chlorophyll to capture sunlight and use photosynthesis to turn it into chemical energy.
• Importance: Half of oxygen in environment; reduce global warming; base of ocean food chain
+ They act as bio-indicators regulating life in oceans.
• Factors affecting Phytoplanktons: Light (Mostly limited to upper layers of ocean where light
sufficient for photosynthesis), nutrients, temperature, salinity (dinoflagellates reproduce actively
at lower salinities), grazing by zooplankton.
3. Zooplankton: Vital role in food web, nutrient recycling + They are abundant within mangrove
water-ways + They determine quantum of fish stock + They are found in deeper ocean beds where
sunlight does not reach; mostly translucent + Examples include Meroplankton, holoplankton,
crustaceans such as krill, protozoans.
4. Sea-Grass: Flowering plants; grow submerged in shallow marine waters like bays and lagoons +
They require sunlight for photosynthesis + They are only group of higher plants adapted to life in
salt water + They occur along South east coast of Tamil Nadu and in lagoons of Lakshadweep
islands-> due to high salinity, clarity of water and sandy substratum.
• Importance: Reduce wave and current energy + Stabilize bottom sediments to control erosion
+ They act as nutrient sinks and provide chemical inputs to marine environment + Ecosystem
Engineers known for many ecosystem services; also called ‘the lungs of the sea’ + They help
maintain water quality by trapping fine sediment + They provide ideal nursery sites for
commercial marine life like squids and cuttlefish.
• Threats: Eutrophication, siltation, trawling, coastal engineering constructions etc.
• Others: Chilika lake has 22% of India’s sea grass area
5. Sea weeds: Primitive, marine non-flowering marine algae without root, stem and leaves + Large
seaweeds form dense underwater forests known as kelp forests-> act as underwater nurseries for
fish, snails; grow in shallow coastal waters.
• Location: Mostly in the intertidal region, in shallow and deep waters of the sea and also in
estuaries and backwaters + Southern Gulf of Mannar’s rocky intertidal have rich populations.
• Ecological importance: Bioindicators (absorb the excess nutrients and balance out i.e
ecosystem); iron sequestrator; oxygen and nutrient supplier; enhances ocean productivity.
• Climate mitigation: By afforesting 9% of the ocean with seaweed-> sequester 53 billion tons of
carbon dioxide annually.

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• Others: Used as fertilizers to increase aquaculture production; methane emission from cattle
may be reduced; combat beach erosion; ingredient in preparing toothpaste, cosmetics and pain.
6. Seaweeds Mission: launched for commercial farming of seaweeds and its processing for value
addition towards boosting the national economy.
• Establishing model demonstration farms over one hectare for cultivation of seaweeds in
nearshore and onshore along the Indian coast.
• Establishment of seaweed nurseries for supplying seed material for large scale farming
• Demonstration of processing technologies for edible seaweeds in line with consumer
acceptability.
• An activity on seaweed cluster development including value chain development.
7. Seaweed production: Out of the global seaweed production of ~ 32 million tons. China produces
~57 %, Indonesia ~28% followed by South Korea. India have a mere share of ~0.01-0.02%. +
Budget 2021 had proposed India's first multi-purpose seaweed park to be set up in Tamil Nadu as part
of promoting seaweed cultivation
8. Sea cucumbers : They are marine invertebrates that live on the seafloor found generally in tropical
regions + They're named for their unusual oblong shape that resembles a fat cucumber + There are
about 1,250 species of sea cucumber, all of which belong to the taxonomic class Holothuroidea +
They act like garbage collectors of the ocean world, and they recycle nutrients playing an important
role in keeping coral reefs in good condition + IUCN Red List: Brown Sea Cucumber (Endangered),
Blackspotted Sea Cucumber (Least Concern), Blue Sea Cucumber (Data Deficient), etc + Wildlife
Protection Act, 1972: Schedule I + In 2020, the Lakshadweep Islands administration created the
world’s first conservation area - 239 sq. km - for sea cucumbers.

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CHAPTER 11: PROTECTED AREA NETWORKS

1. In-Situ conservation: It is on-site conservation of genetic resources in natural populations of plant or
animal species.
2. Ex-Situ conservation: Threatened animals taken out from natural habitat and placed in special setting
where they can be protected and given special care.

3. Conservation reserves and Community reserves: They are protected areas, act as buffer zones and
migration corridors to established NPs, WLS and protected forests + These are the outcome of
amendment to WPA in 2003 + They provide recognition and legal backing to community initiated
efforts in wildlife protection + They roughly correspond to IUCN Category V (conservation reserves)
and VI (community reserves) protected areas.
• Conservation reserves
o Area is owned by state government and managed by Conservation reserve management
committee.
o State government may, after having consultations with local communities declare any area
owned by government as conservation reserve.
o Tiruppadaimarathur conservation reserve is the first conservation reserve in India.
• Community reserve
o State government notifies any community land/private land as community reserve provided
that members of community are agreeable to offer such areas for protecting fauna and flora, as
well as their traditions, cultures and practices.
o Managed by Community reserve management committee.
4. Marine Protected Areas: It involves protective management of natural areas so as to keep them
in their natural state; conserved for economic resources, biodiversity conservation and species
protection; created by delineating zones with permitted and non-permitted uses within that zone;
every MPA also designated as sanctuary, national park or community reserves.

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• Category 1: It covers NPs and sanctuaries having entire areas in intertidal or mangroves, coral
reefs, seagrass, estuaries, lagoons. Example: Gulf of Kacchh region.
• Category 2: Include Islands, which have major parts in marine ecosystem.
• Category 3A: Include sandy beaches beyond inter-tidal line.
• Category 3B: Include evergreen or semi evergreen forests of islands.
Important MPAs in India
Name of MPA State Category Year of Establishment
Marine (Gulf of Kutch) Gujarat National park 1995
Bhitarkanika Odisha National park 1998
Gulf of Mannar marine TN National park 1980
Sundarbans WB National park 1984
5. Reserved Forests: These forests are under the direct supervision of the government and no public
entry is allowed for collection of timber or grazing of cattle. About 53% of the total forest area falls
in this category.
• Important reserve forests: Kurkail reserve forests (UP), Bhavnagar Amreli forests (Gujarat;
Asiatic lion), vandalur reserve forests, Tikarpada reserve forests.
6. Protected Forests: looked after by the government, but the local people are allowed to collect fuel-
wood/timber and graze their cattle without causing serious damage to the forests; occupy about 29%
of the total forest area of the country.
7. Sacred Groves of India: These are patches of forests or natural vegetation that are usually dedicated
to local folk deities; protected by local communities because of their religious beliefs and traditional
rituals.
State Local term for sacred groves
Andhra Pradesh Pavithravana
Arunachal Pradesh Gumpa forests
Jharkhand Sarana
Kerala Kavu, sara kavu
Maharashtra Devrai, Devrahati
Puducherry Kovilkadu
Tamil Nadu Swami Shola, Koilkadu
8. Eco-sensitive zones: These are buffer zones around protected areas (NP, WLS etc) where only
regulated activities for specialized eco-system are allowed; shock absorbers.
• Activities prohibited
o Commercial mining, setting up of saw mills and industries causing pollution and major
hydropower projects are prohibited.
• Activities restricted with safeguards
o Felling of trees, drastic change in agriculture system and commercial use of natural water
resources, including ground water harvesting and setting up of hotels and resorts.

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• Activities permitted: Ongoing agriculture and horticulture practices by local communities,

rainwater harvesting, use of renewable energy sources etc.
9. Madhav Gadgil committee recommendations
• Entire western ghat (1,29,037 sq km) should be designated as Ecologically sensitive area (ESA).
• Classified Western Ghats boundary into Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZ) 1, 2 and 3.
• ESZ-1 being of high priority, almost all developmental activities (mining, thermal power plants
etc.) were restricted in it.
• No new dams based on large-scale storage be permitted in ESZ 1.
• Constitution of a Western Ghats Ecology Authority (WGEA), as a statutory authority under
the Ministry of Environment and Forests, with the powers under Section 3 of the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986 for protection of the region.
10. Kasturirangan committee recommendations
• Only 37% (i.e. 60,000 sq. km.) of the total area of Western Ghats be brought under ESA.
• Complete ban on mining, quarrying and sand mining in ESA.
• Distinguished between cultural (58% occupied in the Western Ghats by it like human settlements,
agricultural fields and plantations) and natural landscape (90% of it should come under ESA).
• Current mining areas in the ESA should be phased out within the next five years, or at the time
of expiry of mining lease, whichever is earlier.
• No thermal power be allowed and hydropower projects are allowed only after detailed study.
• Red industries i.e. which are highly polluting be strictly banned in these areas.
11. Biodiversity Heritage Sites: Unique, ecologically fragile ecosystem (terrestrial, coastal and inland
waters and marine) having rich biodiversity comprising (declared under Biodiversity Act, 2002):
• Richness of wild as well as domesticated species or intra-specific categories
• High endemism
• Presence of rare and threatened species, keystone species, species of evolutionary significance,
wild ancestors of domestic species or their varieties.
• Past preeminence of biological components represented by fossil beds having significant cultural,
ethical or aesthetic values; important for the maintenance of cultural diversity.
12. Amboli: The Maharashtra government declared an area at Amboli in Western ghats, where a rare
freshwater fish species Schistura Hiranyakeshi was discovered, as a biodiversity heritage site.
13. Recently four areas declared as biodiversity heritage sites which are Antaragange Betta in Kolar, Aadi
Narayana Swamy Betta in Chickballapur, Mahima Ranga Betta in Nelamangala, Bengaluru and
Urumbi area on the Kumaradhara river.
Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS) District/State
Nallur Tamarind Grove Bangalore, Karnataka
Hogrekan Chikmagalur, Karnataka
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru Karnataka
Ambaraguda Karnataka
Glory of Allapalli Maharashtra
Tonglu BHS & Dhotrey BHS under Darjeeling Forest Division Darjeeling, West Bengal

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Mandasaru Odisha
Dialong Village Manipur
Ameenpur lake Telangana
Majuli Assam
Gharial Rehabilitation Centre Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Chilkigarh Kanak Durga West Bengal
Purvatali Rai Goa
Naro Hills Madhya Pradesh
Asramam Kerala

14. Coastal Regulation Zone: These are declared by Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
change under the Environment Protection Act 1986 + Implemented by state governments through their
Coastal Zone Management Authorities.
• CRZ-I: Ecologically sensitive areas like Mangroves, coral reefs, salt marshes, turtle nesting
grounds etc., no construction is allowed except activities for atomic power plants, defense.
• CRZ-II: It includes areas which are developed up to or close to the shoreline and falling within
municipal limits. Construction activities are allowed on the landward side only.
• CRZ-III: It includes areas that fall neither in CRZ 1 nor CRZ 2 and also include rural and
urban areas that are substantially developed + No new construction of buildings allowed in this
zone except repairing of the existing ones + However, constructions of dwelling units in the
plot area lying between 200-500m of the high tide line is allowed.
• CRZ-IV: It includes the water area covered between Low Tide Line and 12 nautical miles
seaward. Except for fishing and related activities, all actions impugning on the sea and tidal
water will be regulated in this zone.

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• The Shailesh Nayak Committee was constituted in 2014 with the mandate of examining
the issues of the coastal states and union territories of the country with respect to the
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, 2011
• CRZ Notification, 2018
o CRZ-III A - These are densely populated rural areas with a population density of 2161
per square kilometer as per 2011 Census + Such areas will have a No Development Zone
(NDZ) of 50 meters from the High Tide Line as against 200 meters from the High Tide
Line stipulated in the CRZ Notification, 2011.
o CRZ-III B - Rural areas with a population density of below 2161 per square kilometer
as per 2011 Census. Such areas shall continue to have an NDZ of 200 meters from the
HTL.
o Tourism infrastructure in coastal areas: Temporary tourism facilities such as toilet
blocks, drinking water facilities etc. permitted in Beaches. (A minimum distance of 10
meters from HTL should be maintained.
o CRZ Clearances: Clearances for projects located in CRZ 1 and CRZ 4- MOEFCC +
Clearances for projects located in CRZ 2 and CRZ 3- State level authority.
o No Development Zone (NDZ) of 20 meters for Islands.

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CHAPTER 12: NATIONAL PARKS, TIGER RESERVES AND ELEPHANT

RESERVES IN INDIA
1. Introduction: India has a network of 987 Protected Areas including 106 National Parks, 564
Wildlife Sanctuaries, 99 Conservation Reserves and 218 Community Reserves covering a total of
5.26% of geographical area of the country.
2. National Park: WPA, 1972 provides for declaration of NP by state governments of areas which are
of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological importance; In
some cases, Central government can also declare an area as NP; boundaries are fixed and defined;
main objective is to protect natural environment and biodiversity conservation.
• Important Facts: First National Park Jim Corbett National Park + Largest National Park Hemis
National Park + Smallest National Park South Button National Park.
• States with highest number of NP
o Madhya Pradesh (9)
o Andaman and Nicobar Island (9)
• Human activities
o Settlement and private ownership of land not permitted.
o Grazing and fuel wood collection also prohibited
o Only those human activities which are allowed by Chief Wildlife warden of state permitted
inside NP.
o Species mentioned in the Schedules of WPA not allowed to be hunted or captured.
o cannot be downgraded to the status of a ‘sanctuary’.
• No alteration of the boundaries of a national park shall be made except on a resolution passed
by State Legislature.
• Important National Parks in India
o UT of Ladakh
§ Hemis National Park: It is only NP of India north of Himalayas; largest protected area
of India; largest national park in India and also in South Asia; bound in the north by
banks of Indus river; second largest contiguous protected area after Nanda Devi Biosphere
reserve.
- Flora: Dry forests of Juniper, Populus-salix forests, sub-alpne dry birch present at
lower altitudes.
- Fauna: Snow leopard (highest density in world), Tibetan Wolf, Eurasian brown
bear and red fox, Argali (Great Tibetan Sheep), Bharal (Blue Sheep), Shapu (Ladakhi
Urial)
o Jammu and Kashmir
§ Dachigam National Park: Located high in its interiors is the Marsar lake from which
flows the river Dagwan; 22 kms from Srinagar district.
- Flora: coniferous forest of broad leaf species; rich in Apricot, Walnut, Chestnut,
Oak, willow, Poplar, Chinar, Birch, Pine and Elm.

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- Fauna: Hangul (last viable population in world), Musk deer, Brown bear, Leopards,
Himalayan black bear, yellow throated marten, wild goat like the Markhor and ibex.
- Rare birds: Cinnamon sparrows, Himalayan Monals, Kashmir Flycatcher, Black
Bulbuls, and Colourful pheasants including crimson tragopan, iridescent monal
pheasant, blood pheasant and the koklass pheasant.
§ Salim Ali National Park: Situated in Srinigar dist, J&K named after famous ornithologist
Salim Ali; Flagship species is Himalayan monal.
- Flora: Coniferous Alpine type; major species are deodara, Cedrus, Brachypodium spp
etc.
- Fauna: Hangul, Musk deer, Himalayan black deer, leopard, Himalayan serow;
important birds are Himalayan monal, paradise flycatcher, Himalayan snowcock.
§ Kishtawar National park: lies in the central crystalline belt of the Himalayas; Kiar,
Nath and Kibar rivers flow from north to south-west direction, which merge into the
Marwar River, and finally joins the Chenab river; Flagship animal is Himalayan
snowcock and the brown bear.
- Flora: coniferous alpine type; plant species such as Cedrus, deodara, etc.
- Fauna: Snow leopard, Markhor, Musk deer, Brown bear, Himalayan black bear;
avifauna include Bearded vulture, Golden oriole, White cheeked bulbul, Griffon
vulture etc.
§ Kazinag National park: situated on the North bank of Jhelum river close to Line of
Control in Baramulla district; part of proposal for a trans-karakoram peace park with
Pakistan.
- Fauna: Markhor, Himalayan Musk Deer and is home of 120 species of birds and 20
species of mammals.
o Himachal Pradesh
§ Great Himalayan National park: located in kullu region of Himachal Pradesh; added to
UNESCO’S list of World Heritage sites under “outstanding significance of biodiversity
conservation”
- Flora: home to rarest Himalayan blue poppy, western Tragopan.
- Fauna: Snow leopard, blue sheep, Himalayan Brown bear, Himalayan Tahr, musk deer
etc; three globally threatened birds Western tragopan, koklas, cheer pheasants.
§ Pin valley National park (Lahul and Spiti): situated in the desert of the Spiti Valley
which lies within the Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve.
- Flora: Major plant species are Juniper & Birch trees, Populus Spp, etc.
- Fauna: leopard, snow leopard, Siberian ibex, bharal, red fox, marten.
§ Khirganga National Park: located in Kullu and is known to be one of the most beautiful
national parks in the country; species like wild bear are found here.
§ Simbalbara National park: Established in 1958 as the Simbalbara Wildlife Sanctuary;
became a national park in 2010.
- Flora: Simbalbara thick Sal forests alongwith grassy undergrowth.

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- Fauna: Goral, Chittal, Himalayan black bear, Sambhar, Spotted Deer, Hanuman
langurs etc.
§ Inderkilla national park: located in the Kullu district and established in 2010; leopards,
deers and rare birds of the summer season.
o Uttarakhand
§ Valley of Flowers National park: Located in chamoli region; known for its meadows of
endemic alpine flowers and variety of flora.
- Fauna: Musk deer, snow leopard, brown bear, blue sheep Red giant flying squirrel,
Himalayan black bear, Himalayan weasel etc.
- Flora: Flowers found are mostly orchids, poppies, primulas etc.
§ Nanda Devi national park: Declared World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1988; Valley
of flowers and Nanda Devi are encompassed in Nanda Devi Biosphere reserve.
- Flora: Meadows of alpine flowers, fir, birch, rhodendron and juniper.
- Fauna: Himalayan Musk deer, serow, Himalayan tahr, snow leopard, Himalayan black
bear.
§ Gangotri National park: Fourth largest NP in the country with total area of 2390km2;
situated in the upper catchment of Bhagirathi River; forms a continuity between
Govind National Park and Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary.
- Flora: Common vegetation include Chir pine, Deodar, Fir, Spruce etc.
- Fauna: Snow leopard, Tiger, Himalayan Snowcock, Himalayan Thar, musk deer, Ibex;
birds include Bulbul, Doves, Parakeet, patridges etc.
§ Rajaji National Park: Nestled between Shivalik ranges and Indo-Gangetic plains;
second tiger reserve of Uttarakhand; Ganga and Song river flows through the park.
- Flora: Major vegetation is broadleaved deciduous forests, scrubland, grasslands and
pine forests; Examples include Sal, Palash, Rohini and Arjun.
- Fauna: Renowned for its elephants, Sambar, barking deer, hog deers etc. Tiger and
Leopards are prime predators of the park.
§ Jim Corbett National park: It is the first national park in India; established in 1936 as
Hailey national park to protect Bengal Tiger; first park under Project Tiger initiative.
- Flora: Dense moist deciduous forest mainly consists of Sal, Haldu, peepal, rohini;
Forest covers 73% area of the park and 10% of the area consists of grasslands.
- Fauna: It is well known for its tiger richness; Major animals are Elephants, Leopards,
barking deer, hog deer, Chital, Indian Grey Mangoose.
o Uttar Pradesh:
§ Dudhwa tiger reserve: protected area that stretches across Lakhimpur Kheri, district and
comprise of Dudhwa national park, Kishanpur WLS and Kataranighat WLS.
- Fauna: well-known sanctuary of the swamp deer and is home to tigers, leopards,
varieties of deer, antelopes, elephants, jackal, hyena etc
- Flora: The park has some of the best forests of 'Sal' tree in the world, amongst other
flora.

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o Bihar:
§ Valmiki National Park: Located on Indo-Nepal border in West Champaran district; on
the banks of river Gandak; only national park in Bihar.
- Fauna: Bengal tiger, Indian rhinoceros, black bear, Indian sloth bear, otter, Indian
leopard, wild dog, buffalo, and boar; Also Indian flying foxes can be sighted here.
- Tharu, a scheduled tribe, is the dominant community in the landscape.
o Jharkhand
§ Betla National park: Located on Chota Nagpur plateau in Latehar district of Jharkhand;
consist of Palmau tiger reserve and Mahauadar wolf sanctuary.
- Flora: Sal and Bamboo are the major floral components.
- Fauna: Elephant, Sloth Bear, Panther, Wolf, Jack etc.
o Sikkim
§ Khangchendzonga National park: Includes a unique diversity of plains, valleys,
spectacular snow-capped mountains covered with forests; falls in Himalayan Global
biodiversity hotspots; UNESCO World heritage site (first mixed heritage site in India);
recently included in MAB program.
- Important Fauna: Musk deer, Snow leopard, Himalayan tahr, red panda, Himalayan
black bear etc.
- Others: Lepcha tribal settlements; Tholung monastery located in the park’s buffer
zone.
o Assam (Recently added National parks)
§ Raimona National Park: part of a contiguous forest patch covering the northern part of
the notified Ripu Reserve Forest, which forms the westernmost buffer to Manas Tiger
Reserve; shares contiguous forest patches of Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary and Jigme Singye
Wangchuck National Park of Bhutan.
- Bounded on west by the Sonkosh river and the Saralbhanga river on the east.
- Fauna: Famous for Golden Langur, Asian Elephant, Royal Bengal tiger, clouded
leopard, Indian gaur, Wild water buffalo, Spotted deer, Hornbill.
§ Dehing Patkai National park: located within the larger Dehing Patkai Elephant
Reserve, which spreads across the coal- and oil-rich districts of Upper Assam (Dibrugarh
and Tinsukia districts); also known as the Jeypore Rainforest; ideal site for non-human
primates.
- Fauna: Chinese pangolin, flying fox, wild pig, sambar, barking deer, gaur, serow;
only sanctuary in India which is home to seven different species of wild cats
- tiger, leopard, clouded leopard, leopard cat, golden cat, jungle cat and marbled cat;
highest concentration of the rare endangered White Winged Wood Duck.
§ Manas National park: UNESCO World Heritage Site, an elephant reserve and
a biosphere reserve; located in the Himalayan foothills in Assam; contiguous with
the Royal Manas National Park in Bhutan.

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- Fauna: known for its rare and endangered endemic wildlife such as the One-horned
Rhino, Manipur bush quail, Assam roofed turtle, hispid hare, golden langur pygmy
hog and wild water buffalo.
§ Kaziranga National Park: It is situated in Golaghat district of Assam; important Bird area
by Birdlife International; also a World Heritage Site; situated on the banks of river
Brahmaputra.
- Fauna: Great one-horned rhino (hosts 2/3rd of the world’s one-horned rhino
population; one of the highest density of tigers; Elephant, wild water buffalo, swamp
deer and Golden Langur, Eastern Swamp deer (Barasinga).
§ Orang National park: Located on the northern bank of Brahmaputra; also known as Mini
Kaziranga National Park.
- Fauna: Great Indian one-horned rhino, Pigmy hog, Elephants, wild buffaloes; Bengal
Florican is flagship species of the park.
§ Dibru Saikhowa National park: Bounded by Brahmaputra and Lohit rivers in the north
and Dibru river in South; it was created to protect White winged duck.
- Fauna: White winged duck (EN), water buffalo, Black breasted parrotbill, tiger and
capped langur.
o Arunachal Pradesh
§ Namdapha National park: Protected area in Changlang district of Arunachal Pradesh;
crossed by Noa Dihing river; located on Indo-Myanmar border.
- Fauna: Namdapha Flying squirrel (CR) is endemic to this park, Dhole, Red Panda,
Red fox etc. are other important mammals.
- Others: Important tribal groups include Lisu, Chakma, Tangsa and Singhpo.
o Meghalaya
§ Nokrek National park, Cherrapunji: Core area of Nokrek biosphere reserve located in
west Garo hills of Meghalaya; became a UNESCO biosphere reserve in 2009; important
bird area.
- Flora and Fauna: Important habitat of the Asian elephants, Red panda, Elephant;
wild varieties of citrus fruits that provide a gene-pool for commercially produced citrus.
§ Balphakram National park: National park near Garo hills in Meghalaya; located in
extreme south of Garo hills.
- Fauna: Red panda, tiger, elephant etc.
o Manipur
§ Keibul Lamjao National park: Located in Bishnupur district of Manipur; world’s largest
floating park; integral component of Loktak lake (largest freshwater lake of NE India).
- Features: Characterized by many floating decomposed plant materials called
Phumdis; declared as Ramsar wetland site.
- Fauna: Natural refuge of Endangered Manipur Eld’s deer or Sangai deer, brow
antlered deer (flagship species), Hog deer etc.
o West Bengal

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§
Sundarban National park: part of Sundarbans in Ganga delta and adjacent to Sundarbans
reserve forest in BD.
- Flora: Mangrove forests (Sundari trees)
- Fauna: One of the largest reserves for Bengal tiger, Salt water crocodile, fishing cats,
leopards, Pangolin, chital.
- Threatened species such as Royal Bengal tiger, river terrapin, olive ridley turtle etc.
§ Gorumara National park: Located in northern West Bengal in the Terai region of
Himalayan foot hills; located on flood plains of Murti river and Raidak river; significant
watershed area between the Ganges and Brahmaputra river systems.
- Fauna: rich in large herbivores including Indian rhinoceros, gaur, Asian elephant,
sloth bear, chital, and sambar deer. Small herbivores include barking deer, hog deer
and wild boar; Submontane forest birds like scarlet minivet, Asian paradise
suncatcher etc.
§ Jaldapara National park: located at the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas in Alipurduar
district of northern West Bengal and on the banks of the Torsa river.
- Fauna: home to Indian leopard, Indian elephants, sambar, barking deer, spotted
deer, Bengal florican, hog deer, wild boars, gaur, etc.; second largest rhino
population.
- Avi-fauna: Crested eagle, Pallas's fish eagle, shikra, Finn's weaver, jungle fowl,
peafowl (peacock), partridge, and lesser pied hornbill.
o Rajasthan
§ Ranthambore national park: Declared as NP in 1980; adjacent forests declared Sawai
Man Singh sanctuary and keladevi sanctuaries.
- Fauna: northernmost limit of the distribution range of Bengal tiger, Indian leopard,
nilgai, wild boar, sambar, striped hyena, sloth bear, gray langur, mugger crocodile
and chital.
- Flora: Largest banyan tree in India; mostly dry deciduous with abundance of a tree
species locally known as Dhak that is capable of withstanding long periods of drought.
§ Sariska National park: Located in the Aravalli Ranges denuded over centuries, it
consists of small hills and rocky landscape.
- Fauna: Famous for its Bengal tigers; Other important species are leopard, sambar
deer, chital, hyena, jackal etc.
- Flora: vegetation found is mainly dry deciduous forest along with scrub thorn
forest.
§ Keoladeo Ghana national park: Lies at the confluence of Gambhir and Banganga
rivers; sanctuary hosts thousands of birds; man-made and man-managed wetland; listed
on Montreux record under Ramsar convention; UNESCO World heritage site.
- Flora: vegetation of this wetland is mostly kadam, babul, kair, ber etc.

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- Fauna: world’s most important breeding areas for birds; other species are cranes,
pelican, Eagles, Flycatchers, Demoiselle cranes, falcons, jackals, chital, Nilgai,
hyenas, porcupine etc.
§ Desert National park: Situated in Western Rajasthan; second largest national park of
India; became UNESCO world heritage site in 1980.
- Flora and Fauna: Great Indian Bustard (CR) is native to the park; oriental white
backed vulture and Long billed Gyps; only place where Rajasthan State
Bird (Great Indian Bustard) and State tree (Khejri) and State flower (Rohida) are
found.
o Gujarat
§ Gir National park: Located in Saurashtra peninsula; one of the 7 protected areas
selected through the Eco-Development Project funded by the GEF and implemented
by the WB.
- Flora: Dry deciduous forest; important species found here are Teak , Dudhlo, Khair,
Ber, Desi babul, Dhavdo, Hermo, Sadad etc.
- Fauna: only place in the world where Asian Lions occur in the natural forest + Some
of important species found here are Lion (Asiatic Lion), Leopard, Hyena, Chital,
Sambar, Bule bull, Chaushinga, Chinkara, Wild Boar, Crocodile, Langur etc.
- Others: Maldharies community of tribals are integral part of Gir national park.
§ Marine National Park, Gulf of Kutch: First Marine NP, and Sanctuary (MNPS)
established in India in the year 1982 under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972; some of
the best known islands are Pirotan, Karubhar, Narara and Poshitra.
- Flora: Mangroves, herbs, grasses and herbs.
- Fauna: Colourful sponges and corals, Sea anemones, Jellyfishes, Sea horse,
Octopus, Lobster, Crabs, Prawns, Sea turtles, Dolphin, Dugong, Porpoise, Shark.
o Madhya Pradesh
§ Kanha National park: Largest NP of Madhya Pradesh and one of important tiger reserves
of India; declared as a national park in 1955.
- Flora: lush green forests of Kanha, composed majorly of Sal (Shorea Robusta) and
other mixed forest trees
- Fauna: Tiger, Hard ground Barasingha, Gaurs, Leopard, Dhole, Indian python etc.
§ Panna National Park: Located in Vindhya Hill in northern Madhya Pradesh; Ken
river flows through it; Vindhyas hill runs in North-East to South West Direction through
panna national park.
- Fauna: Tiger, leopard, hyaena, wild dog, Sloth bear, White necked stork, chital
and chowsingha, sambar the largest of Indian deers, Blue Bull and chinkara.
- Flora: Dominant vegetation is Dry Deciduous forest with tall grasses and thorny
woodlands.
§ Pench National park: It is in Seoni and Chhindwara districts of MP; Pench river flows
through the park from north to south.

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- Flora: Teak, mahua, palash, plum, tendu, moyan, sajja etc.

- Fauna: Tiger, leopard, jackal, fox, wolf, Gaur, nilgai, Sambhar, chital, chinkara,
wild dogs; various migratory birds such as Pintail, ruddy shelduck, whistling teal
etc.
o Odisha
§ Simlipal National park: Situated in Mayurbhanj district; part of Simlipal-Kuldiha-
Hadgarh elephant reserve; listed under UNESCO World network of Biosphere reserve.
- Flora: It has 1,076 flowering species and 96 species of orchids; tropical semi-evergreen
forests, tropical moist deciduous forests, dry deciduous hill forests, high level sal
forests and sprawling meadows.
- Fauna: Gaurs (Indian bison), chausingha, orchidarium etc.
- Tribes: Erenga Kharias and the Mankirdias, inhabit the reserve’s forests and
practise traditional agricultural activities
§ Bhitarkanika National park: Located in kendrapara district of Odisha; second largest
mangrove ecosystem in the country, also a Ramsar site; inundated by rivers like
Brahmani, Baitrani and Pathsala.
- Fauna: Salt water crocodile, Olive ridley turtles, Indian python, black ibis etc.
- Flora: Mangroves (Sundari and thespian); grasses like Indigo, bush etc.
o Maharastra
§ Tadoba National park: It is Maharastra’s oldest and largest national park; located in
Chandrapur district.
- Fauna: Bengal tiger, Indian leopards, Sloth bears, guar, nilgai, Indian civet etc.
- Flora: Southern tropical dry deciduous and Teak is the most common tree.
o Karnataka
§ Bandipur National park: Established in 1974 as a tiger reserve located in Mysore district
of Karnataka; known for its wildlife and part of Nilgiri biosphere reserve.
- Flora: Teak, rosewood, sandalwood etc.
- Fauna: Tiger, elephant, Gaur, Sambhar, Muggers, jackals, Indian giant squirrels, chital
etc.
§ Nagarhole national park: Located in Kodagu and Mysore district of Karnataka; part of
Nilgiri biosphere reserve; also an important bird area (IBA).
- Fauna: Tigers, Gaurs, Indian elephants etc.
- Tribes: Jenu kurubas are primary inhabitants.
§ Kudremukh national park: It is located in Dakshin kannada district of Karnataka.
- Flora: large scale plantations of eucalyptus, casuarinas etc.
- Fauna: Tiger, Leopard, wild dog, Malabar giant squirrel, common langur, sloth bear,
barking deer etc.
o Kerala

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§
Silent valley national park: It forms core of Nilgiri international biosphere reserve and
part of Western Ghat world heritage site recognized by UNESCO; river kunthi traverses
through valley.
- Fauna: Lion tailed macaque, Nilgiri Langur, Malabar Giant squirrel, Nilgri tahr etc.
§ Periyar National park: Declared as a national park in 1982; forms major watershed of
two important rivers periyar and pamba.
- Fauna: Tiger, Elephant, Lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri Tahr; birds such as Darters,
Cormorants, Kingfishers, the great Malabar Hornbill and racket-tailed Drongos etc.
- Flora: comprises tropical evergreen, semi evergreen, moist deciduous forests and
grasslands; Some are endemic to the region like Syzygium periyarensis (a tree),
Habenaria periyarensis (an orchid) and Mucuna pruriense thekkadiensis (a climber) etc.
o Tamil Nadu
§ Mukurthi national park: Located in western corner of Nilgiri plateau part of Nilgiri
Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO World Heritage Site) along with Mudumalai Wildlife
Sanctuary, Bandipur National Park, Nagarhole National Park, Wayanad Wildlife
Sanctuary and Silent Valley.
- Fauna: Keystone species is Nilgiri Tahr; other fauna includes tiger, elephant,
Nilgiri marten, Nilgiri langur etc.
- Flora: Characterized by montane grasslands and shrublands interspersed with
sholas.
- Peaks: The Park is also home to Mukurthi Peak, one of the highest peaks in the
Nilgiri Hills.
- Tribes: Todas are a pastoral tribe of the Nilgiri Hills.
§ Mudumalai National park: It is part of Nilgiri biosphere reserves; Moyar river separates
Bandipur and Madumalai.
- Flora: tall grasses, commonly referred to as Elephant Grass; Bamboo of the giant
variety, valuable timber species like Teak, Rosewood, etc.
- Fauna: Flagship Species are Tiger and Asian Elephant; Other species are Indian
Gaur, Spotted Deer, Common Langur, Malabar Giant Squirrel, Wild Dog, Jungle
Cat among others; rare birds like Malabar grey hornbill, Malabar pied hornbill,
Malabar laughing thrush among others.

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3. Important Tiger Reserves

• Pakhui (Pakke tiger reserve): It is located in East Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh +
Bounded by Kameng river in west and north and by Pakke river in the east + Habitat types are
lowland semi-evergreen, evergreen and Eastern Himalayan Broadleaf forests + It adjoins reserve
forests and Assam’s Nameri national park.
• Kaziranga tiger reserve (Assam): It is located on the edge of Eastern Himalaya biodiversity
hotspot + It is famous for Great one-horned rhinoceros + It is an elephant reserve, national park
and Biodiversity hotspot + It is also a world heritage site by UNESCO.

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• Manas tiger reserve (Assam): It is a national park, UNESCO heritage site, tiger reserve and an
elephant reserve + It is contiguous to Royal Manas national park in Bhutan + It is famous for
Assam roof turtle, hispid hare, golden langur, pygmy hog and wild water buffalo.
• Dampa tiger reserve (Mizoram): It is located in Lushai hills + As per the latest tiger census, it
has no tiger found in this reserve + It consists of rare florals species such as Hemiorchis pantlingii
and Globba spathulata.
• Rajaji tiger reserve (Uttarakhand): It is nestled between Shivalik ranges and Indo-Gangetic
plains + Ganga and Song rivers passes through the reserve + Major animals which are found here
are Asian Elephant, Bengal Tiger, Leopard, Jungle etc.
• Jim Corbett tiger reserve (Uttarakhand): It is the oldest national park created in India in 1936
+ It encompasses the Patli Dun valley formed by Ramganga river + It is the first tiger reserve to
come under Project Tiger initiative + It is covered under WWF for Nature under their Terai Arc
landscape.
• Dudhawa (Uttar Pradesh) : In the Terai belt of marshy grasslands of (Lakhimpur Kheri district)
northern Uttar Pradesh + Fauna : Swamp deer, Sambar deer, barking deer, spotted deer, hog deer,
sloth beer, ratel, jackal, civets, jungle cats, fishing cat, leopard cat + It is the only place in U.P.
where both Tigers and Rhinos can be spotted together
• Valmiki tiger reserve (Bihar): It is located at the India-Nepal border + It is surrounded by river
Gandak and encompasses foothills ranges of Himalayan Sivaliks with mosaic of cliffs + Major
animals in the reserve are barking deer, spotted deer, sambar, spotted hyena etc.
• Sunderbans tiger reserve (West Bengal): It is located in the Ganges delta + It is a national park,
tiger reserve, biosphere reserve and Ramsar site + It is the only mangrove forest in the world
inhabited by tigers + It is a UNESCO World heritage site.
• Simlipal tiger reserve (Odisha): It is part of Mayurbhanj elephant reserve and part of World
network of biosphere reserves + It is famous for waterfalls such as Joranda and Barehipani falls.
• Satkosia tiger reserve (Odisha): It comprises of Satkosia Gorge wildlife sanctuary and Baisipalli
wildlife sanctuary + Mahanadi river passes through the reserve + It is considered as Eastern
Highlands moist deciduous forests ecoregion.
• Ranthambore (Rajasthan) : Included Sawai Man Singh Sanctuary and Keladevi Sanctuary +
Fauna : Indian leopard, Nilgai, Wild boar, Sambar, Striped hyena, Sloth bear + Rivers : Banas and
Chambal rivers + The forest type is mainly tropical dry deciduous with ‘dhak’ (Butea
monsoperma), a species of tree capable of withstanding long periods of drought, being the
commonest + This tree is also called as ‘Flame of forest’.
• Sariska (Rajasthan) : Sariska Tiger Reserve is located in Aravali hills and forms a part of
the Alwar District of Rajasthan + Popular for copper and marble mining + Fauna : Indian leopard,
jungle cat, caracal, striped hyena, golden jackal, chital, sambar deer, nilgai + All tigers in Sariska
became extinct in 2005 + The Sanctuary houses ruined temples, forts, pavilions, and a palace.
• Ramgarh Vishdhari Tiger Reserve (Rajasthan) : It was notified in the Year 1982 + Ramgarh
Vishdhari WLS acts as a buffer for Ranthambore National Park + The sanctuary is covered
with deciduous forests + Its flora consists of Dhok, Khair, Salar, Khirni trees with some Mango

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and Ber trees + The Fauna consists of birds and animals like Leopard, Sambhar, Wild boar,
Chinkara, Sloth bear, Indian Wolf, Hyena, Jackal, Fox, deer, and Crocodile
• Kanha tiger reserve (Madhya Pradesh): It is the largest national park of Madhya Pradesh and
Central India + It is the first tiger reserve to have a mascot Bhoorsingh, the Barasingha + It is
predominantly inhabited by the Baiga tribe + Major animal life in the reserve are Royal Bengal
tiger, Indian leopards, Sloth bear, Barasingha and Indian wild dog.
• Guru Ghasidas Tiger Reserve (Chhattisgarh): National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)
has designated the combined areas of the Guru Ghasidas National Park (Sanjay National Park) and
Tamor Pingla Wildlife Sanctuary as a Tiger Reserve + It is located in the northern part of
Chhattisgarh, bordering Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand + Fourth Tiger Reserve in
Chhattisgarh, after the Udanti-Sitanadi, Achanakmar, and Indravati Reserves + Last known
habitat of the Asiatic cheetah in the country + Flora: The vegetation consists mainly of mixed
deciduous forest with teak, sal and bamboo trees + Fauna: Tiger, Leopard, Chital,
Nilgai, Chinkara, Jackal, Sambar, Four-horned Antelope etc.
• Periyar Tiger Reserve (Kerala) : Sabrimala temple + Periyar and Pamba rivers + Cardamom
hills and Pandalam hills + Mullaperiyar dam + Six tribal communities nestled inside the reserve
such as Mannans, Paliyans, Malayarayans, Mala Pandarams, Uralis, and Ulladans + Fauna : Tiger,
Elephant, Lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri Tahr, etc.
• Nagarhole Tiger Reserve (Karnataka) : It is also known as Rajiv Gandhi National Park + The
Park lies in the Western Ghats and is a part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve + Fauna : Tiger, Gaur,
Elephant, Indian Leopard, Deer + Brahmagiri hills + Kabini reservoir separates Bandipore and
Nagarhole + Nagarahole River flows through the park, which joins the Kabini River which also is
a boundary between Nagarahole and Bandipur National Park.

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CHAPTER 13: MAJOR WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES IN INDIA

Wildlife sanctuary: WPA act of 1972 provided for declaration of certain areas by state government as
wildlife sanctuaries if area was thought to be of adequate ecological, geomorphological and natural
significance; more than 500 WLS in India.
• Human activities: Some restricted human activities are allowed in WLS as specified in the
Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972.
• Highest number of wildlife sanctuaries located in Andaman& Nicobar Islands (96).
National Park Wildlife sanctuaries
Commercial exploitation of forest produce Commercial exploitation of forest produced not
not allowed. allowed.
Comparatively Greater protection Hunting is prohibited without permission.
Activities like hunting, grazing and human Grazing and movement of cattle are permitted.
settlement are prohibited.
They are broad in nature. WLS can be created for a particular species.

Wildlife Sanctuaries in News [Students: We have covered all the WLS in news since last two years]
1. Dehing Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary: Declared a Wildlife Sanctuary in 2004, located within the larger
Dehing Patkai Elephant Reserve, which spreads across the coal rich districts of Upper Assam.
• Fauna: Chinese pangolin, flying fox, wild pig, sambar, barking deer and Malayan giant squirrels;
only sanctuary home to seven different species of wild cats - tiger, leopard, clouded leopard, leopard
cat, golden cat, jungle cat and marbled cat.
• Flora: Deciduous rainforest interspersed with semi-evergreen and lush green flora.
2. Malai Mahadeshwara Hills Wildlife Sanctuary: Contiguous to Biligiri Ranganathaswamy Temple Tiger
Reserve and Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu + Declared as a WLS in 2013.
• Flora: Mainly of dry deciduous type degrading to scrub forests in fringe areas and interspersed with
patches of moist deciduous, semi-evergreen and evergreen forests.
• Fauna: Abundance of species like gaur, sambar, chital, four-horned antelope, wild boar, honey
badger and grizzled giant squirrel.
3. Karlapat Wildlife Sanctuary: It is a wildlife sanctuary located in the Kalahandi district in Odisha;
famous for the lush green dry deciduous forest + Waterfalls located are Phurlijharan, Ghusrigudi,
Koyirupa, Kuang, and Raja Rani.
• Fauna: leopard, gaur, sambar, nilgai, barking deer, mouse deer, soft claws ottawa and a wide variety
of birds.
• Flora: Sal, Bija, Asan, Harida and Bamboo and varieties of medicinal plants.
4. Bhagwan Mahaveer Wildlife Sanctuary: located on the foothills of the Western Ghats and contains in
it Mollem National Park (MNP); home to the famous Dudhsagar waterfall and the Devil’s Canyon.
• Flora: Primary species of trees found include Terminalia, Lagerstroemia (crepe myrtle), Xylia and
Dalbergia (timber trees).
• Fauna: Deer, sambar, spotted deer, hog, mouse deer and barking deer, tiger, leopard cat, panther,
lesser Indian civet, giant squirrel, flying squirrel etc.
5. Koundinya Wildlife Sanctuary: only sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh with a population of Asian
elephants.
• Flora: covered by southern tropical dry deciduous and thorn forests; important flora includes
Albizia amara, Acacia, Lagerstroemia, Ficus, bamboo.
• Fauna: Elephant, Sloth bear, chowsingha, sambar, jackal, starred tortoise and slender loris.

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6. Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary: Located in Ri Bhoi district of Meghalaya, one of the best protected
areas in the Northeast; falls in the Eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot + It is drained by rivers and
streams like Umran, Umming and Umpurthih.
• Fauna: Royal Bengal Tiger, Clouded Leopard, Indian Bison, and Himalayan Black Bear, etc.
• Avifauna: Manipur Bush Quail, Rufous Necked Hornbill and Brown Hornbill.
7. Bhindwas Wildlife sanctuary: Located in Jhajjar, it is largest in Haryana + Important part of the ecological
corridor along the route of Sahibi River which traverses from Aravalli hills in Rajasthan to the Yamuna.
• Fauna: major wildlife supported here are neelgai, geedar, langur and Bandar, blue peafowl, rufous
treepie, greater coucal, Indian grey hornbill, barbet, etc.
8. Thol lake wildlife sanctuary: situated in Gujarat; lies on the Central Asian Flyway; declared as a wildlife
sanctuary in 1988.
• Bird species: The lake supports more than 30 threatened waterbird species such as the White-
rumped Vulture and Sociable Lapwing; and the vulnerable Sarus Crane and Common Pochard.
9. Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary: It is located in Assam and often called ‘Mini Kaziranga’ due to similar
landscape and vegetation; highest density of one-horned rhinos in the world and second highest
concentration in Assam after Kaziranga National Park.
• Fauna: home to endangered one-horned rhinoceros and the other mammals such as Leopard,
Leopard cat, Fishing cat, Jungle cat, Feral Buffalo, Wild pigs, Chinese pangolins, etc.
• Flora: wet savannah of Arundo donax and Saccharum; Water hyacinth (an invasive aquatic plant) is
a major problem to the area
10. Wayanad wildlife sanctuary: It is the second largest wildlife sanctuary in Kerala; formed in 1973 and
was brought under the Project Elephant in 1991–92; integral part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
• Flora: contains species of Moist deciduous forest consists of maruthi, karimaruthi, rosewood,
venteak, vengal, chadachi, mazhukanjiram, bamboos.
• Fauna: Elephants, tigers, panthers, jungle cats, civet cats, monkeys, wild dogs, bisons, deer, bears,
monitor lizards and a variety of snakes are seen also Peacocks, babblers, cuckoos, owls, woodpeckers
and jungle fowls.
11. Barnadi wildlife sanctuary: located in northern Assam’s Baksa and Udalguri districts bordering Bhutan;
bordered by the Barnadi river and Nalapara river to the west and east respectively.
• Fauna: Established specifically to protect the Pygmy Hog, Hispid Hare, Asian Elephant, Tiger and
Gaur Bos frontalis.
• Flora: commercial plantations of Bombax ceiba, Tectona grandis, Eucalyptus thatch grasses.
12. Tamor pingla wildlife sanctuary: located in the Surajpur district of Chhattisgarh. It is named
after Tamor hill and Pingla Nalla.
• Flora: Mixed deciduous forests dominate the sanctuary. Sal and bamboo forests are seen.
• Fauna: Tigers, Elephants, leopards, bears, sambar deer, blue bulls, chital and bison.
13. Khijadiya wildlife sanctuary:part of the Central Asian Flyway, fourth wetland of Gujarat to get the
Ramsar tag; freshwater wetland near the coast of the Gulf of Kutch; now part of Marine National Park,
Jamnagar, the first marine national park in the country.
14. Kajoijana Bamuni Hill Wildlife Sanctuary: located in Assam and Kakoijana Wildlife Sanctuary is home
to the endangered species of Golden Langur.
• Fauna: Home to endangered species like Binturong, Jungle Fowl, Pangolin, Porcupine, Leopard,
Hornbill, Python, Stork, Lesser Adjutant, Monitor Lizard, Flying Squirrel, Civets.
15. Askot wildlife sanctuary: Established in 1986 to protect the endangered Musk Deer and its habitat; known
as ‘Green Paradise on the Earth’.
• Fauna: snow leopard, Himalayan black bear, Himalayan tahr, blue sheep, serow loong, monal,
kalij pheasant besides musk deer.

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16. Indian Wild Ass Sanctuary : The Indian Wild Ass Sanctuary is located in the little Rann of Kutch in
Gujarat, India, and covers an area of 4954 square KMs + This establishment is also known as the Wild Ass
Wildlife Sanctuary and was built in 1972 under the 1972 Wildlife Protection Act + The establishment acts
as the only home to the endangered Indian Wild Ass and is centred towards preserving the species.
17. Nahargarh Wildlife Sanctuary : It is located about 12 km from Jaipur + The sanctuary has been named
Nahar, because it falls under Nahar Village (Nahad village) + It encompasses a large area of 720 hectares
and is situated under the Aravalli range + It is home to 285 species of birds, Asiatic lions, Bengal tigers,
sloth bear, hyenas, panthers, deer, crocodiles etc + Nahargarh Biological Park (NBP) is famous for the lion
safaris + It has now become a convenient breeding centre of lions.
18. Bhitarkanika National Park : It is located in Kendrapara district in Odisha + The area has been designated
as second Ramsar site of the State after the Chilika Lake + It is surrounded by Bhitarkanika Wildlife
Sanctuary. Gahirmatha Beach and Marine Sanctuary are to the east, separating swamp region and
mangroves from the Bay of Bengal + The national park and wildlife sanctuary is inundated by the rivers
Brahmani, Baitarani, Dhamra, Pathsala + It is the second largest mangrove ecosystem in India.
19. Tungareshwar Wildlife Sanctuary : It was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 2003 + It is in the suburbs of
Mumbai + Tungareshwar is a mountain plateau situated between Virar and Vasai + Spread over 85 [Link],
it forms a corridor between Sanjay Gandhi National Park (also known as Borivali National Park) and Tansa
Wildlife Sanctuary + There are three different types of forests – Dry Deciduous, Moist Deciduous and Semi
Evergreen + Fauna : Oriental dwarf kingfisher (a migrant bird known as the Jewel of the forest), the
Leopard, Wild Boar, Barking Deer, Langur, Bonnet and Rhesus Macaque, and Black-naped Hare, as well
as a multitude of birds, including the Crested Serpent-eagle, Jungle Owlet, White-eyed Buzzard, Oriental
Honey-buzzard, Emerald Dove and Heart-spotted Woodpecker
20. Tal Chhapar Wildlife Sanctuary : Located in Churu district of Shekhawati region of Rajasthan, Tal
Chappar Wildlife Sanctuary is famous for blackbucks and variety of birds. The sanctuary is named after
the Chhapar village and its open grasslands scattered with trees give it the appearance of a savannah + Tal
Chappar is a flat saline depression locally known as a "tal" that has a unique ecosystem in the heart of the
Thar Desert.
21. Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary : It is a wildlife sanctuary in Thiruvananthapuram district of Kerala, India. It
consists of the catchment area of the Karamana River, which originates from Chemmunjimottai, the tallest
hill within the sanctuary. The sanctuary is named after the Peppara Dam. The area of the sanctuary is 75
km with tropical moist evergreen forests and myristica swamps.
22. The Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary : It is in the southern state of Kerala in India is spread over the southeast
corner of the Western Ghats, This is the drainage basin for the Neyyar River and its tributaries - Mullayar
and Kallar. The towering peak of Agasthyamalai at an elevation of 1868 meters is a very prominent
landmark.
23. Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary : Andhra Pradesh + It is the second largest stretch of mangrove forests in
India with 24 mangrove tree species and more than 120 bird species + It is home to the critically endangered
white- backed vulture and the long billed vulture + The sanctuary is a part of + the Godavari estuary and
has extensive mangrove and dry deciduous tropical forest + About half of the area is the backwater.
24. Nalabana bird sanctuary: located on Nalabana Island in the Chilika lagoon area in Odisha; core area of
Chilika lake.
• Migratory birds: Bar-headed geese, greater flamingos, herons, black-tailed godwits and rare Great
Knot; they usually start arriving at Chilika in November as it is a comparatively hospitable alternate
habitat compared to the extreme freezing conditions in their natural habitats in Siberia, China, Japan
and other countries in the northern hemisphere.
• Chilika Lake is world's second-largest lagoon after New Caledonian barrier reef in New Caledonia.

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CHAPTER 14: RAMSAR SITES IN INDIA

Ramsar Convention
1. The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance is an international treaty for the
conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. It is also known as the Convention on Wetlands.
2. It is named after the city of Ramsar in Iran, where the convention was signed in 1971.
3. Under the “three pillars” of the Convention, the Contracting Parties commit to:
• Work towards the wise use of all their wetlands;
• Designate suitable wetlands for the list of wetlands of international importance (the “ramsar
list”) and ensure their effective management;
• Cooperate internationally on transboundary wetlands, shared wetland systems, and shared
species.

Facts:
1. Global sites: Ramsar List is the world’s largest network of protected areas. There are over 2,400
Ramsar Sites on the territories of 171 Convention Contracting Parties across the world, covering
more than 2.5 million square kilometres.
2. India: There are 49 75 Ramsar sites in India.
• Maximum sites: Uttar Pradesh [8 Ramsar Designated sites] Tamil Nadu has a maximum no.
of Ramsar sites. Total 14 Sites.
• Largest: Sundarbans Wetland, West Bengal
• Smallest: Renuka Wetland, Himachal Pradesh

International organization partners

• BirdLife International
• International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
• International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
• Wetlands International
• WWF International
• Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT)

Bodies established by Convention

• Conference of the Contracting Parties: Governing bod consisting of all governments that have
ratified the treaty. It reviews progress under the convention, identifies new priorities, and sets work
plans for members.
• Standing Committee: It is the intersessional executive body which represents the COP between
its triennial meetings, within the framework of the decisions made by the COP. Members are
elected in each meeting of the COP to serve for 3 years.
• The scientific and Technical Review Panel: It provides scientific and technical guidance to the
Conference of Contracting Parties, the Standing Committee, and the Ramsar Secretariat.
• The Secretariat: It carries out the day-to-day coordination of the convention's activities. It is based
at the headquarters of the IUCN in Gland, Switzerland.

Criterion for designating a site as Ramsar Site

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Group Sub-Group Criterion

A: Sites containing Criterion 1: A wetland should be considered internationally
representative, rare or important if it contains a representative, rare, or unique example of
unique wetland types a natural or near-natural wetland type found within the appropriate
biogeographic region.
B: Sites of Criteria based Criterion 2: A wetland should be considered internationally
international on species important if it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically
importance for and endangered species or threatened ecological communities.
conserving biological ecological Criterion 3: A wetland should be considered internationally
diversity communities important if it supports populations of plant and/or animal species
important for maintaining the biological diversity of a particular
biogeographic region.
Criterion 4: A wetland should be considered internationally
important if it supports plant and/or animal species at a critical
stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge during adverse
conditions.
Specific Criterion 5: A wetland should be considered internationally
criteria based important if it regularly supports 20,000 or more waterbirds.
on waterbirds Criterion 6: A wetland should be considered internationally
important if it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a
population of one species or subspecies of waterbird.
Specific Criterion 7: A wetland should be considered internationally
criteria based important if it supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish
on fish subspecies, species or families, life-history stages, species
interactions and/or populations that are representative of wetland
benefits and/or values and thereby contributes to global biological
diversity.
Criterion 8: A wetland should be considered internationally
important if it is an important source of food for fishes, spawning
ground, nursery and/or migration path on which fish stocks, either
within the wetland or elsewhere, depend.
Specific Criterion 9: A wetland should be considered internationally
criteria based important if it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a
on other taxa population of one species or subspecies of wetland-dependent non-
avian animal species.

Recently added Ramsar sites

• Bakhira Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttar Pradesh: It is a freshwater marsh and is the largest natural
floodplain wetland of eastern Uttar Pradesh + Established in 1980 and is protected under the Wildlife
Protection Act (1972) and also an “eco-sensitive zone” + It serves as a natural habitat for the state
bird Sarus + It provides wintering ground for migratory species such as endangered Egyptian
vulture, the vulnerable greater spotted eagle + It also support fish species such as vulnerable
European carp, catfish Wallago attu, and near-threatened Gangetic ailia and silver carp.
• Khijadia Wildlife Sanctuary, Gujarat: It is a freshwater wetland near the coast of the Gulf of
Kutch + It is located at the watershed of Ruparel river and Kalindri at the North East coastal region
of Jamnagar district in the Gulf of Kutch + It is part of Marine National Park, Jamnagar, the first
marine national park+ Critically endangered Indian bdellium-tree is found.

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• Bhindwas Wildlife Sanctuary, Haryana: It is the largest wetland in Haryana + Human-made

freshwater wetland + It is an important part of the ecological corridor along the route of Sahibi
River which traverses from Aravalli hills in Rajasthan to the Yamuna.
• Sultanpur National park: It is a bird paradise for bird watchers + It is famous for its migratory as
well as resident birds; important fauna include Blackbuck, Nilgai, Hog deer, Sambar, Leopard + Birds
include Siberian Cranes, Greater Flamingo, Demoiselle Crane etc.
• Thol lake wildlife sanctuary, Gujarat: Artificial lake at Thol village, Gujarat + It is located on the
Central Asian Flyway and almost 320 bird species are found here. + It hosts more than 30 threatened
waterbird species, like the critically endangered White-rumped Vulture and Sociable Lapwing,
vulnerable sarus Crane, Common Pochard and Lesser White-fronted Goose.
• Wadhwana wetland, Gujarat: Internationally important for its birdlife as it provides wintering
ground to migratory waterbirds, that migrate on the Central Asian Flyway + It include
endangered Pallas’s fish-Eagle, the vulnerable Common Pochard + near-threatened Dalmatian
Pelican, Grey-headed Fish-eagle and Ferruginous Duck.
• Haiderpur wetland: Located on the Muzaffarnagar-Bijnor border between the Ganges and the Solani
River within Hastinapur Wildlife sanctuary + It has numerous species of dolphins, turtles,
alligators, crocodiles, butterflies, and deer.
• Tampara Lake : Tampara Lake is among the most prominent freshwater lakes in the State of Odisha
situated in Ganjam district + The depression on the ground gradually filled with rainwater from
catchment flow and was called “Tamp” by the British and subsequently termed “Tampra” by the locals
+ The wetland is an important habitat for vulnerable species such as Cyprinus carpio, common pochard
(Aythya ferina), and river tern (Sterna aurantia).
• Hirakud Reservoir : Hirakud Reservoir, the largest earthen dam in Odisha started operating in 1957
+ Out of the known 54 species of fish from the reservoir, one has been classed as being endangered,
six near threatened and 21 fish species of economic importance.
• Ansupa Lake : Ansupa Lake is the largest freshwater lake of Odisha situated in Banki subdivision of
Cuttack district and has been famous from time immemorial for its scenic beauty, biodiversity, and
natural resources + The wetland is an oxbow lake formed by River Mahanadi.
• Yashwant Sagar : Yashwant Sagar is one of the two Important Bird Areas (IBA) in the Indore region
as well as one of the most important birding sites in Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh + Presently it
is mainly used for water supply to the city of Indore and is also being used for fish culture on a
commercial scale.
• Chitrangudi Bird Sanctuary : Chitrangudi Bird Sanctuary, locally known as "Chitrangudi Kanmoli"
is located in Ramanathapuram district in Tamil Nadu + Chitrangudi Bird Sanctuary is an ideal habitat
for winter migratory birds.
• Suchindram Theroor Wetland Complex : Suchindrum Theroor Wetland complex is part of the
Suchindrum-Theroor Manakudi Conservation Reserve + It is declared an Important Bird Area and lies
at the southern tip of the Central Asian flyway of migratory birds.
• Vaduvur Bird Sanctuary : It is a large human-made irrigation tank and shelter for migratory birds as
it provides a suitable environment for food, shelter, and breeding ground + These tanks have the
potential to harbor good populations of resident and wintering water birds.
• Kanjirankulam Bird Sanctuary: Kanjirankulam Bird Sanctuary is a Protected area near
Mudukulathur Ramanathapuram District, Tamil Nadu + It is notable as a nesting site for several
migratory heron species that roost in the prominent growth of babul trees there.

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• Thane Creek : Thane Creek is located in Maharashtra, India. There are several sources of fresh water
to the creek, of which Ulhas River is the largest, followed by many drainage channels from various
suburban areas of Mumbai, Navi Mumbai & Thane + It has been declared as Thane Creek Flamingo
Sanctuary.
• Hygam Wetland Conservation Reserve: Hygam Wetland falls within the River Jhelum basin and
plays a significant role as a flood absorption basin, biodiversity conservation site, eco-tourism site, and
livelihood security for the local communities + It serves as an abode to many residents and migratory
bird species + It is also recognized as an Important Bird Area (IBA).
• Shallbugh Wetland Conservation Reserve: Shallabug Wetland Conservation Reserve is located in
the District Srinagar, UT of J&K + It serves as an abode to more than four lakh resident and migratory
birds of at least 21 species + Shallabugh Wetland plays a major role in the natural control, amelioration
or prevention of flooding, It is also important for seasonal water retention for wetlands or other areas
of conservation importance downstream.

Ramsar Sites in India

State/UT Ramsar Site Fauna Other information
Ladakh Tsomoriri Black-necked crane, Bar • A freshwater to brackish lake lying at 4,595m above
Headed Geese, Great sea level, with wet meadows and borax-laden
Tibetan Sheep or Argali wetlands along the shores.
and Tibetan Wild Ass • The site is said to represent the only breeding ground
outside of China for the black-necked crane, and the
only breeding ground for bar-headed geese in India.
• Barley fields at Korzok have been described as the
highest cultivated land in world.
• Considered sacred by local Buddhist communities and
water is not used by them.
• Local community dedicated Tsomoriri as WWF
Sacred Gift for Living Planet in recognition of WWF-
India's project work there.
• Endorheic basin due to the fact that it is a closed
drainage basin that retains water and permits no
outflow to different bodies of water reminiscent of
rivers or oceans.
Tso Kar Black necked crane, • Found at more than 4,500 metres above sea level in
Asiatic wild dog, snow the Changthang region of Ladakh
leopard, saker falcon, • It includes two connected lakes, the freshwater
Great Crested Grebe, Startsapuk Tso and the larger hypersaline Tso Kar.
Ruddy Shelduck, Lesser • Tso Kar refers to white salt efflorescence on the
Sand-Plover, Brown- margins of the lake caused by the evaporation of the
headed Gull saline waters.
• stopover ground for migratory birds along the Central
Asian Flyway and an Important Bird Area as per Bird
Life International.
Hokera Large egret, great crested • A natural perennial wetland contiguous to the Jhelum
grebe, little cormorant, basin

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Jammu common shelduck, tufted • Only site with remaining reedbeds of Kashmir &
and duck and endangered pathway of 68 waterfowl species
Kashmir white-eyed pochard • important source of food, spawning ground and
nursery for fishes
• Sustainable exploitation of fish, fodder, fuel
• Potential threats: Housing facilities, littered garbage,
and demand for increasing tourist facilities
Surinsar- Lissemys punctata, • Freshwater composite lake in semi-arid Panjab Plains,
Mansar Aspideretes gangeticus, adjoining the Jhelum Basin
and Mansariella lacustris • Surinsar is rain-fed without permanent discharge, and
Migratory waterfowls like Mansar is primarily fed by surface run-off and
Fulica atra, Gallinula partially by mineralised water through paddy fields,
chloropus, Podiceps with inflow increasing in rainy season.
nigricollis, Aythya • This composite lake is high in micro nutrients
fuligula, and various Anas
species.
Wular Lake Black-eared kite, Eurasian • The largest freshwater lake in India with extensive
sparrowhawk, short-toed marshes of emergent and floating vegetation,
eagle, Himalayan golden particularly water chestnut
eagle, Himalayan monal, • The lake basin was formed as a result of tectonic
chukar partridge, alpine activity and is fed by the Jhelum River.
swift, Indian roller, • Its size varies seasonally.
Himalayan woodpecker
Himachal Chandra Taal Snow leopard, the • A high-altitude lake on the upper Chandra valley
Pradesh snowcock, chukor, black flowing to the Chenab River of the Western
ring stilt, kestrel, golden Himalayas (4,337 m asl) near the Kunzam pass
eagle, chough, red fox, joining the Himalayan and Pir Panjal ranges.
Himalayan ibex, and blue • 65% of the catchment area is degraded forest while
sheep. other 35% is grasslands.
• The Spiti Forest Department is the custodian and the
State Council of Science, Technology and
Environment coordinats conservation management.
Pong Dam northern lapwing, • Also called Maharana Pratap Sagar
Lake common teal, Indian spot- • A water storage reservoir created in 1975 on the Beas
billed duck, Eurasian coot, River
red-necked grebe, black- • Located on the trans-Himalayan flyway
headed gulls, black stork, • A nature conservation education centre is found on
water-fowl the island of Ransar or Ramsar
Renuka Lake Crimson-breasted barbets, • A natural wetland with freshwater springs and inland
mynas, bulbuls, pheasants, subterranean karst formations, fed by a small stream
egrets, herons, mallards flowing from the lower Himalayas out to the Giri
and lapwings. Among river.
ungulates, sambar, • The site is managed by the Shimla Forest
barking deer and ghorals Department, Himachal Pradesh

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Punjab Beas only Indian habitat of the • A 185-kilometre stretch of Beas River located
Conservation functionally blind primarily in north-west of Punjab.
Reserve mammal, Indus Dophin • In 2017, a programme was initiated to re-introduce
mahseer, hog deer, the critically endangered gharial (Gavialis
smooth-coated otter gangeticus) with 47 individuals released into the river
30 years after their disappearance.
• Department of Forest and Wildlife, Punjab, conducts
scientific management of wetland.
Harike Eurasian coot, Greylag • A shallow water reservoir with thirteen islands, at
goose, Gadwall and the confluence of two rivers [Beas and Sutlej]. It is man-
northern shoveler made and riverine reservoir.
• Dense floating vegetation covers 70% of lake
• The entire lake is leased on an annual basis to
commercial fishery organizations.
• Wetland was declared bird sanctuary in 1982 and
named Harike Pattan Bird Sanctuary
Kanjli migratory birds of various • It is a man-made Wetland, created in 1870 by
species - goose, white- constructing the headworks across the perennial Bien
eyed pochard, wigeon, River, a tributary of the Beas River to provide
tufted pochard, common irrigation facilities.
teal, large whistling teal, • The invasive water hyacinth is present; increasing
pintail, mallard and pollution levels, deforestation in the catchment area,
shoveller. and excessive grazing are seen as potential threats.
• The stream is considered to be the most significant in
the state from the religious point of view, as it is
associated with the first guru of the Sikhs, Guru
Nanak.
Keshopur- common pochard, spotted • It is a mosaic of natural marshes, aquaculture ponds
Miani pond turtle and agricultural wetlands maintained by rainfall
Community runoff.
Reserve • It is located in the middle of Ravi and Beas river.
• It is heavily human influenced, and includes a series
of managed fishponds and cultivated crops such lotus
and chestnut.
• The site is an example of wise use of a community-
managed wetland, which provides food for people and
supports local biodiversity.
• The Department of Forest and Wildlife, Punjab, forms
the management committee.
Nangal Indian pangolin, Egyptian • Located in the Sivalik Hills of Punjab.
Wildlife vulture, leopard • It occupies a human-made reservoir constructed as
Sanctuary part of the Bhakra-Nangal Project in 1961.
• Historic importance: Indian and Chinese prime
ministers formalized Five Principles of Peaceful
Coexistence there in 1954.

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• The Department of Forest and Wildlife (Rupnagar

Wildlife Division), Punjab is responsible for
managing the sanctuary.
Ropar smooth-coated otter, hog • A humanmade wetland of lake and river formed by the
deer, sambar, several 1952 construction of a barrage for diversion of water
reptiles, and the from the Sutlej River for drinking and irrigation.
endangered Indian • Local fisheries are economically significant, and
pangolin wheat, rice, sugar cane, and sorghum are cultivated in
the surrounding area.
• Threat: Deforested local hills leading to siltation, and
increasing industrialization causing inflow of
pollutants, invasive weeds
Uttarakha Asan red-headed vulture, white- • It is a 444-hectare stretch of the Asan River running
nd Conservation rumped vulture, Baer's down to its confluence with the Yamuna River in
Reserve pochard, red-crested Dehradun district.
pochard, ruddy shelduck. • The damming of the river by the Asan Barrage in 1967
resulted in siltation above the dam wall, which helped
Fishes: mahseer to create some of the site's bird-friendly habitats.
• More than 1% of the populations of two waterbird
species [red-crested pochard and ruddy shelduck] have
been recorded here.
• The site's role in maintaining hydrological regimes is
important.
Uttar Nawabganj Egyptian vulture, Pallas's • A shallow marshland 45 kilometres
Pradesh Bird Sanctuary fish eagle, lesser adjutant, from Lucknow in Uttar Pradesh.
woolly-necked stork • Monsoon rains feed this diverse wetland while Sarda
Canal supplies additional water.
golden jackal, jungle cat • Threat: invasive common water hyacinth, removal of
timber from the forests.
• State forest officers along with the Office of the
Conservator of Forest (Wildlife) jointly manage the
sanctuary.
Parvati white-rumped vulture, • A permanent freshwater environment consisting of
Aranga Bird Indian vulture, Egyptian two oxbow lakes.
Sanctuary vulture • It is also critical in the maintenance of hydrological
regimes, ensuring groundwater recharge and
discharge. Meanwhile, ancient temples around the
lakes provide religious significance and encourage
tourism.
• Threat: Invasive species such as the common water
hyacinth, development of roads and railways.
• The Uttar Pradesh divisional forest officer and chief
conservator of forests along with sanctuary officers
share management duties.

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Saman Bird Sarus crane, greater • A seasonal oxbow lake on the Ganges floodplain.
Sanctuary spotted eagle, greylag • It is heavily reliant on the south-westerly monsoon,
goose [more than 1% of which provides the vast majority of annual rainfall.
the South Asian • The sanctuary regularly provides refuge to several
population present during waterbirds and is particularly important as a
winter] wintering site for many migrants.
• The Office of the Conservator of Forest (Wildlife)
oversees the site's management.
Samaspur Bird Egyptian vulture, Pallas's • A perennial lowland marsh typical of the Indo-
Sanctuary fish eagle, Common Gangetic Plain in Raebareli district.
pochard [more than 1% of • Its six connected lakes are heavily relevant on
the South Asian monsoon rains.
population] • Annual counts regularly find more than 75,000 birds
present, with over 250 resident and migrant species
documented.
• The site provides food products and agricultural
fodder, as well as maintaining biodiversity.
• Threat: Invasive species threaten its ecological
character, with over 40% of documented floral
species being exotic.
• The Office of the Conservator of Forests (Wildlife)
and state forest officers undertake joint management
of the sanctuary.
Sandi Bird common teal [over 1% of • A freshwater marsh, the wetland is typical of the Indo-
Sanctuary the South Asian Gangetic Plain and receives most of its water from
populations], ferruginous monsoon rains.
duck, red-crested pochard, • Rich in aquatic plants, the site provides a productive
sarus crane habitat for waterfowl with over 40,000 individuals
counted in 2018.
• It is an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International.
• Threat: Drought - the sanctuary dried out leading to a
subsequent collapse in waterbird populations from
2014 to 2015.
• The Office of the Conservator of Forests manages the
site in conjunction with local forest and wildlife
officers.
Sarsai Nawar sarus crane [largest flock • A permanent marsh in the Etawah district, this typical
Jheel in the region], white- wetland of the Indo-Gangetic Plain is fed by the
rumped vulture, woolly- southwest monsoon rains.
necked stork • It is an example of co-habitation of humans and
wildlife; farming practices across most of the site play
important roles in sustaining the waterbird habitats.
• The site's name is derived from sarus crane, the large
non-migratory crane.

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• It is a site of spiritual and religious significance with

nearby Hajari Mahadev Temple
• It is recognized by BirdLife International as an
Important Bird Area.
• Threat: Droughts along with drainage
Upper Ganga Ganges river dolphin, • A shallow river stretch of great Ganges with
River (Brijghat gharial, crocodile, six intermittent small stretches of deep-water pools
to Narora species of turtles, otters reservoirs upstream from barrages.
Stretch) • Major plant species [some with medicinal value]:
Dalbergia sissoo, Saraca indica, Eucalyptus globulus,
Ficus benghalensis, Dendrocalamus strictus, Tectona
grandis, Azadirachta indica and aquatic Eichhornia.
• It has religious importance for thousands of Hindu
pilgrims and is used for cremation and holy baths for
spiritual purification.
• Threats : sewage discharge, agricultural runoff, and
intensive fishing.
Sur Sarovar Greater spotted eagle, • Originally created to supply water to the city of Agra
sarun crane, wallago in the summer, the wetland soon became an important
catfish, greylag goose and rich ecosystem.
[Over 1% of the South • The site's patchwork of habitat types provides refuge
Asian regional population] to resident and migratory birds, and fishes.
• The site is important for bird species that migrate on
the Central Asian Flyway.
Bihar Kanwar Taal 5 critically endangered • Also known as Kanwar Jheel,
or Kabar Taal species including 3 • The site is one of 18 wetlands within an extensive
Lake vultures – red-headed, floodplain complex; it floods during the monsoon
white-rumped and Indian season which is, absorption of floodwaters is a vital
vulture – and 2 waterbirds, service in Bihar. During dry season, areas of
sociable lapwing Baer's marshland dry out and are used for agriculture.
pochard. • Important stopover in Central Asian Flyway.
• Threats: Water management activities such as
drainage, water abstraction, damming and
canalization.
Assam Deepor Beel Spot-billed pelican, lesser • A permanent freshwater lake in a former channel of
and greater adjutant stork, the Brahmaputra River.
Baer's pochard • It is of great biological importance and is the only
major storm water storage basin for Guwahati.
• The beel is a staging site on migratory flyways and
some of the largest concentrations of aquatic birds in
Assam can be seen, especially in winter.
• Potential threats: fishing and hunting pressure upon
waterbirds, pollution from pesticides and fertilizers,
and infestation by water hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes).

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Manipur Loktak Lake Brow-antlered deer • The largest freshwater lake in the north-eastern
region of the country, which is famous for the
phumdis (heterogeneous mass of vegetation, soil, and
organic matters at various stages of decomposition)
floating over it.
• Keibul Lamjao, the only floating national park in the
world, floats over it. It is the last natural refuge of the
endangered sangai situated in the southeastern shores
of this lake and is the largest of all the phumdis in the
lake
Tripura Rudrasagar Three-striped roofed turtle • A lowland sedimentation reservoir in the northeast
Lake Fishes: Botia, Notopterus, hills, fed by three perennial streams discharging to
Chitala, Mystus and the the Gomti River.
species Ompok pabda, • The wetland is regularly flooded with 4-5 times
Labeo bata, and annual peak, assisting in groundwater recharge.
freshwater scampi • Threat: Increasing silt loads due to deforestation,
expansion of agricultural land and intensive farming,
and land conversion for population pressure.
West East Kolkata • The wetland forms an urban facility for treating the
Bengal Wetlands Kolkata's waste water and utilizing the treated water
for pisciculture and agriculture, and act as solar
reactors.
• It is described as one of the rare examples of
environmental protection and development
management.
• Threat: Unauthorized use of the waste water outfall
channels by industries which add metals to the canal
sludge and threaten the edible quality of the fish and
vegetables.
Sundarbans Northern River Terrapin, • Located within the largest mangrove forest in the
Irrawaddy Dolphin, world, in the delta of the rivers Ganges and
Bengal Tiger Brahmaputra on the Bay of Bengal.
• The Indian Sundarban, constitutes over 60% of the
country's total mangrove forest and includes 90% of
Indian mangrove species.
• They serve as nurseries to shellfish and finfish and
sustain the fisheries of the entire eastern coast.
Odisha Bhitarkanika Salt water crocodiles, • The core area of the sanctuary was declared
Mangroves olive ridley sea turtle. Bhitarkanika National Park in September 1998.
• Gahirmatha Marine Wildlife Sanctuary, which bounds
the Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary to the east, was
created in September 1997.
Chilika Lake White-bellied sea eagles, • 1981- It was designated the first Indian wetland under
greylag geese, purple Ramsar Convention.
moorhen, jacana,

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flamingos, egrets, grey • Brackish water lagoon, spread over Puri, Khordha
and purple herons, Indian and Ganjam at the mouth of the Daya River, flowing
roller, storks, white ibis, into the Bay of Bengal.
spoonbills, brahminy • It is the largest coastal lagoon in India and the second
ducks, shovellers, pintails largest lagoon in the world.
• Birds from as far as the Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal, the
Irrawaddy dolphin Aral Sea and other remote parts of Russia, Kirghiz
steppes of Mongolia, Central and southeast Asia,
Ladakh and Himalayas come here.
• In 2002, the Ramsar Wetland Conservation Award
was presented to the Chilika Development Authority
for outstanding achievements in the field of
restoration and wise use of wetlands and effective
participation of local communities.
• Nalbana Island is the core area of the Ramsar
designated wetlands of Chilika Lake. It was notified
in 1987 and declared a bird sanctuary in 1973.
Andhra Kolleru Lake grey pelican, • A natural eutrophic lake, situated between the two
Pradesh major river basins of the Godavari and the Krishna,
which functions as a natural flood balancing reservoir
between the deltas of the two rivers.
• Threat: Flooding in monsoon seasons, partial drying
out during summers, inadequate management
planning and action
Tamil Point Calimere spoon-billed sandpiper, • A coastal area consisting of shallow waters, shores,
Nadu Wildlife and grey pelican, greater and long sand bars, intertidal flats and intertidal
Bird Sanctuary flamingos, lesser forests, chiefly mangrove, and seasonal, often-saline
flamingos, prawns and lagoons, as well as human-made salt exploitation
crabs sites.
• Threat: Illegal collection of firewood and forest
produce, the spread of Chilean mesquite (Prosopis
chilensis), increasingly brackish groundwater caused
by expansion of the historical salt works, and
decreasing inflow of freshwater.
• The site is associated with Lord Rama.
Karikili Bird • The sanctuary is spread over a five-kilometre-wide
Sanctuary belt and is home to cormorants, egrets, grey heron,
open-billed stork, darter, spoonbill, white lbis, night
herons, grebes, grey pelican among others.
Pallikaranai • One of the last remaining natural wetlands, the marsh
Marsh Reserve drains in an area of 250 square kilometres
Forest encompassing 65 wetlands.
• The Pallikaranai Marsh is one of the few natural
coastal aquatic habitats that qualify as a wetland in
India.

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Pichavaram • One of the last mangrove forests in the country.

Mangrove • It has an island of a vast expanse of water covered
with mangrove forests.
Gulf of Dugong, Whale Shark, • Extends between Toothukudi &
Mannar Seahorses, Balanoglossus, Ramanathapuram districts.
Biosphere Green sea turtle, • First Marine Biosphere Reserve in South and
Reserve Hawksbill Turtle, South-East Asia.
Dolphins, Sacred chanks
etc.
Vembannur Indian river tern (Sterna • A man-made inland tank which forms the
Wetland aurantia), the spotted southernmost tip of peninsular India.
Complex greenshank (Tringa • This wetland forms part of the Important Bird and
guttifer), the garganey Biodiversity Area and hence part of the BirdLife
(Anas querquedula) and International Data Zone.
the grey pelican
(Pelecanus philippensis).
The Site is also an
excellent habitat for
notable plants including
Indotristicha ramosissima,
Cyrtococcum longipes and
Eriochrysis rangacharii.
Vellode Bird It is an important staging • Located in the Vadamugam Vellode village in Tamil
Sanctuary and breeding ground for Nadu's Erode district. Locally known as Periyakulam
migratory birds on the Yeri, it is one of the 141 prioritised wetlands in the
Central Asian Flyway and state.
also resident species such • The Site is also an ideal habitat for notable plant
as the Indian river tern species including Cayratia pedata, Tephrosia
(Sterna aurantia), oriental purpurea and Commelina tricolor.
darter (Anhinga
melanogaster) and painted
stork (Mycteria
leucocephala).
Vedanthangal Presence of several • One of the oldest bird-protected areas in
Bird Sanctuary species including the Chengalpattu district of Tamil Nadu.
blackheaded ibis • This freshwater wetland is a people-protected
(Threskiornis waterbird area, the history of which goes
melanocephalus), centuries back.
Eurasian spoonbill • Locals have been protecting this heronry and in
(Platalea leucorodia), return benefitting from the manure-rich water
black-crowned night from the lake. •
heron (Nycticorax
nycticorax) and painted
stork (Mycteria
leucocephala).

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Udhayamartha Notable species observed • 80 kilometres from Thanjavur, about 58km from
ndapuram include the oriental darter Vaduvur Birds sanctuary and 10 km from Point
Bird Sanctuary (Anhinga melanogaster), Calimere Birds Sanctuary.
black-headed ibis • The Sanctuary consists of human-made irrigation
(Threskiornis tanks, interconnected by an ancient network of
melanocephalus), canals and fed by the Mettur dam through the
Eurasian wigeon (Anas Koraiyar canal.
Penelope), Northern
pintail (Anas acuta) and
garganey (Anas
querquedula).
Koonthankula • A man-made wetland in Tirunelveli district of Tamil
m Bird Nadu.
Sanctuary • It is the largest reserve for breeding resident and
migratory water birds in South India and an
'Important Bird and Biodiversity Area' forming part
of the Central Asian Flyway, a brief by the ministry
of environment, forest and climate change
(MOEFCC) states.
• The wetland also irrigates about 190 acres of paddy.
Kerala Ashtamudi • A natural backwater in Kollam district, Kerala.
Wetland • Rivers Kallada and Pallichal drain into it.
• It forms an estuary with the sea at Neendakara,
famous fishing harbour.
• National Waterway 3 passes through it.
• Most-tastiest backwater fish in Kerala, the Karimeen
of Kanjiracode Kayal is from Ashtamudi Lake.
Sasthamkotta • Situated in Kollam district, it is the largest freshwater
Lake lake in Kerala.
• The Kallada River had a unique replenishing system
through a bar of paddy field which has now
disappeared due to indiscriminate clay and sand
mining.
• Threat: Destruction of its replenishing mechanism.
Vembanad-Kol • It is the largest lake of Kerala.
Wetland • Famous tourist locations
like Alappuzha and Kumarakom are here.
• Mouths of Pamba and Achankovil rivers
in Vembanad forms part of the Kuttanad. It is below
sea level and is famous for exotic fish varieties
and paddy fields that are below sea level.
Maharash Nandur Deolali minnow, Indian • It is a mosaic of lakes, marshes and riparian forest on
tra Madhameshwa vulture, white-rumped the Deccan Plateau.
r vulture, Leopard and

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Indian sandalwood • Construction of Nandur Madhameshwar Weir at

confluence of Godavari and Kadva rivers helped
create a thriving wetland.
• Threat: Invasive species including common water
hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) threaten the site,
along with the effects of urban development and
water abstraction.
• The Office of the Conservator of Forests (Wildlife)
manages the site.
Lonar Lake Asian woollyneck, • An endorheic or closed basin, almost circular in
common pochard, grey shape, formed by a meteorite impact some 50,000
wolf. years ago, onto the basalt bedrock.
• It was identified as unique geographical site by
British officer C. J. E. Alexander in 1823.
• It is one of the four known, hyper-velocity, impact
craters in basaltic rock anywhere on Earth. It is the
only crater lake in the country formed by the
meteorite impact.
• It is high in salinity and alkalinity, as the lack of an
outflow leads to a concentration of minerals as the
lake water evaporates.
• It is National Geological Monument recognized by
Geological Survey of India.
• Hemadpanti temples are located at the periphery of
the lake.
• Recently, the colour of Lonar lake water had turned
pink due to a large presence of the salt-loving
"haloarchaea" microbes/ Halophilic archaea [A
bacteria culture that produces pink pigment and is
found in water saturated with salt].
Gujarat Nalsarovar sociable lapwing, marbled • A natural freshwater lake (a relict sea) that is the
Bird Sanctuary teal, sarus crane largest natural wetland in the Thar Desert
Biogeographic Province and represents a dynamic
environment with salinity and depth varying
depending on rainfall.
• It is an important stopover site within the Central
Asian Flyway.
• The wetland is a lifeline for a satellite population of
the endangered Indian wild ass.
• Provides: drinking water and water for irrigation,
income from fishing
Madhya Bhoj Wetland White storks, black- • Consists of 2 lakes located in Bhopal
Pradesh necked storks, bar-headed • 2 lakes are Bhojtal (Upper Lake) and Lower Lake,
geese, spoonbills, sarus which lie to the west of the city centre.
cranes • It is a man-made reservoir.

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• Upper Lake acts as the lifeline of the city supplying

40% of its potable water
Sakhya Sagar • Sakhya Sagar is a human-made reservoir on the
outskirts of Shivpuri town within the Madhav
National Park.
• The Site features a mosaic of landforms including
open water and surrounding marshes, plantations and
a small patch of agricultural land.
• It provides a permanent source of water for wildlife,
and habitat for animals including thousands of
migratory waterfowl and also mugger crocodile
(Crocodylus palustris), whose presence attracts
tourists.
Sirpur It supports some 175 • Sirpur Wetland is a human-made wetland that has
Wetland terrestrial plant species, stabilized and acquired near-natural characteristics in
six macrophytes, 30 the last two centuries. Commonly named Pakshi
natural and cultured fish Vihar (bird sanctuary), the Site is a shallow, alkaline,
species, eight reptiles, and nutrient-rich lake that floods during the monsoon to
amphibians. a maximum depth of two metres.

Rajasthan Keoladeo five species of ungulates, • Complex of 10 artificial, seasonal lagoons, situated
National Park four species of cats, and in a densely populated region.
two species of primates, as • Vegetation is a mosaic of scrub and open grassland
well as diverse plants, fish that provides habitat for breeding, wintering and
and reptiles. staging migratory birds.
• Placed on Montreux Record in 1990 for "water
shortage & unbalanced grazing regime".
• Additionally, the invasive growth of the grass
Paspalum distichum has reduced its suitability for
certain waterbird species, notably the Siberian crane.
Sambhar Lake Flamingos • India's largest inland Salt Lake,
• The specialized algae and bacteria growing in the
Deer, foxes, nilgai lake provide striking water colours and support the
lake ecology that, in turn, sustains the migrating
waterfowl.
• Other wildlife in nearby forests, nilgai move freely
along with deer and foxes.
Mizoram Pala Wetland • It is home to a wide range of animals, birds, and
reptiles.
• Its geographical location falls under the Indo-Burma
biodiversity hotspot and is therefore rich in animal
and plant species.
• The lake is a major component of the Palak Wildlife
Sanctuary and it supports the major biodiversity of
the sanctuary.

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Karnatak Rangaathittu • This is also the first and the only Ramsar site in
a Bird Sanctuary Karnataka
• Also known as 'Pakshi Kashi' of the state.
• Similarly, it supports a high population of painted
storks and mugger crocodiles besides other species of
fish and hence the six islands and the water
surrounding them would be part of Ramsar site.

Goa Nanda Lake • It has freshwater marshes that lie adjacent to one
of the major rivulets of the Zuari river, said the
brief. This enables local residents to store water
during the off-monsoon season.
• The stored water is also utilised to cultivate paddy
downstream of the lake and supports fishing and
recreation.
• The lake is a habitat for Black-headed ibis,
Common kingfisher, Wire-tailed swallow,
Bronze-winged Jacana, Brahminy kite, among
others.
Odisha Satkosia gorge • Established in 1976 as a wildlife sanctuary,
Satkosia is the meeting point of two
biogeographic regions of India; the Deccan
Peninsula and the Eastern Ghats, contributing
immense biodiversity.
• A mosaic of marshes and evergreen forests. The
forests of these catchments play a vital role in the
prevention of the gorge siltation.

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CHAPTER 15: BIOSPHERE RESERVES

Biosphere: It is a narrow zone of the earth where land, water, air interact with each other to support life.
It is in this zone that life exists + They are also called as Living laboratories.

Biosphere Reserves
Definition: Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems promoting solutions to
reconcile the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use.
Origin: In 1971 UNESCO launched its Man and Biosphere Programme.
Recognition and control: They are internationally recognized, nominated by national governments and
remain under sovereign jurisdiction of the states where they are located.
Regulated under: As per the law, these regions of environmental protection related to the IUCN
Category V Protected areas.

Criteria for Designation of Biosphere Reserve

• A site must contain a protected and minimally disturbed core area of value of nature conservation.
• Core area must be a bio-geographical unit and should be large enough to sustain a viable population
representing all trophic levels.
• The involvement of local communities and use of their knowledge in biodiversity preservation.
• Areas potential for preservation of traditional tribal or rural modes of living for harmonious use of
the environment.

Biosphere Reserve Zonation

Core Areas: It comprises strictly protected zone that

contributes to conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species
and genetic variation
Buffer Zones: It surrounds or adjoins core area(s), and used
for activities compatible with sound ecological practices that
reinforces scientific research, monitoring, training or
education.
Transition Area: Where community’s foster socio-culturally
ecologically sustainable activities.

Man and Biosphere Programme

• Launched in 1971, it is an intergovernmental scientific program that aims to establish a scientific
basis for the improvement of relationships between people and their environments.
• It develops the basis within the natural and social sciences for the rational and sustainable use and
conservation of the resources of the biosphere and for the improvement of the overall relationship
between people and their environment

Secretariat: It implements the Programme's Strategy and Roadmap, which were adopted by Member
States.

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Governing Body: The programme’s main governing body is the International Co-ordinating Council of
the of the Man and the Biosphere programme (MAB-ICC), which meets annually. In between meetings,
the authority of the MAB-ICC is delegated to its MAB Bureau.
Advisory Bodies: Two advisory bodies provide guidance in the implementation of the MAB programme:
Advisory Committee and International Support Group.

World Network of Biosphere Reserves

The World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) of the MAB Programme consists of a dynamic and
interactive network of sites of excellence. It fosters the harmonious integration of people and nature for
sustainable development through participatory dialogue; knowledge sharing; poverty reduction and
human well-being improvements; respect for cultural values and society’s ability to cope with change -
thus contributing to the 2030 Agenda and SDGs.
It promotes North-South and South-South collaboration and represents a unique tool for international co-
operation through sharing knowledge, exchanging experiences, building capacity and promoting best
practices. By focusing on sites internationally recognized within WNBR, the MAB Programme strives to:
• Assess changes and their effects: Identify and assess the changes in the biosphere resulting from
human and natural activities and the effects of these changes on humans and the environment, in
particular in the context of climate change;
• Inter-relationship between ecosystems and socio-economic processes: Study and compare the
dynamic interrelationships between natural/near-natural ecosystems and socio-economic
processes, in particular in the context of accelerated loss of biological and cultural diversity with
unexpected consequences that impact the ability of ecosystems to continue to provide services
critical for human well-being;
• Human welfare: ensure basic human welfare and a liveable environment in the context of rapid
urbanization and energy consumption as drivers of environmental change;
• Transfer of knowledge: promote the exchange and transfer of knowledge on environmental
problems and solutions, and to foster environmental education for sustainable development.

Facts
• Covers: The WNBR covers all major representative natural and semi-natural ecosystems
• Geographical spread: There are 714 biosphere reserves in 129 countries, including 21
transboundary sites.
• Area: It spans over a surface of 6,812,000 km2 in 129 countries. It's almost the size of Australia.
• Population covered: There are about 257 million people living in Biosphere Reserves worldwide

MAB and India

• 1979: Government of India constituted a MAB Committee and identified a network of 13
representative ecosystems to be protected as Biosphere Reserves.
• 1983: Biosphere Reserve Congress organized in Belarus recognized around 200 Biosphere
Reserves
• 1986: Nilgiris was recognized as the first Biosphere Reserve of India. It was recognized by MAB
• Indian Biospheres under MAB Programme: 12 of the 18 biosphere reserves are a part of the
WNBR, based on the UNESCO’s MAB Programme list

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• Most recent Biosphere Reserve in India: Panna Biosphere Reserve (Madhya Pradesh). It was
recognized by government of Indian in 2011 and became a part of MAB Program in November
2020.

Relation between the biosphere reserves and other protected areas

1. Biosphere reserves don't replace other PAs but it further strengthens the protected area network.
Existing PAs can become part of BR without any change in their legal status.
2. Key differences:
• Conservation: Conservation of overall biodiversity rather than some specific flagship species.
• Stakeholders: Increases broad-basing of stakeholders, especially local people's participation
and their training, compared to the features of scheme on Wildlife Sanctuaries and National
Parks.
• Recognition: BRs are internationally recognized within the framework of UNESCO's MAB
programme, after receiving consent from the participating countries.

Biosphere Reserves recognized as part of WNBR under MAB Programme

Biosphere States Other Protected Areas Important Fauna Other Information
Reserve Covered
Nilgiris Tamil National Parks - Aralam, Mammals: Bengal • Nilgiri Sub-Cluster is part of
Nadu, Mudumalai, Mukurthi, tiger, Indian Western Ghats [UNESCO World
Kerala and Nagarhole, Bandipur, leopard, Gaur, Heritage Site].
Karnataka Silent Valley Cheetal, Nilgiri • Ecoregions (3): South Western
Wildlife Sanctuaries: marten, and Nilgiri Ghats moist deciduous forests,
Wayanad, Karimpuzha, tahr, Sambhar, South Western Ghats montane rain
Sathyamangalam Wild Boar, forests, and South Deccan Plateau
Tiger Reserve: Barking Deer etc dry deciduous forests.
Nagarhole, Bandipur, Primates: Lion- • Ecosystem types: Tropical
Mudumalai tailed macaque and evergreen forests, Montane sholas
Nilgiri langur. and grasslands, semi-evergreen
forests, moist deciduous forests, dry
deciduous forests and thorn forests.
Gulf of Tamil Nadu National Park: Gulf of Dugong/Sea cow • Islets and coastal buffer zone:
Mannar Mannar Marine National [largest beaches, estuaries, and tropical dry
Park endangered marine broadleaf forests
mammal]: Feeding • Marine environments: seaweed,
ground sea grass, coral reefs, salt marshes
and mangrove forests.
Balanoglossus: Its • Known for pearl banks of Pinctada
last refuge [an radiata and Pinctada fucata for at
invertebrate, the least 2000 years.
unique ‘living • The inhabitants are mainly
fossil’ that links Marakeyars, local people
vertebrates and principally engaged in fisheries.
invertebrates]. • Global Environmental Facility
Others: Sea turtle, provided support to establish
crustaceans, biosphere reserve, and Gulf of
molluscs, Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust,
echinoderms, which is responsible for
fishes, turtles and coordination of the management
many other plan for the biosphere reserve.
mammals.

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• Famous pilgrim centre,

Rameswaram, is situated in the
gulf on the island of Pamban.
Sunderbans West National Park: Bengal Tiger • UNESCO’s World Heritage Site.
Bengal Sunderban National Park [single largest • Largest delta and contiguous
continuous area in mangrove forest in world (along
It is bound Sanctuaries: Sundarbans world] with Bangladesh).
on the by West, Sundarbans South Saltwater • Sunderban is the largest mangal
rivers – and Sundarbans East crocodile, river diversity of the planet (81 plant and
West: terrapin, olive 1586 animal species.)
Muriganga Tiger Reserve: ridley turtle, • Other major rivers flowing through
East: Sunderban Ganges river this eco-system are Saptamukhi,
Raimangal dolphin, hawksbill Thakuran, Matla and Goasaba.
Harinbhahg turtle and • Although region is situated south
a,. mangrove of Tropic of Cancer, temperature is
horseshoe crab, equable due to its proximity to the
leopard cats, sea.
macaques, wild • Indian Sundarbans were
boar, Indian grey considered endangered in a 2020
mongoose, fox, assessment by researchers using
jungle cat, flying the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems
fox, chital framework
Irrawaddy &
Ganges river
dolphins
Nanda Devi Uttarakhan National Park: Nanda Snow leopard, • Valley of Flowers is a world
d Devi and Valley of Himalayan black heritage site.
Flowers bear, brown bear, • It includes reserve forests, evam
musk deer and soyam (civil) forests, panchayat
Sanctuary: Nanda Devi bharal/blue sheep, (community) forests, agricultural
Himalayan Tahr land, grassy slopes, alpine
meadows (bugiyals) and snow-
covered areas.
• It is drained by the Rishi
Ganga river.
• Important peaks: Nanda
Devi,Devistan I, II, Rishi Kot
• Local communities living here
mainly belong to 2 ethnic groups,
Indo-Mongoloid (Bhotia) and
Indo-Aryan.
Nokrek Meghalaya National Park: Nokrek Red Panda, Asian • The entire area is mountainous and
National Park Elephant, Slow Nokrek is the highest peak of the
Lies on the Loris, Giant flying Garo hills, rising up 1,412 metres.
Tura squirrel, Hoolock • The north of the reserve embraces
Range, part gibbons rather gently undulating hills,
of while steep slopes characterize the
Meghalaya south.
Plateau • Rivers: Ganol, Dareng and
Simsang [longest and largest]
• Tropical climate characterized by
high humidity, monsoon rains
(April–October) and high
temperatures.

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• Evergreen and semi-evergreen

deciduous forests dominate the
landscape: 90% of the Nokrek
Biosphere Reserve is covered by
evergreen forest.
• Garo tribes dominate the area.
However, other tribes, such as the
Banias or Hajjons, also exist in the
area. The Garo refer to themselves
as Achik mande (man of hills).
• Most worshipped deity is Saljong
to whom the Garo offer sacrifices.
Panchmari Madhya National Park: Satpura Giant Squirrel, • Lies in semi-arid region
Pradesh Flying squirrel, • Highest peak – Dhoopgarh
Sanctuary: Bori, chinkara, nilgai, • The Pachmarhi Plateau is also
Lies at the Panchmari wild dogs, bison, known as the ‘Queen of Satpura’,
centre of Indian wolf because it contains valleys, marshes,
Satpura Tiger Reserve: Satpura streams and waterfalls
Ranges Tiger Reserve • Ecosystems: Tropical moist
deciduous forests, tropical dry
deciduous and central Indian sub-
tropical hill forests
• Teak and Sal are most important tree
species.
• Tribes found: Gond, Korkus
Similipal Odisha National Park: Similipal Bengal tiger, Asian • Lies within two biogeographical
elephant, gaur, and regions: Mahanadian east coastal
Sanctuary: Hadgarh, Chausingha region of the Oriental realm and the
Kuldiha Chhotanagpur biotic province of the
Deccan peninsular zone.
Tiger Reserve: Similipal • Highest peak: Khairiburu
• Rivers: Budhabalanga, Khairi,
Elephant Reserve: Salandi, Palpala,
Mayurbhanj • Tribes: Erenga Kharias and the
Mankirdias [prominent]; others: Ho,
Gonda and Munda
• Waterfalls: Joranda and
Barehipani/Barhai Falls
Achanakma Chhattisgar Sanctuary: Achanakmar Four horned • It is considered to be one of the
r- h [major Wildlife Sanctuary antelope, Indian major watersheds of peninsular
Amarkantak part] and wild dog, Saras India. It separates the rivers that
Madhya crane, Asian drain into the Arabian Sea and the
Pradesh white-backed Bay of Bengal.
vulture, Sacred • Source of 3 major rivers: Narmada,
grove bush frog Johilla and Son
• Ranges: Maikal hill ranges,
Vindhya, Satpura
Great Andaman National Parks: Nicobar scrub • Tribe: Mongoloid Shompen,
Nicobar and Campbell Bay, Galathea fowl, edible-nest Nicobarese
Nicobar swiftlet, Nicobar • Biome: Tropical and subtropical
Islands Sanctuary: Galathea long-tailed moist broadleaf forests biome
Macaque, Nicobar • Indira Point: Southernmost point of
Tree Shrew, India, was submerged in 2004 due to
Dugong, Nicobar Tsunami.

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Megapode,
Serpent Eagle, salt
water crocodile,
marine turtles,
giant leatherback
sea turtle, Malayan
Box Turtle, Giant
robber crab,
reticulated python
Agasthyama Kerala and Sanctuaries: Shendurney, Bengal Tiger, • Ecoregions: Tropical wet evergreen
la Tamil Nadu Peppara and Neyyar Asian Elephant, forests, South Western Ghats moist
and Nilgiri Tahr. deciduous forests, South Western
Part of Tiger Reserve: Kalakad Ghats montane rain forests and
Western Mundanthurai Shola.
Ghats • Tribes: Kanikaran [one of the oldest
surviving ancient tribes in the
world]
Khangchend Sikkim National Park: Red Panda, Musk • It is situated over the Himalayan
zonga Khangchendzonga Deer, snow trans-axial belt
leopard, • One of the world’s 34 biodiversity
Himalayan tahr, hotspots and a world heritage site.
dhole, sloth bear, • Includes the world’s third highest
viverrids, peak, Mount Khangchendzonga and
Himalayan black Zemu Glacier.
bear, Tibetan wild • It contains Tholung
ass, Himalayan Monastery, gompa located in the
blue sheep, serow, buffer zone
Boral, takin, • In the north it adjoins
Barking Deer, Qomolangma National Nature
Monal Pheasants, Preserve in Tibet, and in west the
Tragopan Kanchenjunga Conservation Area
Pheasants, Blood in Nepal.
Pheasants [state
bird]
Panna Madhya National Park: Panna Bengal Tiger, • This area is northernmost tip of
Pradesh Sanctuary: Gangau Siyah Gosh, Jungle natural teak forests and the
Tiger Reserve: Panna Cat, tiger, leopard, easternmost tip of the natural
Critical Tiger Habitat chital, chinkara, 'Kardhai' Anogeissus pendula
Area: Panna National nilgai, sambhar forests.
Park + 3 parts of Gangau and sloth bear, bar- • Ethnic groups: Gond, Khairuas, and
Sanctuary headed goose Yadavas.
• Most sacrosanct pilgrimage for the
followers of the Pranami sect world
over.
• Ken river runs northeast through the
park

Other Biosphere Reserves in India

Biosphere State Other protected Fauna Other details
Reserve Areas
Manas Assam Manas: National Pygmy hog, Indian • Located in Eastern Himalayan
Park, Wildlife rhinoceros Assam foothills
Sanctuary, Tiger roofed turtle, hispid • Contiguous with Royal Manas
Reserve hare, golden langur, NP, Bhutan.

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wild water buffalo, • Manas River passes through

slow loris, capped the park
langur, sambar, great • In 1992, UNESCO declared it
hornbill, Malayan as world heritage site in danger
giant squirrel or due to heavy poaching and
black giant squirrel, terrorist activities. However, it
Chinese pangolin, was removed in 2011 due to
Asian golden cats, preservation efforts.
dholes, Bengal • There is only one forest
Florican village, Pagrang, in the core of
the national park. Other
villages surround it.
Dihang-Dibang Arunachal National Park: Mishmi takin, red • It covers high mountains of
Pradesh Mouling goral, musk deer, red Eastern Himalaya and Mishmi
panda, Asiatic black Hills.
Sanctuary: Dibang bear • It has natural vegetation
stretching in an unbroken
sequence from the tropics to
mountain tundra.
• Habitat in Dihang-Dibang
ranges from tropical wet
evergreen in river gorges to
subtropical, temperate, alpine
and permanent snow.
Great Rann of Gujarat Sanctuary: Narayan Indian Wild Ass, • It is an extension of the Thar
Kutch Sarovar, Kutch Great Indian Bustard, Desert.
Bustard Sanctuary, Greater Florican, • It is situated between the Gulf
Wild Ass sanctuary Lesser Florican, f of Kutch and the mouth of the
[Little Rann], Chinkara and Indian Indus River in southern
Kachchh Desert Wolf, Caracal, Desert Pakistan.
Wildlife Sanctuary Cat and Desert Fox • The Great Rann of Kutch
[Great Rann] together with the Little Rann
of Kutch is called Rann of
Kutch.
Wetland: Chari- • Rivers: Luni, Rupen, West
Dhand Wetland Banas River, Nara
Canal/Puran River [empties
into Kori creek in Great Rann
during monsoons]
• Banni Grasslands: Largest
natural grassland in Indian
subcontinent inhabited by
Maldhari pastrolists
• At night, an unexplained
strange dancing light
phenomenon known locally as
Chir Batti (ghost lights) occurs
in the Rann,[21][22][23] the
adjoining Banni grasslands,
and the seasonal wetlands
• World famous 'Flamingo City'
is located in mudflats of Rann

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Cold Desert Himachal National Park: Pin Snow Leopard

Pradesh Valley
Sanctuary: Kibber,
Sarchu, Chandratal
Dibru- Assam Bengal tiger, Indian • The park is bounded by the
Saikhowa leopard, clouded Brahmaputra and Lohit Rivers
leopard, jungle cat, in the north and Dibru river in
sloth bear, dhole, the south
small Indian civet, • It mainly consists of moist
Malayan giant mixed semi-evergreen forests,
squirrel, Chinese moist mixed deciduous forests,
pangolin, Gangetic canebrakes and grasslands.
dolphin, slow loris, • In December 2020, Guwahati
Hoolock gibbon, High Court stayed a
Asian elephant, wild permission given to Oil India
boar, Sambar deer, Limited for hydrocarbon
hog deer, barking exploration at seven locations
deer, Golden Langur inside the protected area
White-winged wood
duck, Bengal
Florican, Lesser
Adjutant Stork,
spotted-billed
Pelican, white-
bellied Heron,
Jerdon’s Babbler,
Pallas’ Fish Eagle
Seshachalam Andhra National Park: Slender Loris, Indian • It is located in Eastern Ghats.
Hills Pradesh Srivenkateshwara Giant Squirrel, • Tirupati, a major Hindu
Mouse Deer, Golden pilgrimage town is located in
Sanctuary: Gecko, Yellow the hills.
Srivenkateshwara throated Bulbul • The hills contain seven peaks
namely, Anjanadri, Garudadri,
Narayanadri, Neeladri,
Seshadri, Venkatadri and
Vrishabhadri [highest].
• It has large reserves of red
sandalwood which is used in
medicines, soaps, spiritual
rituals, etc.

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CHAPTER 16: CONSERVATION EFFORTS

Initiatives for Tiger Conservation

1. Project Tiger: It is a conservation programme first launched in 1973 in Jim Corbett national park,
Uttarakhand + It is a centrally sponsored scheme of the MoEFCC + It is administered by NTCA.
• Major Objectives
o Ensuring a viable population of Bengal tigers in their natural habitats and also to protect
them from extinction.
o Preserving areas of biological importance as national heritage for the benefit education
and employment of people.
o Harmonizing the rights of tribal people living in and around tiger reserves.
• Tiger reserves: Areas notified for protection of tiger and its prey + It is governed by project
tiger and administered by NTCA + It is constituted on a core/buffer strategy.
o Core zone: Legal status of a national park or sanctuary with an exclusive tiger agenda
+ It is kept free of biotic disturbances and forestry operations, where collection of minor
forest produce etc. are not allowed + Tiger conservation without affecting rights of STs
or such other forest dwellers + It is notified by the State Government in consultation with
an expert committee.
o Buffer zone: Area peripheral to the critical tiger habitat providing supplementary
habitat for dispersing tigers, besides offering scope for co-existence of human activity
(tribals) + Limits of such areas determined on basis of scientific and objective criteria in
consultation with concerned Gram Sabha and an expert committee constituted for the
purpose.
o Corridor habitat: NTCA in collaboration with WII delineated minimal tiger habitat
corridors connecting tiger reserves for implementing landscape scale tiger conservation.
2. National tiger conservation authority (NTCA): It is a statutory body constituted under
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 + It was established in 2005 on recommendation of Tiger Task
force to aid in implementation of measures for conservation of tiger + It comes under MoEF&CC
+ It cooperates with bodies such as CBI, WCCB by issuing alerts for any illegal poaching
activities; administers Project Tiger and tiger reserves.
• Composition:
o Set up under the chairmanship of the minister for environment and forests.
o Eight experts having qualifications and experience in wildlife conservation and welfare
of people including tribals, apart from 3 MPs (two will be elected by Los Sabha and one
by Rajya Sabha).
• Objectives
o Providing statutory authority to Project Tiger so that compliance of its directives become
legal.
o Fostering accountability of Center-State in management of tiger reserves, by providing
a basis for MoU with States within our federal structure.

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o Providing for an oversight by Parliament.

o Addressing livelihood interests of local people in areas surrounding tiger reserves.
• Powers and Functions of NTCA
o Provide central assistance to states under ongoing Project Tiger and for activities based
on tiger conservation plan.
o Conducts every four years, the countrywide assessment of status of tiger, co-predators,
prey and habitat using refined methodology approved by Tiger task force.
o Approve the tiger conservation plan prepared by the State Government.
o To approve, co-ordinate research and monitoring on tiger, co-predators, prey habitat
and their evaluation.
o Evaluate and assess various aspects of sustainable ecology and disallow any ecologically
unsustainable land use such as, mining, industry etc.
o To ensure critical support including scientific, information technology and legal
support for better implementation of the tiger conservation plan.
o No alteration in boundaries of a tiger reserve shall be made except on a
recommendation of the NTCA and the approval of NBWL.
o No State Government shall de-notify a tiger reserve, except in public interest with
approval of NTCA and the approval of the NBWL.
3. Tiger task force: On basis of the recommendations of NBWL, a task force was set up to look
into the problems of tiger conservation in the country; set up in 2005 following open exposure
on sudden disappearance of the tigers from Sariska wildlife reserve.
4. International tiger day: celebrated on July 29 every year to raise awareness about the dwindling
population of tigers; anniversary of the agreement of St Petersburg tiger summit in Russia in
2010; theme for 2021 International tiger day is “Their survival is in our hands”
5. Tiger Estimates: NTCA conducts survey of tiger population every four years since 2006;
includes habitat assessment and prey estimation.
• All India tiger estimation, 2018:
o The total count of tigers risen to 2,967 in 2018 from 2,226 in 2014 — an increase of 33%
in four years.
o Madhya Pradesh has maximum tigers at 526 followed by Karnataka at 524 and 442 in
Uttarakhand.
o Pench tiger reserve in MP has recorded the highest number of tigers.
o Sathya Mangalam tiger reserve in TN registered “maximum improvement” since 2014.
o Chhattisgarh and Mizoram saw a decline in the tiger population and all other States saw
a positive increase.
o Dampa Tiger Reserve(Mizoram), Buxa Tiger Reserve (West Bengal) and Palamau
Reserve(Jharkhand) have no tigers left.
6. Landscape wise distribution: India’s five tiger landscapes are Shivalik hills and Gangetic plains,
central Indian landscape and Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats, North-East hills, Brahmaputra plains
and the Sundarbans.

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7. MSTRIPES: The app was developed by NTCA and WII in 2010 for proper location data feeding
and filling record more accurately; app was also used in the All India-tiger estimation; help
strengthen patrolling and surveillance of the endangered Bengal tiger.
8. e-Eye system: software-based system where high resolution thermal and infrared cameras to keep
track of tigers in wildlife sanctuaries and to prevent poaching and animal-human conflict.
9. Tiger Net: National database of individual tiger photo captures to establish linkage with body parts
seized or dead tigers.
10. TX2 goal: It is a global commitment to double world's wild tigers by 2022; set by
WWF through Global Tiger Initiative, Global tiger forum and other platforms at Petersburg
Tiger summit in 2010.
11. Tiger Range Countries include India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Lao
PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand and Vietnam.
12. Global Tiger Initiative (GTI): It is a program of World Bank, using its presence and
convening ability, brought global partners together to strengthen the tiger agenda.
13. Important facts:
• Current tiger population stands at 2967 which is 70% of global tiger population.
• Madhya Pradesh has the highest number of tigers at 526, closely followed by
Karnataka (524) and Uttarakhand (442).
• Kanha Tiger Reserve, MP is the first tiger reserve in India to officially introduce a
mascot, Bhoor Singh the Barasingha.

Initiatives for Elephant conservation

1. Elephant census, 2017 report: The total Asian Elephant population in India is estimated at 27,312
across 23 states (a decrease over 2012); birth rate indicates elephant population is increasing;
geographical range has also increased-
2. Project Elephant: It was launched by GOI in 1992 as a centrally sponsored scheme;
implemented in 16 states such as Assam, Arunachal, Jharkhand etc.
• Objectives
o Assist states having free ranging population of wild elephants
o Protect elephants, their habitats and corridors
o Addressing human-elephant conflict issues
o Improving welfare of captive animals
• Steps taken
o Establishment of 30 elephant reserves throughout elephant’s traditional range.
o Establishment of MIKE program of CITES
o Ecological restoration of existing natural habitats and migratory routes of animals.
3. Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) programme: Launched in 2003, it is an
international collaboration that tracks trends in information related to illegal killing of elephants
from across Africa and Asia; currently 28 sites participating in the programme in Asia distributed
across 13 countries.
• Objectives:
o To measure levels and trends in the illegal hunting of elephants.

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o To determine changes in these trends overtime.

o To determine the factors causing or associated with these changes and to try and assess in
particular to what extent observed trends are a result of any decisions taken by the
Conference of the Parties to CITES.
4. Haathi Mere Saathi: It is a campaign launched by MoEFCC and WII to improve conservation of
the elephant population; launched at E-8 ministerial meeting held in Delhi in 2011; envisions
setting up of Gajah centres in elephant landscapes across the country to spread awareness and
encourage people’s participation.
Mike States State
Chirang Ripu Assam
Dihing Patkai Assam
Eastern Dooars West Bengal
Deomali Arunachal Pradesh
Garo Hills Meghalaya
Mayurbhanj Orissa
Mysore Karnataka
Nilgiri Tamil Nadu
Shivalik Uttarakhand
Wayanad Kerala
5. Project Snow Leopard: It was launched in 2009 to promote an inclusive and participatory
approach to conserve snow leopards and their habitat + It is operational in five Himalayan States
viz. Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh with
support from WII and the Mysore based Nature Conservation Foundation + It adopts
landscape approach to conservation + Species such as Snow Leopard, Asiatic Ibex, Tibetan
Argali, Ladakh Urial, Chiru, Takin, Serow and Musk Deer will benefit from this project.
6. SECURE Himalaya: It is a six-year project to ensure conservation of locally and globally
significant biodiversity, in high Himalayan ecosystem spread over four states viz. Himachal
Pradesh, J&K, Uttarakhand and Sikkim + It was launched by MoEFCC in association with
UNDP.
7. Sea Turtle project: Started with the joint efforts of UNDP and MoEFCC in 1999 at the Indian
Institute of Wildlife, Dehradun + It issues guidelines for developmental activities in the area,
keeping in mind the need for securing the breeding areas of turtles.
8. Project Hangul: In 1970s, J&K government along with support of IUCN and WWF prepared a
project for protection of habitat of Hangul or the Kashmir stag + Included artificial breeding of
the highly endangered Stag along with other measures for its protection and conservation.
9. SAWEN (South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network): It is an inter-governmental body that acts
as a wildlife law enforcement support body + Its focus areas include harmonisation of policies,
strengthening of institutional capacities through intelligence and knowledge sharing; member
states are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka + It
operates from its secretariat in Kathmandu in Nepal; India became a formal member in 2016.
10. Cheetah Reintroduction Project: Government is preparing to translocate the 1st batch of eight
from South Africa and Namibia to Kuno National Park in Madhya Pradesh soon + In this
regard, the Ministry of Environment has launched the ‘Action Plan for Introduction of Cheetah
in India’ under which 50 of these big cats will be introduced in the next five years. The action

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plan was launched at the 19th meeting of the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) +
Last year (2021), the Supreme Court lifted its seven-year-long stay on a proposal to introduce
African Cheetahs from Namibia into the Indian habitat + The other sites recommended for holding
and conservation breeding of cheetah in India, in controlled wild conditions are:
o Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary: Madhya Pradesh
o Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary and Bhainsrorgarh Wildlife Sanctuary complex:
Madhya Pradesh
o Shahgarh bulge: Jaisalmer, Rajasthan
o Mukundara Tiger Reserve: Rajasthan

11. Asian Elephant Alliance: It is an umbrella initiative by five NGOs to secure 96 out of the
101 existing corridors used by elephants across 12 states in India + Five NGOs include
Elephant Family, International Fund for Animal Welfare, IUCN Netherlands, World
Land Trust and Wildlife Trust of India.
12. Indian Rhino Vision, 2020: It is an initiative led by Forest Department, Government of Assam,
in partnership with WWF India, International Rhino Foundation, and several other organizations
+ It aims to increase the rhino population in Assam to 3,000 by establishing populations in new
areas + Seven protected areas are Kaziranga, Pobitora, Orang National Park, Manas National Park,
Laokhowa wildlife sanctuary, Burachapori wildlife sanctuary and Dibru Saikhowa wildlife
sanctuary + Wild-to-wild translocations were an essential part of IRV2020.
13. Indian crocodile conservation project: The Crocodile Conservation Project was launched in
1975 in different States + The broad objectives of the project are to protect the remaining
population of crocodilians in their natural habitat by creating sanctuaries; to promote captive
breeding; to involve the local people in the project intimately.
14. National action plan for conservation of migratory birds (2018-23): It is to be implemented by
the MoEF&CC + Short-term goal of the plan is to stop the decline in population by 2027 + Major
components are species conservation, Habitat conservation and sustainable management,
Communication and outreach, capacity development, research and knowledge base development,
international cooperation.
15. Green Good Deeds Initiative: It is an initiative launched to spread environmental awareness
among peoples and to mobilize people’s participation for conservation of the environment + It is
about simple steps that students/teachers/citizens can perform in their day-to-day life towards the
protection of the environment + One lakh fifty thousand Ecoclubs have been established in schools
and colleges across the nation.
16. SIMBA (Software with Intelligent Marking Based identification of Asiatic lions) : It is a photo-
identification software, specifically designed to distinguish patterns or marks + Through this
software, forest department will assign different names to the lions by identifying marks on their
body parts + The veterinary record will also be maintained using this database + Asiatic lions are
known for their unique whisker spots on either side of their muzzle.

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CHAPTER 17: INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE

1. Climate change: The increasing temperature of earth due to greenhouse effect is known as
climate change, which leads to extreme weather events, rising of sea levels etc.

2. Global warming: It is an average increase in temperature of atmosphere near the earth’s

surface and in the troposphere, which contribute to changes in global climate patterns.
• Impacts: Rise in sea level, change in rainfall patterns, melting of ice caps, spread of diseases,
loss of plankton due to warming of seas etc.
3. Green House Effect: Blankets earth lower atmosphere and warms it, maintaining temperature
suitable for living things to survive.
• Significance: In its absence, average temperature would be -19 degree Celsius and earth would
be a frozen lifeless planet.

Fig: Mechanism of Greenhouse effect

4. Anti-greenhouse effect: Titan, the largest moon of Saturn and Pluto show Anti-Green House
Effect. The atmosphere is opaque to solar radiation but lets out infrared. The effect is that the
body is cooler than the actual temperature would have been.
5. Green House Gases: The gases in earth’s atmosphere that trap heat is known as Greenhouse
gases. These are crucial for survival of life on earth.
• Water Vapor: Biggest overall natural contributor to greenhouse effect -> accounts for about
60% of the warming effect + It is controlled by temperature in atmosphere + It is a

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noncondensable gas + Cycles through atmosphere quickly evaporating from oceans before
coming down as rain or snow.
• Carbon dioxide: Primary GHG emitted through human activities. For the first time, CO2 in
atmosphere crossed 415 ppm (Mauna Lao observatory data).
o Main sources: Combustion of fossil fuels to generate electricity and gasoline,
diesel used for transportation.
o The Keeling Curve : Named after its creator Dr. Charles David Keeling, is a global
benchmark for carbon levels in the atmosphere + It is a graph that represents the
concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in Earth’s atmosphere since 1958 at the
Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii.
• Methane: Emitted by sources such as wetlands (largest source), growing rice and paddy,
using natural gas, mining coal, termites, volcanoes, raising livestock, landfills etc.
• Nitrous oxide: Natural part of nitrogen cycle. Human activities such as agriculture, fossil fuel
combustion, use of synthetic fertilizers, wastewater management, industrial processes
(byproduct of production of nitric acid) increasing the amounts of nitrogen oxide. Bacteria in
soil and ocean also produce the gas.
• Ozone (O3): Gas that occurs in both earth’s atmosphere and at ground level + It is a highly
reactive gas that merits short duration standard of only 1-8hrs average + It is good or bad
for health and environment depending on its location:
o Stratospheric Ozone: It is good because as it protects the living organisms from high
ultraviolet radiation of the sun.
o Ground level Ozone: It is not desirable because it can trigger a variety of health
problems for children, elderly etc.
§ Ozone pollution is a secondary pollution created by reactions between oxides of
Nitrogen (NOX) and Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from vehicles,
power plants in the presence of sunlight and heat.
§ Health impacts: Asthma and respiratory diseases, chest pain, coughing, lung diseases,
People with lower intake of Vitamin C and E are at greater risk,
§ Environment: Impact sensitive vegetation during growing season and ecosystems
like forests, parks wildlife and wilderness areas.
§ Monitoring of Ozone: National ambient air quality standards by CPCB measures the
concentration of ozone. It is also listed as one of the major pollutant in AQI and
SAFAR.

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• Flourinated Gases: These include HFCs, PFCS, SF6, Nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) emitted
from industrial processes such as aluminum and semi-conductor manufacturing and
substitution for ozone depleting substances + They have very high global warming potential,
though released in small quantities + They are removed from atmosphere only when they
are destroyed by sunlight in the far upper atmosphere + They are the most potent and longest
lasting type of GHGs emitted by humans.
o Hydrofluorocarbons: Used as refrigerants, solvents, fire retardants + Developed as a
replacement for CFCs and HCFCs as they do not deplete stratospheric ozone; but they are
potent GHGs with long atmospheric lifetimes and high Global warming potential.
o Perfluorocarbons: Byproduct of industrial processes associated with aluminum
production and semi-conductors.
• Black carbon: It is a kind of an aerosol and sooty black material emitted from gas and
diesel engines, coal-fired power plants due to incomplete combustion + It comprises high
levels of particulate matter + Short lived climate pollutant (few days to weeks) + They are
the second most anthropogenic agent for climate change.
o Main Sources: Incomplete burning of coal, biomass burning, cooking with solid fuels,
diesel exhausts etc.
o Impact: When deposited on ice, reduces the reflective capacity, good absorber of
sunlight-> absorb million time more energy than CO2; affect cloud formation and
rainfall + It may also lead to depletion of ozone layer + Key component of PM 2.5 ->
negative health impacts.
o Government measures: Project Surya by introducing efficient stove technologies, solar
cookers, solar lamps and biogas plants; PM Ujjwala yojana etc.
o Facts: India contributes around 25% of the world’s black carbon emissions; second
largest contributor to black carbon in the world.
• Brown carbon: It is emitted majorly by biomass combustion + It is ubiquitous and
unidentified component of organic aerosol + It is light absorbing organic matter.
o Major sources: Biomass burning (including domestic wood burning), agricultural fires
including stubble burning etc.
• Brown Vs Black carbon: Black carbon is produced by high temperature combustion and
brown carbon is emitted by biomass combustion.
• Blue carbon: It is stored in the coastal ecosystem such as Mangroves, seagrass meadows and
intertidal salt marshes.
• Blue Carbon Initiative : It is a global program aimed at mitigating climate change through
the conservation and restoration of coastal and marine ecosystems + The Blue Carbon Initiative
focuses on mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrasses, which are found on every continent except
Antarctica + It is coordinated by Conservation International (CI), the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (IOC-UNESCO)

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Fig: Greenhouse gas emission by Economic sector

6. Climate Forcings (Aerosol Radiative Forcing): Factors in the climate system that either increase
or decrease the effects to the climate system. Positive forcings such as excess GHGs warm earth,
while negative forcings such as effects of aerosols and volcanic eruptions cool the earth.
7. Estimation of the effect of a gas:
• Quantity: It is how much of the gas is present in the atmosphere + It is measured in parts
per million/billion.
• Life: For what duration can the gas survive in atmosphere. Each of these gases remain in the
atmosphere for different amounts of time.
• Strength: How strong the gas traps the heat. Some gases are more effective than others at
making planet warmer and thickening the Earth’s blanket.
8. Global warming potential: For each gas a Global warming potential (GWP) is calculated by
considering its duration of existence i.e life and strength of its impact. Gases with higher GWP
absorb more energy per compound, thus contributing more to warming the Earth.

9. Social cost of carbon: It is the marginal cost of the impacts caused by emitting one extra tonne
of CO2 equivalent at any point in time, inclusive of 'non-market' impacts on the environment and
human health; India's country-level social cost of carbon emission was estimated to be the
highest at $86 per tonne of CO2-> Indian economy will lose $86 by emitting each additional
tonne of CO2.
10. Greenhouse gas protocol: It is the most widely used international accounting tool for
government and business leaders to understand, quantify, and manage greenhouse gas emissions +

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It is a partnership between World Resources Institute (WRI) and the World Business Council
for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) + It provides accounting framework for nearly every
GHG standard and program in the world - from the International Standards Organization to The
Climate Registry - as well as hundreds of GHG inventories prepared by individual companies.
11. Greenhouse Gas Bulletin Report : Released by WMO + It shows the average surface mole
fractions for carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) and compares them
with the mole fractions during the previous year and with the preindustrial levels + Greenhouse
Gas Bulletin 2022 also provides change in radiative forcing by long-lived GHGs (LLGHGs) and
the contribution of individual gases to this increase.
12. GHG Emissions: China > USA > EU > India.
13. Short-lived climate Pollutants

14. Climate and Clean Air Coalition: The governments of Bangladesh, Mexico, Sweden, Ghana,
Canada and USA along with UNEP came together in 2012 to treat short-lived climate pollutants
as a collective and urgent challenge + It is a voluntary partnership of governments,
intergovernmental organizations, businesses, scientific institutions and civil society organizations
committed to improving air quality and protecting the climate through actions to reduce short-
lived climate pollutants + It focuses on Black carbon, Methane, Hydrofluorocarbons and
tropospheric ozone.
15. Global Climate Change alliance: It is an initiative of the European Union + It provides technical
and financial support to targeted developing countries to integrate climate change into their
development policies and budgets.

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CHAPTER 18: CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION STRATEGIES

1. Carbon Sequestration: It describes long-term storage of CO2 and other forms of carbon to
mitigate global warming. Also known as Carbon capture and storage (CCS).
• Mechanism: CCS catches and sequesters (hide) CO2 from power stations, industrial sites
and permanently stores it in underground.
• Potential sites: Natural sinks such as Ocean, forests, soil etc. and Artificial sinks like
depleted oil reserves, un-mineable mines etc.
• Types of Sequestration
o Geologic sequestration: Natural pore spaces in geologic formations serve as reservoirs
for long term CO2 storage.
§ Trapping mechanisms: Hydrodynamic trapping (CO2 trapped under low permeability
hard rock), Solubility trapping (dissolved into a liquid) and Mineral carbonation.
o Ocean sequestration: Carbon is stored in oceans through direct injection or fertilization.
§ Enhancing productivity of ocean biological systems through Iron fertilization
(stimulates phytoplankton production), and injecting CO2 into deep ocean.
o Terrestrial sequestration: Increasing carbon fixation through photosynthesis,
changing land use pattern enhance carbon uptake in soils, vegetation etc.
2. Carbon sink: Green and Blue carbon sequestrate atmosphere GHGs.
• Green carbon: It is carbon removed by photosynthesis and stored in plants and soil of
natural ecosystems. Forests accumulate large amounts of CO2 in relatively short periods.
• Blue carbon: Coastal, aquatic and maritime carbon sinks held by indicative vegetation,
marine organism and sediments. Tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses remove carbon
from atmosphere and store it in plants and sediment below them.
o More efficient: Removes carbon at rates higher than each square mile of mature tropical
forests.
3. Blue carbon initiative: Global program working to mitigate climate change through the
restoration and sustainable use of coastal and marine ecosystems. Coordinated by Conservation
International, IUCN, and IOC-UNESCO.
4. Carbon credit: It is a tradeable certificate representing right to emit one ton of carbon dioxide
and carbon dioxide equivalent gases. India’s Multi commodity exchange (MCX) has become
first exchange in Asia to trade carbon credits.
5. Carbon offsetting: These are credits for reductions in GHGs emissions made at another
location, such as wind farms which create renewable energy; quantified and sold in metric tonnes
of CO2 equivalent.
6. Carbon tax: It is tax based on the amount of carbon contained in a fuel such as coal to cause less
fossil use and an incentive to use another sources of energy.
7. Carbon Leakage : It is another issue with the Clean Development Mechanism. It is defined as
increase in emissions outside a region as a direct result of the policy measures to cap emission in
this region. This means that the domestic climate mitigation policy is less effective and more costly
in containing emission.
8. Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CABM) : Proposed carbon tariff on carbon intensive
products, such as cement and some electricity, imported by the European Union + Currently being
legislated as part of the European Green Deal it is likely to take effect in 2026 with reporting
starting in 2023.

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9. Geo-Engineering: Technique designed to tackle the effects of climate change by removing CO2
from the air or limiting the amount of sunlight reaching the planet's surface.
• Methods: Hoisting parasols, placing mirrors in space (reflect light and reduce heating of
Earth), whitening stratosphere with sulfate aerosols, whitewashing building roofs to reflect
sunlight into ocean to promote carbon-gulping algae, whiten the clouds with wind-powered
ships, building fake trees.
• Seed the sea with Iron (phytoplankton prefer iron and flourish in its presence, thus absorbing a
lot of CO2. E.g: LOHAFEX -> Indo-German Ocean iron fertilization project).
• Utility: For dry ice production, developing new kinds of plastic and concrete, horticulturists
need CO2 in GHGs for plants to use during photosynthesis.
10. Clean coal technologies
• Coal washing: Removes unwanted minerals by mixing crushed coal with a liquid and
allowing impurities to separate and settle.
• Electrostatic precipitators: Remove particulates by charging particles with an electric field
and then capturing them on collection plates.
• Flue gas desulfurization: Wet scrubbers or flue gas desulfurization remove Sulphur dioxide
by spraying flue gas with limestone and water.
11. Miscellaneous
• High latitude forests store more carbon than tropical rainforests.
• One third of the world’s soil-bound carbon is in taiga and tundra areas.
• When the permafrost melts due to global warming, it releases carbon in the form of carbon
dioxide and methane.

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CHAPTER 19: OCEAN ACIDIFICATION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

1. Ocean Acidification: Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth’s oceans,
caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.
2. Process: As the uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide by the ocean increases, the concentration of
hydrogen ions in the ocean increases, concentration of carbonate ions decreases, the PH of the
ocean decreases and oceans become less alkaline.
3. CO2 Effect on ocean acidification: Increase in CO2-> Ocean acidification-> Coral reefs can’t
grow-> less plankton production-> less productive fisheries.
4. Checking CO and CO2 emissions and controlling pollution are the only means to reduce ocean
acidification.

5. Influence of other factors:

• Acid Rain: Acid rain can have a PH between 1 and 6 and has major effect on ocean
acidification locally and regionally.
• Eutrophication: It leads to large plankton blooms, and when these blooms collapse and sink
to the sea bed the subsequent respiration of bacteria decomposing the algae leads to a decrease
in seawater oxygen and an increase in CO2 (a decline in pH).

6. Consequences of Ocean Acidification

• Affects corals population: Ocean acidification will negatively affect corals. Coral reefs will
erode faster than they can rebuild. When shelled organisms are at risk, the entire food web
may also be at risk.

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• Some algae and seagrass may benefit from higher CO2 concentrations, as they may
increase their photosynthetic and growth rates.
• Cloud formation: The majority of sulphur in the atmosphere is emitted from the ocean, in
the form of dimethylsulfide (DMS) produced by phytoplankton. In acidified ocean water,
phytoplankton produces fewer DMS, which may lead to decreased cloud formation, raising
global temperatures.
• Ocean acidification in the Indian Ocean
o The Arabian Sea is witnessing acidification of its surface waters, a consequence of
excessive CO2 in the atmosphere
o The ocean acidification in the northern Bay of Bengal is mainly due to pollutants mixing
with seawater from the Indo-Gangetic plains.
o Decreasing presence of marine phytoplankton in the western Indian Ocean.
• Saturation horizons: Ocean acidification causes the saturation horizons to rise vertically
in the water column-> more calcifying organisms exposed to under saturated water and
thus vulnerable to dissolution of their shells and skeletons.
• Mitigation: Reducing CO2, promoting government policies to cap CO2 emissions, eliminate
offshore drilling, alternative energy sources such as wind power and solar etc.
Carbon Compensation Depth (CCD) : It refers to the level of depth of the ocean till where carbon
doesn’t dissolve and is present in an adequate amount. It is essential for the survival of marine
organisms, whose bodies are made up of carbonate shells like corals, mollusks, planktons, etc.
Carbon dioxide above the CCD is locked in, however, the carbon below CCD is free and dissolved.
Global warming has led to ocean acidification and subsequent increase of carbon in the oceans. It
has led to rise in the level of CCD in the oceans.

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CHAPTER 20: CLIMATE CHANGE CONFERENCES

1. United Nations Conference on Human Environment (Stockholm conference), 1972: The
Stockholm conference was the first UN Conference on environment + It resulted in establishment
of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
2. 1987: Brundlandt report “Our Common Future”-> First mention of sustainable development.
3. UN Conference on Environment and Development (Rio Summit), 1992: UNFCCC, UNCBD,
UNCCD, Agenda 21, Global Environment facility.
• Agenda 21: It is a comprehensive plan of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by
organizations of UN system, governments and major groups in every area + It is a non-binding
voluntarily implemented action plan of United Nations with regard to sustainable development.
4. New York, 1997: Rio + 5; review of progress under 1992 summit.
5. Rio + 10, Johannesburg (World Summit on sustainable development), 2002: Millennium
development goals (MDGs) and review of Agenda 21.
6. Rio + 20, 2012: Talk about Sustainable development goals, Green economy, Partnership for action
on Green Economy (UNEP, UNDP, ILO are part of it).
7. UNFCCC: Negotiated at Rio Earth summit (UNCED) in 1992 + It is the first multilateral legal
instrument on climate change + It came into force in 1994 + It is a legally non-binding agreement.
• Objective and role: Stabilize GHGs concentrations in atmosphere + It sets non-binding
limits on GHGs for individual countries + It has no enforcement mechanism.
• Parties to convention: All UN member states, Palestine (Observer state), European Union
and Niue and Cook Island (non-member states).
• UNFCCC secretariat: Supports Conference of parties (COP), subsidiary bodies, COP Bureau.
8. Kyoto Protocol (COP-3): Negotiated under UNFCCC in Kyoto, Japan, 1997 + It is the only
global treaty with binding limits on GHG emissions + It came into force in 2005 + India ratified
in 2002 + USA never ratified.
• Goal: Fight global warming by reducing GHGs -> prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with climate system.
• Objectives: Enforce commitments under protocol + Sustainable development through tech
transfer and investment + encourage private sector to contribute emission reduction efforts.
• CBDR: Obligation on developed countries to reduce current emissions + Every country must
take part but historically biggest polluters like US, UK, Russia etc. should do more
compared to recent polluters and must accept to certain binding limits on GHG emissions.
• Main Parties
o Annex 1 parties: Industrialized countries which are members of OECD in 1992,
European Union + Economies in transition (EIT), including Russian federation, and
several central and east European states.
o Annex 2 parties: OECD members of Annex 1 (But doesn’t include EIT parties); also
include EU; provide financial aid and technical support to developing countries to assist
in mitigation and adaptation.
o Annex B: includes 38 countries+ European Community; compulsory binding targets to
reduce GHG emissions.
o Non-Annex 1 parties: mostly developing countries; no binding targets to reduce
emission.
o Least developed countries: given special consideration to adapt to climate change.

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• First commitment period was 2008-12 + Second commitment period, launched by Doha
amendment (2012), begin from 1 Jan 2013 to 2020.
• Key provisions: Binding emission targets for 38 industrialized countries and EU in first
commitment period + Varied targets for nations (EU- 8%; US-7%) + Overall these targets
add up to 5% emission reduction by these countries from 1990 levels over five year period
from 2008 to 2012 + Based on CBDR- only binds developed countries.
• Emission target gases: Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O),
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), HCFs and groups of Per fluorocarbons (PFCs).
• Architecture of Kyoto Protocol regime
o Countries to meet targets largely through domestic action; also offers Marked based
mechanisms.

Fig: Market based mechanisms under Kyoto Protocol

• Benefits of Flexible Market Mechanisms: Green investments in developing countries +
Inclusion of private sector to steady GHGs at safe level + Ensure transparency of accounting
by parties.
• Penalties: If country does not meet requirements for reporting-> losses right of gaining credit
through Joint implementation; Goes above emission-> make up difference + 30% in the next
period.
• Status of Kyoto Protocol: Most countries failed to meet targets for first period of commitment
(2008-12).
9. Kyoto Beyond 2012
• Amendments to KP for second commitment period (2012-20) adopted at Doha in 2012 + It has
not entered into force yet + It enter force on 90th day after 3/4th of parties to KP have deposited

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their instrument of accession + India ratified second commitment period in 2017 + Developed
countries started implementation under ‘opt-in provisions’.
10. COP-11: Held in Montreal, Canada in 2005-> ratified Kyoto protocol.
11. Bali conference 2007 (COP 13): Bali roadmap as a two-year process to finalize binding agreement in
2009 Copenhagen; review of the financial mechanism (beyond existing Global Environmental
Facility.)
12. Poznan Conference 2008 (COP 14): Launched adaptation fund under Kyoto protocol; financed in
part by government and private donors.
13. Copenhagen summit (COP 15): limits max global avg temperature increase to not more 2 degrees C
above pre-industrial levels; developed countries to provide US$30 billion for the period 2010-2012;
mobilize long-term finance of a further US$100 billion a year by 2020 from a variety of sources.
14. Cancun conference (COP 16): Agreed to establish a Green Climate Fund and include Carbon
capture and storage (CCS) under CDM.
15. Durban conference (COP 17): Second phase of Kyoto protocol secured; approved governing
instrument for Green climate fund.
16. Doha conference (COP18): agreed to extend life of Kyoto-> second commitment period (2013-20);
extension of KP until 2020 limited scope to 15% of global CO2 emissions.
17. Warsaw conference (COP 19): Term INDCs coined; Warsaw mechanism proposed-> Support to
developing nations to cope damages caused by natural extremities.
18. LIMA Outcomes (COP-20): Capitalization of the new Green climate fund past an initial $10
billion target; multilateral assessments; climate awareness into national development plans; launch of
Nazca Climate action portal.
19. Paris Agreement, 2015 (COP-21): Entered into force in November, 2016 (ratification by 55 countries
that account for 55% of global emissions); Focus on mitigate and adapt to climate change beyond
2020; India signed and ratified in 2016.
• Goal: Limit global temperature increase well below 2 degree celsius, also urging efforts to limit
increase to 1.5 degrees; zero net anthropogenic GHG emission during 2nd half of 21st century.
• Key features of the agreement
o Provides common framework for all countries-> all parties report regularly on emission
targets and international review (ends strict differentiation between developed and
developing countries).
o Binding procedural commitments: prepare, communicate NDCs; new NDC every five
years; each successive NDC progression beyond previous one; no binding obligation to
implement NDCs.
o Carbon markets: Recognize parties to use “internationally transferred mitigation
outcomes” to implement its NDCs.
o Successive NDCs: Global stocktake to assess collective progress; first stocktake in 2023;
new NDCs every five years to represent progression.
o Support to poor developing countries; extend $100 billion-a-year goal through 2025; beyond
that by 2023, COP set new quantified goal from floor of $100 billion a year.
• India’s INDCs
o To reduce Emission intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 % by 2030 from 2005 level.
o Increase share of non-fossil based energy resource to 40% of installed electric power capacity
by 2030.
o Additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 through additional forest and tree
cover by 2030.

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• Marrakech conference (COP-22), 2016: Adaptation of African Agriculture launched + It aimed

at dealing with orphan issues not assigned to APA + It also included mid-century strategies; 2050
Pathway platform was launched; roadmap outlining methods to meet goal of mobilizing $100
billion a year; $23 million for climate technology centre and network (CTCN).
• Bonn climate change conference (COP 23), 2017: Powering past coal alliance (coal phase-out
in OECD and EU28 by 2030); and by 2050 in rest of world + It has no particular phase-out date
commitments; Gender action plan; ocean pathway partnership; Insu resilience global partnership
(climate and disaster risk finance and insurance solutions).
o Talanoa dialogue: It reflect process of inclusive, participatory and transparent dialogue + It
help countries enhance their NDCs + It involves sharing of ideas, skills and experience
through storytelling.
• Katowice conference (COP-24), 2018: Finalized a “rulebook” to operationalize paris agreement-
> details on how countries will provide info about their NDCs, opaqueness of climate financing,
describes how loans, grants should be accounted for + Modalities for Monitoring and progress
report to INDCs.
• Madrid conference (COP-25), 2019: Framing rules for setting up new carbon market under
Paris agreement deferred to next year + It has no schedule finalized for updating NDCs + The
liabilities for damages caused by rising temperatures deferred; concrete plans regarding climate
emergency.
• Glasgow climate conference (COP-26), 2021: Secure Global net-zero by mid-century and keep
1.5 degrees within reach + The countries asked for ambitious 2030 emission reduction targets +
‘protect and restore ecosystems and build defences; Developed countries must mobilize
USD100bn per year.
o Five commitments made by Indian Prime Minister
§ Raise the non-fossil fuel based energy capacity of the country to 500 GW by 2030.
§ By 2030, 50% of the country’s energy requirements would be met using renewable
energy sources.
§ Reduce the total projected carbon emission by one billion tonnes between now and the
year 2030.
§ The carbon intensity would be reduced to less than 45% by 2030.
§ India would become carbon neutral and achieve net zero emissions by the year 2070.
o Others: Developed economies should make $1 trillion available for climate financing.
• UNFCC COP 27 [Sharm El-Sheikh Climate Change Conference] : Held in Egpyt + The Sharm-
El-Sheikh Adaptation Agenda outlines 30 Adaptation Outcomes to build resilience for four billion
people that are most vulnerable to climate, by 2030 + COP27 signed an agreement to provide "loss
and damage" funding to vulnerable countries.
o Initiatives :
§ Action on Water Adaptation and Resilience Initiative (AWARe): It has been launched
to reflect the importance of water as both a key climate change problem and a potential
solution.
§ African Carbon Market Initiative (ACMI): It was launched to support the growth of
carbon credit production and create jobs in Africa.
§ The Global Renewables Alliance: It brings together, for the first time, all the technologies
required for the energy transition in order to ensure an accelerated energy transition.

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§ Parties Agree to Introduce Loss & Damage Funding : During the COP27, Parties agreed
to include Loss and Damage Funding as an agenda item at the climate conference for the
first time since the adoption of the UN climate convention.
§ International Conference on "Citizen-centric energy transition: Empowering citizens
with Mission LIFE (Lifestyles for Environment)" : It was held at the India Pavilion at
the COP-27 at Sharm-El-Sheikh in Egypt. The conference was hosted by the Ministry of
New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) and the Ministry of Power (MOP), Government of
India, in partnership with Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA), Solar
Energy Corporation of India (SECI) and the Council on Energy, Environment and Water
(CEEW).
§ ISA Releases USD 1 Trillion Roadmap for Scaling Solar Investment, Deployment :
The goal of this roadmap is to secure the funding needed to scale up the deployment of
solar power projects.
§ Methane Alert and Response System (UNFCCC COP 27) : A new satellite-based system
to detect methane emissions and tackle them to slow climate change + The data-to-action
platform was set up as part of the UN Environment Programme’s (UNEP) International
Methane Emissions Observatory (IMEO) strategy to get policy-relevant data into the right
hands for emissions mitigation + The system will be the first publicly available global
system to connect methane detection to notification processes transparently
• Climate Finance: It refers to local, national or transnational financing-drawn from public, private
and alternative sources of financing + It seeks to support mitigation and adaptations actions that
will address climate change.
• Principles of Climate Finance: Polluters pay principle, CBDR and Respective capability (CBDR-
RC), Additionality (climate finance should be additional to existing commitments to avoid
diversion of funding for development needs to climate change actions), predictability (climate
finance must be predictable to ensure sustained flow of climate finance), adequacy and precaution.
• UNFCCC established the financial mechanism to provide financial resources to developing
country parties.
o Global Environment Facility (GEF): Setup as a fund under World Bank in 1991+ Moved
out of WB system during Rio Earth summit in 1992 to become permanent and separate
institution + Multilateral grants to developing countries+ Based in Washington DC+ It serves
as a financial mechanism for CBD, UNFCCC, UNCCD, Stockholm convention on PoPs,
Minamata convention on mercury + India is both donor and recipient of GEF + It also
supports implementation of Montreal protocol in countries with economies in transition+
financial contribution is replenished every four years by GEF 39 donor countries + The
funds available to developing countries and economies in transition+ Six designated focal
areas are Biodiversity, climate change, international waters, ozone depletion, land degradation
and persistent organic pollutants.
§ GEF Small Grants programme: Launched in 1992 + It was implemented by UNDP on
behalf of the GEF partnership + It provides financial and technical support to
communities through community based initiatives; funds grants of upto maximum of
$50,000 + It provides a maximum of $1,50,000 for strategic projects.
o Green Climate Fund (GCF): Established at COP-16 at Cancun in 2010; chief instrument
of fulfilling developed countries collective promise to put $100bn annually by 2020;
mechanism to redistribute money from developed to developing world.
§ COP 16 ==> Decision Made to establish GCF.

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COP 17 ==> Parties approved the Governing Instrument for the GCF ==> Legal approval
COP 18 ==> Songdo, Incheon, Republic of Korea hosted GCF.
§ Structure: Fund governed by GCF board consisting of 24 members equally divided
between developed and developing countries; accountable to and functions under COP
to support projects; independent secretariat in Songdo, Republic of Korea; World Bank
serves as interim trustee of GCF.
o Special climate change fund: Established under convention in 2001 to finance adaptation,
technology transfer etc; GEF entrusted to operate the SCCF.
o Strategic climate fund: Administered by World Bank + The area of focus is adaptation,
mitigation + One of the two multi-donor trust funds within climate investment funds (CIFs).
o Biocarbon fund: Administered by World Bank + It is an initiative for sustainable forest
landscapes; sustainable forest management with climate smart agricultural practices.
o Clean technology fund: Administered by WB + It promotes scaled up finance for transfer of
low carbon technologies + It is channeled through African Development bank, ADB, EBRD,
WB group.
o Forest carbon partnership facility: Administered by the World Bank + Mitigation under
REDD + It consists of readiness fund and carbon fund.
o Least developed countries fund: Administered by the GEF + It funds adaptation needs of
LDCs + Financed preparation and implementation of National adaptation programs of action
(NAPAs).
o Adaptation Fund: Administered by Adaptation fund board + It is operational from 2009 + It
is a financial instrument under UNFCCC and its Kyoto protocol + The fund is financed
with proceeds from Clean development mechanism (CDM) and donor governments.
o Loss and Damage Fund : Launched in United Nations Climate Conference (COP 27) and the
culmination of decades of pressure from climate-vulnerable developing countries. The fund
aims to provide financial assistance to nations most vulnerable and impacted by the effects of
climate change.
o Global Shield Against Climate Risks : It is a joint initiative of G7 and V20 + Vulnerable
Twenty(V20) is a dedicated cooperation initiative of countries systemically vulnerable to
climate change. It was established in 2015 in Lima, Peru + The initiative will provide pre-
arranged financial support designed to be quickly deployed during climate disasters + The
initiative is envisioned as a social protection and insurance-based finance mechanism for loss
and damage outside the UNFCCC process + Funding: World Bank Group has announced a
Global Shield Financing Facility to support the Global Shield Against Climate Risks.
• Climate Financing in India
o National Adaptation fund for climate change (NAFCC): Established in 2015 to meet cost
of adaptation to climate change for the States & UTs + 100% central grant provided to the
State Governments/UTs for adaptation + NABARD is the National Implementing Entity
responsible for implementation of adaptation projects under NAFCC.
o National Clean energy fund: Promote clean energy + It is funded through initial carbon tax
on use of coal by industries + It is governed by an Inter-Ministerial Group with the Finance
Secretary as the Chairman + It fund research and development of innovative clean energy
technology in the fossil and non-fossil fuel based sectors.
o Green Ag project: It is funded by GEF, while the Department of Agriculture, Cooperation,
and Farmers’ Welfare (DAC&FW) is the national executing agency + It is designed to achieve
multiple global environmental benefits in at least 1.8 million hectares (ha) of land in five

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landscapes, with mixed land-use systems + It aims to bring at least 104,070 ha of farms under
sustainable land and water management + It has been launched in high conservation value
landscapes of five states – Madhya Pradesh (Chambal landscape), Mizoram (Dampa
landscape), Odisha (Similipal landscape), Rajasthan (Desert national park landscape) and
Uttarakhand (Corbett- Rajaji landscape).
o Green Bonds: It is a debt instrument with which capital is being raised to fund ‘green’ projects,
which typically include those relating to renewable energy, clean transportation, sustainable
water management etc + In India, SEBI puts disclosure norms for issuance and listing of green
bonds.
o Blue bonds: Blue bonds are pioneering financial instruments that are designed to support
sustainable marine and fisheries projects + They are a subset of the green bonds + The World
Bank defines blue bonds “as a debt instrument issued by governments, development banks or
others to raise capital from impact investors to finance marine and ocean-based projects that
have positive environmental, economic and climate benefits.”
o In 2018, the Republic of Seychelles launched the world’s first sovereign blue bond.

o Climate Bonds Initiative: It is an international, investor- focused not-for-profit

organization It's the only organization working to mobilize $100 trillion bond market for
climate change solutions.

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CHAPTER 21: OZONE DEPLETION

1. Introduction: Ozone is a natural gas, allotrope of oxygen consisting of three atoms of oxygen
bound together in a non-linear fashion + It is a pale blue gas with distinctive pungent smell + It
is highly reactive gas + Its concentration is good in stratosphere as it protects Earth by absorbing
UV rays + It is a pollutant at ground level.
2. Ozone layer: Region of Earth’s stratosphere absorbs UV radiation + It contains high concentration
of O3 + It has less than 10 ppm of ozone + It is mainly found in lower portion of stratosphere 20-
30 kms above earth.
• Dobson Unit : It is the most common unit for measuring ozone concentration. One Dobson
Unit is the number of molecules of ozone that would be required to create a layer of pure ozone
0.01 millimeters thick at a temperature of 0 degrees Celsius and a pressure of 1 atmosphere.
• Usefulness: Prevent damaging UV light from reaching earth-> reduce risks of mutation to
plant and animal + It protects oxygen of lower altitude from breaking due to action of UV
light + It prevents diseases like skin cancer; Life on earth possible.
• Depletion of Ozone layer: Major sources
o Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Molecules made up of chlorine, fluorine and carbon + It has
properties of non-corrosiveness, non-inflammability, low toxicity and chemical stability + It
is used as refrigerants and aerosol propellants for making plastic foam, cleaning of
electronic equipment, fire extinguishing agents etc.
§ Lifetime and removal of CFCs: Estimated to be between 40-150 years + It cannot be
eliminated from atmosphere by usual scavenging process like photo-dissociation, rain-
out and oxidation + It escape into atmosphere from a discarded refrigerator + They are
thermally stable and can survive in troposphere.
o Bromine containing compounds: Called as halons and HBFCs (used in fire extinguishers)
and methyl bromide.
o Carbon Tetrachloride: Cheap, highly toxic solvent + It is used in manufacture of synthetic
rubber, production of pesticides and pharmaceuticals.
o Methyl chloroform: Used as cleaning solvent for clothes and metals, propellant of consumer
products such as correction fluid, dry cleaning sprays.
o Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): Developed as an interim replacement for CFCs + It is
much less harmful than CFCs + It has high global warming potential.
o Nitrogen Oxides: Major source is explosions of thermonuclear weapons, industrial
emissions and agricultural fertilizers + N2O released from solid through denitrification of
nitrates under anaerobic conditions and nitrification of ammonia under aerobic conditions.
o Sulphuric acid particles: Free chlorine from molecular reservoirs; convert reactive
nitrogen into inert forms-> preventing formation of chlorine reservoirs.

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• Role of Polar stratospheric clouds in Ozone depletion

o Polar Stratospheric clouds: Nacreous clouds in the winter polar stratosphere at altitude
of 15-25 kms.
o Activating chlorine and absorbing nitrogen
§ Ice particles of PSC provides substrates for chemical reaction which frees chlorine
from its reservoirs; the reaction between HCL and Chlorine nitrate occurs at faster rate
in presence of suitable substrate provided by stratospheric clouds at poles.
§ HCL + Chlorine Nitrate à Cl2 (Molecular chlorine) + HNO3 (Nitric acid)
§ PSCs not only activate chlorine, but also absorb reactive nitrogen.

• Why Ozone depletion predominant at Antarctic

o Antarctic is more cold than arctic: Antarctic stratosphere is much colder; low
temperature enable formation of PSCs below 20km.
o Longer stability of vortex: Enhances favorable conditions for depletion; vortex remains
throughout polar winter, well into midspring.
• Environmental Effects of Ozone Depletion: Decrease in quantity of total-column ozone->
increased penetration of solar UV-B radiation to earth’s surface.
o Human and animal health: Eye disease, skin cancer and infectious morbidity; UV-B
radiations-> development of non-melanoma skin cancer.
o Terrestrial plants: Change composition of species-> increase in number of tolerant
species; changes in biomass allocation to parts of plant etc.
o Aquatic Ecosystems: Affect orientation mechanisms and motility of phytoplankton ->
reduced survival rates; damage to early development stage of fish, shrimp etc; decreased
reproductive capacity; impaired larval development.
o Biogeochemical cycles: Alternates both source and sinks of greenhouse and chemically
important trace gases.
o Air quality: Higher photo dissociation rates of trace gases; increase both production and
destruction of Ozone; increased production of particulates such as cloud condensation
nuclei.
o Effects on materials: Limits photo-degradation of synthetic polymers and bio-polymers +
It limit their life outdoors.
• Vienna convention: Multilateral environment agreement signed in 1985 and came into force
in 1988 + It is a legally binding convention + Ratified by 197 states (all UN members and
Niue, Holy see and Cook island) and European Union + Objective is to promote cooperation
by means of systematic observations, research and information exchange + It does not

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include legally binding reduction goals for the use of CFCs->laid out in Montreal protocol +
In 2009, it became first convention to achieve universal ratification.
• Montreal Protocol: Protocol to Vienna convention + It was signed in 1987 and came into
force in 1989 + It is the international treaty to protect ozone layer + It aims to reduce
production and consumption of Ozone depleting substances.
o Key Elements
§ Requires all parties to eliminate production and import of Ozone depleting substances.
§ Special provisions for developing countries-> grace period of 10-15 years
§ Multilateral funds: Help qualifying developing countries to phase out their
consumption of ODS.
§ Report annually on production, import and export of ODSs.
§ Regular assessments to enable parties to make informed decisions.
o Chemicals covered: Covers nearly 100 chemicals grouped in: CFCs, Halons, Carbon
tetrachloride, HCFCs, Methyl chloroform, Methyl Bromide.
o CBDR: phases down the consumption and production of the different ODS in a step-wise
manner, with different timetables for developed and developing countries.
o Protocol assisted by Ozone secretariat based at UNEP HQ in Nairobi, Kenya.
o Impact: Highly successful international arrangement; phased out more than 95% of ODS;
world will achieve final phase out of ODS in 2016 with phase out of CFCs used in Metered
dose inhalers.
o Progress made by India: India has already phased out CFCs and CTC; India’s current
plan result in 60% phase out of HCFCs by Jan 1, 2023.
• Kigali Amendment to Montreal Protocol: It is an international agreement to reduce
consumption and production of HFCs + It is a legally binding agreement designed to create
rights and obligations + It was finalized in 2016 at 28th meeting of parties to Montreal protocol
+ India recently approved ratification to phase out HFCs
o Legally binding commitments:
§ Industrialized countries cut HFC production and consumption by at least 85% by 2036
compared to annual average values in period 2011-13 starting from 2019;
§ Developing countries including China, Brazil and South Africa to reduce their HFC
use by 80% of their average value in 2020-22 by 2045 starting from 2024.
§ India and some developing countries- Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait
cut down their HFCs by 85% of their values in 2024-26 by 2047 starting from 2028.
o Others: 121 states and the European Union have ratified the Kigali Amendment as of
July 2021. India is the new entrant to the list; US not ratified the amendment.
o Quito Adjustment : In 2018, the Quito Adjustment is the adjustment made to the Montreal
Protocol. It aims high to avoid 1°C of future warming. In this, the decision to strengthen
enforcement mechanisms of this accord in response to an unexpected rise in global
emissions trichlorofluoromethane or CFC-11 was adopted.

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CHAPTER: 22: INDIA AND CLIMATE CHANGE

1. Introduction: As per Global climate risk index 2021, India is the 7th most vulnerable country +
Overall, 11.8 million people affected by the intense monsoon + Economic damage caused was
estimated to be US$ 10 billion + The energy sector was prime contributor + Fifth largest GHG
emitter, accounting for about 5% of global emissions + released by international environmental think
tank ‘Germanwatch'.
2. India’s efforts to counter Climate change
• NAPCC: Launched in 2008 by PM Council on Climate Change + 8 national missions form core
which represent multi-pronged, long term and integrated strategies.
o National Solar Mission: Governed by MoNRE + Target of JNNSM enhanced to 100 GW
by 2022->includes 60GW (large and medium grid solar projects) and 40GW (rooftop solar).
o National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE): Improve energy efficiency +
Governed by Ministry of Power; commenced in 2010 to achieve GHG reduction of 98.55
million tonnes/year + Annual fuel savings of 23 million tonnes.

o National Mission for Sustainable Habitat: Governed by Ministry of Housing and urban
affairs + It commenced in 2010 with aim to reduce emission in cities + It focuses on GHG
reduction opportunities by increasing energy efficiency of building, improving SWM.
o National Water Mission: Governed by Ministry of Jal Shakti + Commenced in 2011 with
aim to ensure water security and improve access to water resources + It covers entire sweep
of water management to fight climate change impacts.
o National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem: Governed by DoS&T +
Commenced in 2011 + It is aimed at developing capacity to assess health status of Himalayan
ecosystem.
o National Mission on Strategic knowledge for Climate change: Governed by DoS&T + It
aimed at establishment of knowledge network among existing knowledge institutions.
o National Mission for Green India: Governed by MoEF&CC, commenced in 2014 + Aimed
to increase forest and tree cover + It focus on reviving degraded forests with a focus on
increasing forest cover and conserving biodiversity.
o National Mission for Sustainable agriculture: Commenced in 2012 aimed to climate-proof
agriculture and reduce emissions from sector. Four components are:
§ Soil Health Management->aimed at nutrient management through judicious use of
chemical fertilizers.

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§ Rain-fed area development to develop agri-land under integrated farming system.

§ Sub-Mission on agro-forestry to promote plantation along with crops.
§ Climate change and sustainable agriculture: Monitoring, Modeling and Networking
(CCSAMMN) for creating models on adaptation and dissemination of information about
climate change.
• National Bio-Energy Mission: It is aimed at improving energy efficiency in traditional biomass
consuming industries + Develop bio-energy city project + Provide logistics support to biomass
processing units + Propose a GIS-based National Biomass Resource Atlas to map potential
biomass regions.
• International Solar Alliance: Intergovernmental treaty-based organisation with a global
mandate to catalyze solar growth by reduced cost of financing and technology + It is launched by
PM of India and President of France on sidelines of COP-21 + 101 members, after being joined
by the US + Headquartered at Gurugram.
• PM Ujjwala yojana: Launched in May 2016 + It is aimed to provide LPG connections to poor
households + Deposit-free LPG connection given to the eligible household with financial
assistance of Rs 1,600 per connection by the Centre.
• National Adaptation funds: Set up in 2010 for which 100 crore rupees set aside for taking
agriculture adaptation measures.
• GRIHA: It is a green rating system developed by The Energy resource agency (TERI) + It
promoted by MNRE as national rating system.
o Objective: To help design green buildings and, in turn, help evaluate the 'greenness' of the
buildings.
o Parameters used:
§ Site selection and planning
§ Conservation and efficient utilization of resources
§ Building operation and maintenance
§ Innovation points
o MNRE made mandatory for building to obtain a GRIHA rating to avail subsidies allocated
for green development.
• Greenco rating system: Developed by CII + It evaluates companies on environmental
friendliness using life cycle approach + It considers parameters like Energy efficiency, water
conservation, renewable energy, GHG mitigation, waste management, material conservation,
product stewardship, life cycle assessment and Green building features, biodiversity and
innovation.
• Energy Conservation Building Code : The Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC), was
devised by the Indian government for brand-new commercial buildings+ For commercial buildings
with a connected load of 100kW or contract demand of 120 KVA and above, ECBC establishes
minimal energy criteria + The EC Act of 2001 gives the Central Government Government
authority, but the state governments are free to adapt the code to meet unique local or regional
requirements and to notify the Central Government of any changes + With extensive participation
from numerous other stakeholders, including working architects, consultants, educational
institutions, and other governmental agencies, the ECBC was created in accordance with Bureau
of Energy Efficiency (BEE) criteria. ECBC's aim is to provide minimum standards for energy-
efficient building design, construction, and system installation without compromising comfort
levels.

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CHAPTER 23: ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS

1. Animal Welfare Board of India: It is a statutory advisory body established under Section 4 of
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals act,1960 + Advise GOI on animal welfare laws + Provides grants
to animal welfare organizations + Publications to raise awareness of various animal welfare issues
+ Rukmini Devi Arundale pioneered the setting of board with HQ’s at Chennai + The board
consists of 28 members; term of office is 3 years.
2. Central Zoo authority: It is a statutory body constituted in 1992 under the Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972 + Chaired by the Environment Minister and has 10 members and a member-secretary +
Main objective is to complement and strengthen the national effort in conservation of rich
biodiversity + Provides recognition to zoos and also regulate the zoos + Prescribes rules under
which animals may be transferred among zoos nationally and internationally + Grant of licenses,
recognition, certification of ownership etc.
3. National Biodiversity authority: Established in 2003 to implement India’s Biological Diversity
Act (2002) + Statutory and autonomous body performs facilitative, regulatory and advisory
functions for the GOI on the issue of conservation and sustainable use of biological resources +
Impose benefit sharing conditions + Advise state governments in selection of areas of biodiversity
importance + Protection of knowledge of local people + Headquarters in Chennai + Members
appointed by central government consists of a chairperson, 3 ex officio members: one from
Ministry of Tribal affairs and two from MoEF&CC + Five non-official members to be appointed
from amongst specialists and scientists having special knowledge and experience.
4. Wildlife crime control bureau: Statutory body created under Wildlife (Protection) act, 1972 +
Deals with organized wildlife crime + Collection, collation of intelligence and its dissemination +
Establishment of centralized wildlife crime databank + Implementation of international
conventions + Primary enforcers of WPA, 1972. Initiatives : Save Kurma, Operation Clean Art
5. National Lake Conservation Plan: MoEF&CC implements NCLP + Emphasis on conservation
and management of polluted and degraded lakes in urban and semi-urban areas + In situ measures
of lake cleaning such as de-silting, de- weeding, bioremediation, aeration, bio-manipulation,
nutrient reduction, withdrawal of anoxic hypolimn ion; afforestation, storm waterdrainage, silt
traps etc + Solid waste management and provision of dhobi Ghats is generally not covered under
NCLP.
6. National Ganga River Basin Authority: Established in 2009 under Environment Protection Act,
1986). It is a financing, planning implementing, monitoring, coordinating authorities for Ganga
under Jal Shakti Ministry + It is transferred from MoEF to Ministry of Jal Shakti in 2014 + PM is
the Chairperson. In 2016, it was changed to National Ganga Council (NGC).
7. National Mission on Clean Ganga, 2016: It is the implementation wing of NGC set up in 2016
under River Ganga Authority Order 2016; 2 tier management structure (Governing Council &
Executive Committee) + 5 tier structure at National, State & District level: NGC (PM),
Empowered Task Force (MoJS), NMCG (2016), State Ganga Committees & District Ganga
Committees.
8. Wildlife Trust of India: It is an Indian NGO committed to nature conservation with motto as
Service of Nature + To conserve nature, especially endangered species and threatened habitats, in
partnership with communities and governments.

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9. Bombay Natural History society: One of the largest NGOs in India engaged in conservation and
biodiversity research + Conservation of nature primarily biological diversity through action based
on research, education and public awareness.
10. Wildlife Institute of India: Established in 1982 as an autonomous institution under MoEF&CC +
It carry out research on various aspects of wildlife conservation + Training programs for capacity
building of wildlife managers; repository of knowledge of wildlife + Technical and advisory
services to states and central government in the country.
11. Indian council for forest research and education (ICFRE): Autonomous council under
MoEF&CC + Through its 9 institutes and five centres is guiding, promoting and coordinating
forestry research, extension and education at the national level.
12. Botanical Survey of India: It is the apex research organization under Ministry of Environment
and Forests (MoEFCC) for carrying out taxonomic and floristic studies on wild plant resources of
country + Established in 1890 with objective to explore plant resources of country and to identify
plants species with economic virtues.
13. Zoological Survey of India: It is India’s apex organization on animal taxonomy + Its objective is
to promote survey, exploration, research and documentation on various aspects of animal
taxonomy in Indian subcontinent + It was established in 1916 and headquartered in Kolkata.
14. Forest Survey of India: It is a national organisation responsible for the assessment and monitoring
of the forest resources of India regularly + It functions under the Ministry of Environment and
Forests; headquartered at Dehradun, Uttarakhand.
15. National Board for Wildlife (NBWL): It is a Statutory organization constituted under the
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 + Its role is “advisory” in nature and advises the Central Government
on framing policies and measures for conservation of wildlife in the country + It has power to
review all wildlife-related matters and approve projects in and around national parks and
sanctuaries + No alternation of boundaries in national parks and wildlife sanctuaries can be done
without approval of the NBWL + It is chaired by the Prime Minister.
16. National plan for conservation of aquatic ecosystems: It is a single conservation programme for
both wetlands and lakes + It is a centrally sponsored scheme, currently being implemented by
MoEF&CC + It seeks to promote better synergy and avoid overlap of administrative functions.
17. National Green Tribunal:
• NGT Act, 2010: Provided for establishment of a NGT for effective and expeditious disposal
of cases relating to environment protection and conservation of forests and other natural
resources including enforcement of any legal right relating to environment and giving relief
and compensation for damages to persons and property.
• Mandate: Speedy environment justice, help reduce burden of litigation in higher courts +
Disposal of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of filing of the same.
• Branches: Principle Bench in New Delhi + Regional benches in Pune, Bhopal, Chennai and
Kolkata.
• Structure of NGT
o The Tribunal comprises of the Chairperson, the Judicial Members and Expert
Members; term of five years and are not eligible for reappointment.
o The Chairperson is appointed by the Central Government in consultation with CJI.
o A Selection Committee shall be formed by central government to appoint the Judicial
Members and Expert Members.

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o There are to be least 10 and maximum 20 full time Judicial members and Expert
Members in the tribunal.
• Members: Chairperson of NGT is a retired judge of the SC + Other judicial members are
retired judge of the High courts.
• Each Bench-> At least 1 judicial member and one expert member; expert members should
have professional qualification and a minimum of 15yrs of experience in field of
environment/ forest conservation.
• The NGT deals with civil cases under the seven laws related to the environment, these
include:
o The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
o The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
o The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
o The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
o The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
o The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 and
o The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
• Note: NGT has not been vested with powers to hear cases relating to Wildlife protection act,
1972, Indian Forest act, 1927 and various laws enacted by states relating to forests, tree
preservation etc.
• NGT by an order, can provide
o Relief and compensation to the victims of pollution and other environmental damage
including accident occurring while handling any hazardous substance.
o For restitution of property damaged, and
o For restitution of the environment for such area or areas, as the Tribunal may think fit.
• The NGT Act also provides a procedure for a penalty for noncompliance:
o Imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years,
o Fine which may extend to ten crore rupees, and Both fine and imprisonment.
• Principles: Not guided by Code of Civil procedure, 1908 but guided by Principles of natural
justice + It is also not bound by Indian Evidence act, 1872.
• Review appeal can be made to NGT + If review appeal fails, NGT order can be challenged
before Supreme court within ninety days.
• Others: India became the third country in the world to set up a specialised environmental
tribunal, after Australia and New Zealand, and first developing country to do so.

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CHAPTER 24: ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)

1. Introduction: EIA is decision making tool which compares various alternatives for a project and
chooses which ensures best combination of economic and environmental costs + It is based on
precautionary principle + It is statutory backed by Environment protection act, 1986.
2. Advantages of EIA: Optimum utilization of resources + Environment safe development + It saves
time and cost of project + Risk assessment + Lessens conflict by community participation
3. Origin: EIA introduced by National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) in 1970 in USA.
4. History of EIA in India
• Till 1994-> EIA was an administrative decision + It lacked statutory backing.
• 1994: EIA under Environmental (Protection) Act,1986 -> EIA notification made environment
clearance mandatory for modernization of any activity + Setting up new projects listed in
schedule 1 of the notification.
5. EIA notification, 2006: notified under Environment (Protection) act, 1986 + It made mandatory
for activities like mining, thermal power plants, infrastructure to get environmental clearance + It is
responsibility of clearing certain projects on state government.
• Category A (National level appraisal by MoEFCC): Under this projects mandatorily require
clearance; don’t undergo screening process; they require both EIA and public hearing.
• Category B (State level appraisal by SEIAA, SEAC) undergo screening process + B1
(mandatorily requires EIA and public hearing) + B2 (Don’t require EIA and public hearing).
6. Amendment to EIA 2006 notification: Recategorization of all bulk drug manufacturers to category
B2->bulk drug manufacturers not require EIA as an interim measure.
7. EIA Process: After 2006, four steps: Screening, scoping, public hearing and appraisal.

8. Public hearing: Public must be informed on a proposed development after completion of EIA report
+ State Pollution Control Board will conduct public hearing before proposals sent to MoEF for
obtaining environmental clearance + Affected people entitled for access to executive summary.
o Procedure for public hearing: Proponents submit to concerned SPCB->notice of public
hearing-> composition of public hearing panel (representatives of SPCB, District collector,

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representative of state government, not more than 3 rep’s of local bodies, not more than 3
senior citizens nominated by collector).
9. Parameters of assessment: Impacts on fauna, water quality, air quality, protected areas, occupational
safety, displacement, biological such as deforestation and shrinkage of animal habitat.
10. Main participants of EIA: Applies to public and private sections + Six main players are proponents
of project, Pollution control board (State or National), public, Environment consultant, impact
assessment agency, regional centre of Ministry of Environment and Forest.
11. Exempted projects: Offshore and onshore oil, gas and shale exploration + Hydroelectric projects up
to 25 MW + Irrigation projects between 2,000 and 10,000 hectares of command area + Small and
medium cement plants + Acids other than phosphoric or ammonia, sulphuric acid + MSMEs in dye
and dye intermediates, bulk drugs, synthetic rubbers, medium-sized paint units + All inland waterway
projects and expansion or widening of highways between 25 km and 100 km with defined parameters
+ Aerial ropeways in ecologically sensitive areas + Specified building construction and area
development projects; built-up area up to 1,50,000 sq.m.
12. Indian Neutrino Observatory (Theni, Tamil Nadu) ruling: The project is categorized under
‘Category B’-> Only State level appraisal needed + Environment activists appealed to NGT as the
proposed project is considered to harm Mathikettan Shola bird sanctuary which is in the radius of
4.9 km of the proposed site + NGT mandated additional clearance of National Board for Wildlife
(NBWL) for setting up INO.
13. 2017 Amendment to EIA rules, 2006
• It increased the ambit of State government authorities to grant environmental clearances
especially Mining projects- Minor mineral and non-coal projects.
• State governments are empowered for river valley or irrigation projects.
• Change in irrigation technology but without increase in height.
14. Draft EIA notification, 2020: It attempts to replace existing EIA notification under EPA, 1986.
Key provisions are:
• Public hearing: Reduced from 30 to 20 days
• Exemption of projects from public scrutiny (classifies a number of projects into A, B1 and B2)
+ Strategic projects beyond purview of EIA.
• Post-Facto approval: Projects operating in violation of environment act now be able to apply
for clearance.
• Compliance report: Six-month norm reduced to submission once in a year by proponent.
• Others: Report prepared solely by project proponents + No public reporting for non-compliance
+ Penalty for the firms.
15. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA): It is a pro-active and comprehensive process which
identifies and evaluates significant environmental implications of particular plans to ensure that they
are fully considered at earlies stages of decision making + It can recommend changes within proposed
plans in coordination between relevant agencies, new cross-sectoral interventions and suggestions
for EIAs of future projects and improve their quality.
16. Rapid Environmental Impact Assessment: It takes data of only one season (excluding the monsoon
season).

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CHAPTER 25: INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS

1. CITES: It is also known as Washington convention is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered
plants and animals + It is entered into force in July 1975; 183 parties + Secretariat is
administered by UNEP and is located at Geneva, Switzerland.
• Aim: Ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not
threaten survival of species in wild-> bans hunting, capturing and selling of endangered
or threatened species.
• Functions
o Subjecting international trade in specimens of selected species to certain controls.
o All import, export, re-export and introduction from the sea of species covered by the
convention has to be authorized through a licensing system.
o Each party must designate one or more Management authorities in charge of
administering that licensing system and one or more scientific authorities to advise them
on the effects of trade on the status of the species.
• Conference of Parties (COP): Supreme decision-making body and comprises all its Parties.
• Legally binding: CITES is legally binding on the parties although it does not take place of
national laws.
• Appendix I: Species threatened with extinction-> trade permitted only in exceptional
circumstances.
• Appendix II: Species not necessarily threatened with extinction, but in which trade must be
controlled to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival.
• Appendix III: Species that are protected in at least one country, which has asked other CITES
parties for assistance in controlling trade.
2. TRAFFIC: It is a wildlife trade monitoring network and NGO working globally on the trade
of wild animals and plants + It is founded in 1976 as a strategic alliance of WWF and IUCN
headquartered at Cambridge, United Kingdom + It aims to ensure that trade in wild plants and
animals is not a threat to the conservation of nature.
• Governance: Governed by the TRAFFIC Committee, composed of members of
TRAFFIC's partner organizations, WWF and IUCN.
• It also works in close co-operation with the secretariat of CITES.
3. Convention on conservation of migratory species of wild animals (Bonn convention): It is an
international treaty concluded under aegis of UNEP + It provides a global platform for
conservation and sustainable use of migratory animals and their habitats + It is only legal
convention specializing in conservation of migratory species It is signed in 1979 in Bonn and
entered into force in 1983 + The headquarters are in Bonn, Germany; India is a party to CMS
since 1983.
• Appendix I: Migratory species threatened with extinction listed on it + The parties strive
towards strictly prohibiting these animals, conserving the places where they live.
• Appendix II: Migratory species that would significantly benefit from international co-
operation are listed.
• Key Highlights of 13th COP Summit, Gandhinagar Gujarat (2020)
o Gandhinagar Declaration: Calls for migratory species and concept of ‘ecological
connectivity’ to be integrated and prioritized in new framework.

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o First ever report on Status of Migratory species presented to CMS COP13.

o Great Indian Bustard, Asian Elephant and Bengal Florican classified as “Endangered
migratory species” (Appendix 1) by CMS.
o Animal culture linked to conservation for the first time at UN Wildlife conference in
India.
o Seven migratory species champions recognized: Germany, India, Italy, Monaco,
Norway, EU and the Environmental agency Abu Dhabi.
o Theme: Migratory species connect the planet and we welcome them home.
o Logo: Inspired by ‘Kolam’, a traditional artform from southern India.
o Mascot: The Great Indian Bustard is a critically endangered species which has been
accorded the highest protection status under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
o India is temporary home to several migratory animals and birds; important among them
include Amur Falcons, Bar headed Geese, black necked cranes, Dugongs,
Humpbacked whales etc.
4. UNCBD: It was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and
entered into effect in 1993 + Secretariat is based in Montreal, Canada + It calls upon all nations
to take appropriate measures for the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable utilization of
its benefits + It is a legally binding convention + 195 UN states and the European Union are
parties to the convention + All UN member states, with the exception of the United States, have
ratified the treaty + India enacted Biological Diversity act, 2002 for giving effect to the
provisions of CBD + Three main goals: Conservation of biological diversity; Sustainable use
of its components; and Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
• Cartagena protocol, 2000: The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from
the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern
biotechnology.
• Nagoya protocol, 2010: On Access to Genetic resources and Fair and Equitable sharing of
benefits arising from their utilization + Entered into force in 2014 + It provides a transparent
legal framework for effective implementation of Fair and equitable sharing of benefits
arising out of utilization of genetic resources.
• The Nagoya – Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol on Liability and Redress to the
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was ratified in the October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan. The
Supplementary Protocol establishes international guidelines and practices for living
modified organisms (LMOs) accountability and remedies.
• Conference of Parties (COP-15) : It commenced in Montreal, Canada on 7 December
2022. The two-weeklong conference (7-19 December 2022) was originally scheduled to be
held in Kunming, China in October but was shifted to Montreal, Canada due to covid
situation in China + The 14th meeting was held in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt (17-19
November 2018) + Parties to the CBD normally meet every two years.
• Kunming Declaration : It was adopted by over 100 countries at the ongoing 15th
Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity in
china. The adoption of the declaration will create momentum for a new global biodiversity
pact. It is not a binding international agreement. It calls for urgent and integrated action to
reflect biodiversity considerations in all sectors of the global economy
• Kunming Biodiversity Fund : China has also pledged to inject USD 233 million into a
new fund to protect biodiversity in developing countries. The fund is being referred to by
China as Kunming Biodiversity Fund.

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5. UN Forum on Forests: Established by ECOSOC to promote the management, conservation, and

sustainable development of all types of forests + Universal membership, and is composed of all
Member States of the United Nations and specialized agencies + It is headquartered at New
York, United States.
6. IUCN: It is a membership union uniquely composed of both government and civil society
organizations + It is created in 1948, it is the global authority on the status of the natural world +
It is headquartered in Switzerland + IUCN Red List of threatened Species, is the world's most
comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of plant and animal species.
7. Global Tiger Forum: Only intergovernmental platform of tiger range countries which has been
consolidating Tiger Action Plans of the range countries + It formed in 1993 on recommendations
of an international symposium on Tiger Conservation + Headquartered in New Delhi + 13
Tiger range countries consist of Malaysia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India,
Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand, and Vietnam.
8. Stockholm convention: Global treaty to protect human health and the environment from
POPs + It entered into force in 2004 + India ratified in 2006 + GEF is interim financial
mechanism + UNIDO is also responsible for supporting developing countries and countries with
economies in transition to implement the Stockholm Convention.
• Objectives
o Support the transition to safer alternatives.
o Target additional POPs for action.
o Cleanup old stockpiles and equipment containing POPs.
o Work together for a POPs-free future.
9. Basel Convention (Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their
Disposal): International treaty designed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between
nations, and specifically to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed
countries (LDCs) + It entered into force in 1992 + Haiti and the United States have signed the
Convention but not ratified it + It does not address movement of radioactive waste.
10. Rotterdam convention: On Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous
Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade + Multilateral treaty promotes open exchange
of information and calls on exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labeling, include
directions on safe handling, and inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans + Jointly
administered by FAO and UNEP.
11. Triple COP: Triple COPs meeting took place in Geneva, Switzerland, 2019 + They include Basel
convention (COP-14), Rotterdam convention (COP-9) and Stockholm convention (COP-9) +
Triple COPs convened under the theme “Clean Planet, Healthy people: Sound management of
chemicals and waste”.
12. International Whaling commission: International body set up under International Convention
for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW) + It aims to provide for the proper conservation of
whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly development of the whaling industry + 89
countries the membership of in IWC and all the member countries are signatories to this
convention + India is a member state of the IWC + Japan announced its withdrawal from the
International Whaling Commission (IWC) conservation body and it will resume commercial whale
hunting in its territorial waters and exclusive economic zones

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CHAPTER: SCHEMES RELATED TO ENVIRONMENT

1. Plastic park scheme: Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers approved setting up of 10 Plastic Parks in the
country + They will be set up in the states of: Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand,
Uttarakhand and Chhattisgarh + It is implemented by a Special purpose vehicle-> It should complete setting
up of the Plastic Park in a period of three years from the date of final approval + Major objectives are to
increase the competitiveness, polymer absorption capacity and value addition in the domestic downstream
plastic processing industry + Achieve environmentally sustainable growth through innovative methods of
waste management + Central Government provides grant funding up to 50% of the project cost, subject to a
ceiling of Rs. 40 crores per project.
2. City compost scheme: It was launched in 2016 + Implemented by the Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers
+ It aims to convert all organic waste generated in cities into compost or biogas and market the compost with
the help of fertilizer companies to benefit farmers + Provision has been made for Market development
assistance of Rs. 1500 per ton of city compost for scaling up production and consumption of the product.
3. India cooling action plan: It was launched in 2019 by MoEF&CC + It provides a 20-year perspective and
outlines actions needed to provide access to sustainable cooling + It seeks to reduce cooling demand across
sectors by 20% to 25% by 2037-38 + Reduce refrigerant demand by 25% to 30% by 2037-38 + Reduce
cooling energy requirements by 25% to 40% by 2037-38 + Recognise “cooling and related areas” as a thrust
area of research under national Science and Technology Programme + Training and certification of 100,000
servicing sector technicians by 2022-23, synergizing with Skill India Mission.
4. Green skill development program: It was launched as pilot project in 2017 by MoEFCC in partnership with
National Skill Development Agency (NSDA) to develop green skilled workers having technical knowledge
and commitment to sustainable development + It aims to train over 5.5 lakh workers in environment and
forest sectors in the country through 30 courses by 2021 for sustainable conservation and management of
natural resources.
5. Climate Resilience Building Among Farmers Through Crop Residue Management: It is a regional
project approved under National adaptation fund for climate change (NAFCC) by MoEF&CC + The project
aims to mitigate climate change impacts and enhance adaptive capacity and counter adverse environmental
impacts arising from stubble burning +The first phase of the project was approved for Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh and Rajasthan at cost of approximately Rs. 100 crores.
6. Green Energy Corridor Project: The Government approved the second phase of the Green Energy Corridor
with an outlay of ₹12,031 crore to facilitate grid integration and power evacuation of about 20 GW of
renewable energy projects in seven states + It aims at synchronizing electricity produced from renewable
sources, such as solar and wind, with conventional power stations in the grid + Intra-State Transmission
System is implemented by respective State Transmission Utilities (STU) and Inter-State Transmission System
implemented by Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd. (PGCIL).
7. Nagar Van Scheme: It is implemented by MoEF&CC + It aims to develop 200 Urban Forests across the
country in the next five years + It emphasizes on people’s participation and collaboration between the Forest
Department, Municipal bodies, NGOs, Corporates and local citizens + The scheme is financed through
CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016) funds
8. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) : CIFOR is a non-profit, scientific institution that
conducts research on the most pressing challenges of forest and landscape management around the world +
It aims to improve human well-being, protect the environment, and increase equity + It conducts innovative
research, develop partners’ capacity, and actively engage in dialogue with all stakeholders to inform policies
and practices that affect forests and people.
9. Cheetah mitras = Dedicated team of volunteers, trained by the forest department trained to create awareness
among the villagers about protecting cheetahs. Local mascot named Chintu Cheetah to sensitise locals.
10. Cheetah Task Force = It was constituted by MoEF&CC for a period of two years to monitor Cheetah
introduction in Kuno National Park, Madhya Pradesh, and other suitable designated areas.
11. Urban Waterbody Information System (UWAIS) : The UWaIS portal has been launched by the Ministry
of Housing & Urban Affairs with help from National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad + It will provide
satellite images of water bodies to various cities to plan their rejuvenation. 219 cities have been handed over
UWaIS + The Ministry has also shortlisted 76 start-ups under the ‘India Water Pitch-Pilot-Scale Start-Up

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Challenge’ + They will be provided financial support of up to ₹ 20 lakh each to work in the fields of water
supply, used water management, water body rejuvenation, etc.
12. Jaldoot App: Developed by: Ministry of Rural Development + The app will help in identifying the ground
water level in selected villages + For this, app will enable Gram Rojgar Sahayak (GRS) to measure the water
level of selected wells twice a year (pre-monsoon and post-monsoon) + Data collected could be utilised as
part of the Gram Panchayat Development Plan (GPDP) and Mahatma Gandhi NREGA planning exercises.
13. Trees Outside Forests In India Initiative : It was launched by Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate
Change and US Agency for International Development (USAID) to: Enhance carbon sequestration, Support
local communities, Strengthen climate resilience of agriculture + It will be implemented in seven states:
Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Haryana, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and UP + It will bring together farmers,
companies, and private institutions in India to rapidly expand tree coverage outside of traditional forests by
28 lakh hectares.
14. Kritagya 3.0 : It is a national level hackathon to promote speed breeding for crop improvement to ensure
overall sustainability and resilience in crop production in India + It gives an opportunity to
students/faculties/entrepreneurs/innovators and others to showcase their innovative approaches & technology
solutions + It will also encourage greater adoption of technology enabled solutions in the country + It is
organised by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) with its National Agricultural Higher
Education Project (NAHEP) and Crop Science Division.
15. Indian Virtual Herbarium (IVH) : IVH is a database of dried plants that maximizes the usefulness of the
collections + Apart from digital images, label data on each species include all information about the herbarium
specimen such as family, genus, species etc + Herbarium specimens are considered important tools for plant
taxonomy, conservation, habitat loss and even climate change + Developed by: Botanical Survey of India
(BSI) + BSI, under Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change, is apex taxonomic research
organization of the country.
16. Green Energy Open Access Rules = Ministry of Power notified the rules + Objective is to accelerate our
renewable energy programmes.

CHAPTER: MISCELLANEOUS- STATIC AND CURRENT AFFAIRS

1. MOEF&CC: It is nodal ministry for planning, promotion, coordination and overseeing the
implementation of India’s environment, forestry policies and programmes + Nodal agency in the country for
UNEP, SACEP, International centre for integrated mountain development program (ICIMDOP) and
UNCED.
• Major Objectives
o Conservation and survey of flora, fauna, forests and wildlife
o Prevention and control of pollution
o Afforestation and regeneration of degraded areas
o Protection of the environment and
o Ensuring the welfare of animals
2. CCAMLR: It is an international convention established in 1982 aimed at preserving species diversity and
stability of the entire Antarctic marine ecosystem + It is part of the Antarctic treaty system+ Headquartered
at Tasmania, Australia + It is signed by 14 states and ratified by 35 states including India and the European
Community + Established in response to concerns that increasing krill fishing activities + India is a permanent
member of the since 1986 + In India work is coordinated by Ministry of Earth Sciences through its attached
office CMLRE in Kochi + It does not prohibit reasonable harvesting.
3. CLRTAP: Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution + It is an international convention on
controlling Air Pollution + It came into force in March 1983 and has 51 parties + Formed within the ECE,

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the UN Economic Commission for Europe, United States and Canada + Aimed initially to reduce effects of
acid rain through control of the emissions of sulphur, later widened to include nitrogen pollutants, VOCs and
photochemical oxidants.
4. Gothenburg Protocol: It is also known as Multi-effect protocol + It aims to abate acidification,
eutrophication and ground level ozone + Adopted by the countries of UNECE on 30 November 1999 + It is
a part of the convention on long Range Transboundary Air Pollution + It sets emission ceilings for four
pollutants Sulphur, NOx, VOCs and ammonia + By July 2019, the revised protocol had finally been ratified
by the needed eighteen Parties, and it entered into force on 7 October 2019.
5. Water (Prevention and control of pollution) act, 1974: It provides for prevention and control of water
pollution and for maintenance of wholesomeness of water in the country + It was amended in 1988.
• Important Provisions:
o Establishment of Central, state and joint pollution control Boards for the prevention and control of
water pollution
o to evolve methods of utilization of sewage and suitable trade effluents in agriculture
o to inspect sewage or trade effluents, works, and plants for the treatment of sewage and trade effluents
o It vests regulatory authority in SPCBs to establish and enforce effluent standards for factories.
o The Act grants power to SPCB and CPCB to test equipment and to take the sample for the purpose
of analysis.
6. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977: To provide for levy and collection of cess
on water consumed by persons operating and carrying on certain types of industrial activities + Augment
resources of Central board and State boards for prevention and control of water pollution under Water act,
1974 + Creates economic incentives for pollution control and requires local authorities and certain designated
industries to pay a cess for water effluent discharge + Act gives a polluter a 70% rebate of the applicable
cessupon installing effluent treatment equipment.
7. Air (Prevention and control of pollution) act, 1981: It was enacted to implement decisions taken at
Stockholm conference in 1972 + Aimed to improve quality of air and to prevent, control, and abate air
pollution + Expanded authority of the central and state boards established under the Water act to include air
pollution control.
• Important Provisions
o Definitions of the terms: Section 2(a) defines an ‘air pollutants’ as any solid liquid or gaseous
substance which may cause harm or damage the environment, humans, plants, animals, or even
damage property + It defines air pollution as presence of any dangerous pollutant that makes the air
unbreathable + 1987 amendment also added ‘noise’ to the list of harmful substances.
o Demarcation of high pollution areas: Declaration of certain heavily polluted areas as Air pollution
control area and no industrial plant shall be operated in these areas without prior consent of the State
Pollution Control Board.
o Emission control: The State Government and the respective Boards may give instructions to under
the Motor Vehicles Act, 1939 to ensure emission standards for automobiles.
o Consent from state board: All industries operating within designated air pollution control areas must
obtain a “consent” (permit) from the State Boards.
o States not having water pollution boards were required to set up air pollution boards.
o Amendment act empowered SPCB and CPCB to close a defaulting industrial plant.
o The 1987 amendment introduced a citizen’s suit provision into the Air Act and extended the Act to
include noise pollution.
o Penalties: failure to comply with CPCB directives would result in imprisonment of 1 year + It is
extendable to 6 years with a fine with the additional fine of Rs 5000 per day.
8. Joint Forest Management: Village communities are entrusted with the protection and management of
nearby forests + They are required to organize forest protection committees, village forest committees, village
forest conservation and development societies + It has been in formal existence since 1988 when the
state of Orissa passed the first resolution for joint forest management + Example include Mundas
and the Santhals of Chotanagpur region worship Mahua and Kadamba trees and the tubes of Orissa
and Bihar worship the Tamarind and many trees during weddings.

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9. Deemed Forests: Concept not clearly defined in any law including the Forest Conservation Act of 1980; SC
in case of T N Godavarman Thirumalpad (1996) accepted a wide definition of forests under the Act- It covered
all statutorily recognised forests, whether designated as reserved, protected or otherwise for the purpose of
Section 2 (1) of the Forest Conservation act.
10. Blue Flag Beaches: It is an eco-label awarded to beaches, marinas, and sustainable boat tourism operators
that meet a comprehensive set of requirements awarded by Denmark based non-profit organization
called Foundation for Environmental Education (awarded by a jury comprising members from the IUCN,
UNWTO, UNEP, and UNESCO) + It was started in France; South Africa became the first country outside of
Europe to join the program + Spain has the largest number of blue flag beaches + Blue flag beaches should
provide clean and hygienic bathing water, along with basic infrastructure for tourists + Puri beach on the
Konark coast, Odisha is Asia’s first beach to get the Blue Flag certification.
• Parameters used: Based on 33 parameters divided into 4 major categories:
o Environmental education and information
o Bathing water quality
o Environmental management
o Conservation and safety services on the beaches
• Ten beaches awarded Blue flag certification in India [October 2022]
o Golden Beach, Odisha + Shivrajpur Beach, Gujarat + Kappad Beach, Kerala + Ghoghla Beach, Diu
+ Radhanagar Beach, Andaman and Nicobar + Kasarkod Beach, Karnataka + Padubidri Beach,
Karnataka + Rushikonda Beach, Andhra Pradesh + Kovalam Beach, Tamil Nadu + Eden Beach,
Puducherry + Minicoy Thundi Beach – Lakshadweep + Kadmat Beach – Lakshadweep

11. BEAMS initiative: India has launched its own eco-label BEAMS (Beach Environment & Aesthetics
Management Services) under ICZM project of MoEF&CC for sustainable development of coastal regions of
India to protect and conserve the pristine coastal and marine ecosystems and for achieving the globally
recognizedand the coveted international eco-label blue flag.
• Objectives:
o Abate pollution in coastal waters.
o Promote sustainable development of beach facilities.

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o Protect and conserve coastal ecosystems & natural resources.

o Strive and maintain high standards of cleanliness,
o Hygiene and safety for beachgoers in accordance with coastal environment regulations.
12. Atal Bhujal yojana: It is a central sector scheme launched by Ministry of Jal Shakti aimed to improve
groundwater management in certain priority areas through community participation + Assisted by the World
Bank and is implemented from 2020-21 to 2024-25 + It covers Alluvial and hard rock aquifers + It envisages
people's participation through the formation of Water User Associations, implementation of Gram-panchayat-
wise water security plans, etc.
• Priority areas: Water deficit areas of Central and Western India; priority areas are Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh.
• Implementation: Central Government bears 50% of the cost and World Bank provide the remaining 50%
as a loan; government will provide 50% of the money to the gram panchayats and states as the incentives
for dealing with the proper usage and conservation of groundwater; funds will be made available to the
states in the form of grants.
13. Sand Mining: Sand is a minor mineral under Mines and Mineral (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957
+ Section 15 of act->complete powers to respective state governments regarding formation of rules related to
grant of mining leases of minor minerals; Section 23C-> empowers state government to frame rules to prevent
illegal mining.
14. Ocean Deoxygenation: It is the phenomenon of oxygen loss in ocean caused by excessive growth of algae
due to nutrient pollution caused by fertilizers, sewage, animal or aquaculture waste.
• Ocean Deoxygenation: Everyone’s problem: IUCN released this report at COP-25 of UNFCCC.
o The levels of oxygen in oceans fell by around 2 per cent from 1960 to 2010.
o Volume of area depleted with oxygen (dead zones) have quadrupled.
o Climate change and Nutrient pollution are main drivers of ocean oxygen loss.
15. Dead zones: Excess nutrient pollution in oceans create a situation of hypoxia i.e, reduction in availability of
oxygen in water, referred as Dead zones.
• Nutrients-> algae-> decomposition-> oxygen depletion.
• Largest dead zone: Gulf of Oman is largest dead zone lies in Arabian sea.
16. Mercury pollution: Mercury is global and ubiquitous metal that occurs naturally and has broad uses +
Human activities like mining and fossil fuel combustion have led to widespread global mercury pollution.
• Sources of pollution: Element in earth’s crust, natural sources like volcanic eruptions and emissions from
ocean; anthropogenic sources include coal burning power plants, burning hazardous waste, producing
chlorine, breaking mercury products and spilling mercury.
• Harmful effects: It is considered as one of top ten hazardous chemicals of major public health concern
(WHO) + Bio-accumulates and bio-magnify in food chain + Methy mercury is neurotoxin which impacts
function and development of central nervous system + The reproductive problems (fish have difficult
schooling and decrease spawning success) + It impairs mammals motor skills which affect their ability
to hunt.
17. Minamata Convention: It is an international treaty signed in 2013 aimed to protect human health and the
environment from anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and its compounds + It also
addresses interim storage of mercury and its disposal once it becomes waste + It is agreed at 5th session
of Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee in Geneva, Switzerland and entered into force in 2017 + More
than 140 countries including India have ratified the convention.
• Major highlights of the convention:
o Ban on new mercury mines
o Phase-out of existing mercury mines
o Control mercury air emissions from coal-fired power plants, certain non-ferrous metals production,
cement production etc.
o Regulation of the informal sector of artisanal and small-scale gold mining.
o Phase out to reduce mercury use in certain products such as batteries, switches, pesticides etc.
o Provision for technical assistance, information exchange, public awareness and research and
monitoring.

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• Others: Convention gives five-year time to India to control and reduce emissions from new power plants
and 10 years-time for already existing power plants.
18. Secure Himalaya project: It is a six-year project launched by MoEFCC in association with UNDP to ensure
conservation of locally and globally significant biodiversity, land and forest resources in high Himalayan
ecosystem spread over four states viz. Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Sikkim;
TRAFFIC is a partnering agency.
• Focus areas: Protection of snow leopard and other endangered species and their habitats and also securing
livelihoods of people in region.
• Landscapes: Specific landscapes including Changthang (Jammu and Kasmir), Lahaul – Pangi and
Kinnaur (Himachal Pradesh), Gangotri – Govind and Darma – Byans Valley in Pithoragarh (Uttarakhand)
and Kanchenjunga – Upper Teesta Valley (Sikkim).
19. BEE Star labelling: Formulated by Bureau of Energy efficiency under Energy Conservation Act, 2001,
launched in 2006 + Measure of energy efficiency of an appliance + Five-point scale-> higher rating, lower
energy consumption; covered 24 appliances (ACs, fans, color TV, computer, industrial motor etc).
20. National clean energy fund: It was launched in 2010-11 to fund research and innovative projects in clean
energy technology of public or private entities up to extent of 40% of total project cost + It is created out of
cess on coal produced under the “polluter pays” principle.
• Eligibility: Any project relating to innovative methods to adopt to Clean Energy technology and R&D
are eligible for funding under the NCEF.
• Assistance is available as a loan or as a viability gap funding as deemed by Inter-Ministerial group.
• Non-lapsable fund under public accounts and with its secretariat in DoE, Ministry of Finance.
• Inter-Ministerial Group, chaired by the Finance Secretary recommends projects eligible for funding under
NCEF.
21. National wildlife action plan (2017-31): MoEFCC unveiled third Wildlife Action Plan for to chalk out road
map for wildlife conservation + It is the first wildlife action plan to recognize concerns related to climate
change impact on wildlife.
• Key focus areas include integration of climate change into wildlife planning, conservation of coastal and
marine ecosystem, focus on wildlife health among others.
• Climate change: Recommends assisted migration of wildlife and anticipatory planting along ecological
gradients, as climate change may result in die-offs of certain tree species.
• Landscape approach: It adopts landscape approach in conservation of all wildlife – uncultivated flora and
fauna that have an ecological value to ecosystem and to mankind irrespective of where they occur.
• People’s support: Recommends eco-development, education, innovation, training, extension, and
conservation awareness and outreach programs.
• Participation of private sector: increased role of private sector in wildlife conservation; adequate and
sustained funding including CSR funds are made available for implementation.
22. Global warming potential of gases:

23. Green House Gases (GHGs) in terms of quantity:

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24. State of India’s birds 2020: Released at the 13th COP to convention on conservation of migratory species
of wild animals at Gandhinagar, Gujarat + The report produced in partnership of 10 global organizations:

• Key points
o It is first comprehensive assessment of distribution range and conservation status for most of bird
species in India.
o Categorised 101 species as “high concern”, 319 as “moderate concern” and 442 into “low concern”.
o Over 50% of 867 species studied, exhibit a population decline in the long term while 146 are at great
risk in the short term.
o Greatest decline seen in raptors, migratory shorebirds, and habitat specialists, including White-
rumped Vulture, Richard’s Pipit, Indian Vulture, Large-billed Leaf Warbler, Pacific Golden Plover
and Curlew Sandpiper.
o Endemics such as Rufous-fronted Prinia, Nilgiri Thrush, Nilgiri pipt and Indian vulture are suffering
current decline.
o Common Sparrow has a stable population + Indian peafowl are rising in numbers; rise in Great Indian
Bustards population.
o The species that have shown an increase in numbers include Rosy Starling, Feral Pigeon, Glossy Ibis,
Plain Prinia and the Ashy Prinia
o Key challenges to birds: Loss of habitat due to human activity, toxin presence including pesticides,
hunting and trapping for pet trade.
25. Indian Swamp deer (Barasingha): It is the state animal of Madhya Pradesh + It is distributed throughout
Indian subcontinent especially at Kanha national park and tiger reserve (KNPTR) + Endemic to south-western
Nepal and Central and northeastern India + It is called as dolhorina in Assamese + Locally extinct in Pakistan
and Bangladesh.
• Conservation status: IUCN Red List: Endangered, CITES: Appendix I, WPA, 1972: Schedule I
• Three sub-species found in Indian sub-continent
o Western swamp deer found in Nepal
o Southern swamp deer found in central and North India
o Eastern swamp deer found in Kaziranga and Dudhwa national parks.

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26. Bio char: It is a high-carbon, fine-grained residue which is produced through pyrolysis processes + It
produces a mixture of solids (the biochar proper), liquid (bio-oil), and gas (syngas) products.
• Benefits: Increase soil fertility of acidic soils, protection against foliar and soil-borne diseases, carbon
sink, water retention (hygroscopic), increase output in vertical farming, boost natural ability of legumes
to fix nitrogen in soil.
27. Nagarjunasagar srisailam tiger reserve: Largest tiger reserve in India notified in 1978 + It is spread over
five districts in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana + Srisailam and Nagarjunasagar multipurpose reservoirs are
located in the reserve + Krishna river cuts through the reserve + It is largest area under ‘critical tiger habitat’.
• Fauna: Bengal Tiger, leopard, rusty-spotted cat, Mugger crocodiles etc.
• Flora: Forests range from southern tropical dry mixed deciduous to shrubs and bamboo thickets.
28. Microbeads: These are tiny pieces of non-biodegradable plastic measuring less than 1mm + It made up of
polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and nylon + It is used as exfoliating
agents, scrubbers in cosmetics and in various personal care products such as toothpaste, lip gloss, shaving
creams etc + Fish ingest and gets accumulated into digestive tracts.
29. Agasthyamala Biosphere reserve: It is located in western ghats consisting mostly of tropical forest + It is
themost diverse ecosystems in peninsular India and constitutes an important biogeographical ‘hot spot’ within
the Western Ghats + Shendurney, Peppara and Neyyar wildlife sanctuaries located in the site, as well as
Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger reserve.
• Flora: Unique genetic reservoir of cultivated plants like cardamom, jamune, nutmeg, pepper and plantain.
• Fauna: home to about 79 species of mammals of which 20 are endemic, 88 species of reptiles of which
45 are endemic and 46 species of fishes including 10 endemics.
30. Partnership for action on green economy (PAGE): direct response to Rio + 20 Declaration, Future we
want + Joint collaboration of UNEP, UNDP, ILO, UNIDO, UNITAR + It is a mechanism to coordinate UN
action on green economy and assist countries in achieving and monitoring emerging SDGs.
31. Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture (GACSA): Inclusive, voluntary and action-oriented multi-
stakeholder platform on climate smart agriculture (CSA) + It started working in 2014 + No binding
obligations and each member individually determines the nature of participation + India is a signatory to
GACSA.
32. Global climate change alliance: Initiative of the European Union + It is launched in 2007 to strengthen
dialogue and cooperation on climate change between EU and Least Developed Countries (LDCs) and Small
Island Developing States (SIDS), which are hardest hit by the adverse effects of climate change.
33. Kharai camel: Unique breed of camels found only in Kachchh region of Gujarat + It has special ability to
survive on dry land and sea + It feed on saline plants and mangroves + It is distinct from other camels-
rounded back, long and thin legs and small feet + It can swim up to 3kms + It also known as dariyataru + It
is adapted to extreme climate of desert and high salinity + Major threats are industries in Kutch region such
as salt, thermal power and cement industries + Conservation status: IUCN (Endangered); WPA (Schedule 1).
34. TEEB initiative: It is a global initiative focused on “making nature’s values visible” + Its principal objective
is mainstream the values of biodiversity and ecosystem services into decision-making at all levels + It is based
in Geneva, Switzerland at the International Environment House + It is hosted by UNEP under ETB of the
Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE).
35. Agenda 21: It is a non-binding action plan of UN dealing with sustainable development + It is anoutcome of
UNCED held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992 + Its major objective is that every local government should
draw its own local agenda 21.
36. Great Indian Hornbill: It also known as great pied hornbill + It is one of the largest members of hornbill
family + It is found in Indian sub-continent and South-east Asia + It is predominantly fruit-eating but
opportunist also feeds on reptiles and birds+ It can live for nearly 50 years in captivity + Its significant
proportion in Western Ghats and Nilgiris + It is referred as ‘forest engineers’ or ‘farmers of the forest’ for
playing a key role in dispersing seeds of tropical trees + IUCN status is vulnerable and listed in Appendix 1
of CITES + Major threat is they are hunted for their casques and illegal logging.
37. Biocarbon fund initiative: It is a multilateral fund supported by donor governments and managed by World
Bank + It promotes and rewards reduced GHG emissions through better land management, including REDD

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+ Climate smart agriculture + It wasestablished in 2013 + It supported by Germany, Norway, Switzerland,

UK and USA.
38. Birdlife International: It is a global partnership of conservation organisations that strives to conserve birds,
their habitats + It is theworld’s largest conservation partnerships for conservation of birds and their habitats
+ Its global office in United Kingdom + It publishes a quarterly magazine called as World Birdwatch (official
red list authority for birds for IUCN) + It also publish important bird areas (IBA) inventory.
39. Rio + 20 conference: It also known as United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development + 20-year
follow-up to Earth Summit 1992 and 10-year follow-up to the Earth Summit 2002 + It held in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil in 1992 + It reaffirmed the commitment to Agenda 21 + It bring together governments, international
institutions and NGOs for poverty reduction, clean energy and sustainable development.
40. Goldilocks zone: Habitable zone, area around a star where it is not too hot and not too cold for liquid water
to exist on the surface of surrounding planets + Earth is in Sun’s goldilocks zone.
41. Coal-bed methane: Unconventional form of natural gas found in coal deposits or coal seams + It was formed
during the process of coalification + Its applications in power generation, CNG auto fuel, cement production,
methanol production etc + India’s CBM resources are estimated at around 92 trillion cubic feet + Damodar
Koel valley and Son valley are prospective areas for CBM development.
42. Earth Hour: It is WWF annual initiative for environment conservation + Encourages people from more than
180 countries to switch off the lights from 8.30 pm to 9.30 pm as per their local time + It was started in 2007
held every year on the last saturday of March + It is aimed to call attention to global warming, loss of
biodiversity, and climate change + Theme for 2021 is “Climate Change to Save Earth”.
43. Moringa: It is non-leguminous, green leafy fast-growing deciduous plant native to the Indian subcontinent +
India is largest producer + Common names include moringa, drumstick tree, horseradish tree, and ben oil tree
+ It has its nutritional, medicinal, culinary uses.
44. Water credit: It is an initiative of [Link] + It is a global non-profit organization+ powerful solution and
the first to put microfinance tools to work in the water and sanitation sector + It bring small loans to those
who need access to affordable financing and expert resources to make household water and toilet solutions a
reality.
45. R2 Code of practices: Promote adoption of environmentally responsible practices in electronics recycling
industry + R2 stands for Responsible Recycling and is a standard specifically created for the electronics
recycling industry by Sustainable Electronics Recycling International (SERI).
46. Blue carbon: It refers to coastal, aquatic and marine carbon sinks held by vegetation, marine organisms and
sediments + Seagrasses, mangroves, and marshes are types of vegetated coastal blue carbon ecosystems.
47. New York declaration on forests: It is a voluntary and non-binding international declaration to take action
to halt global deforestation + It was endorsed at UN Climate Summit in September 2014 + It emphasize
ten goals which includes halting natural forest loss by 2030 + It also include restoring 350 million hectares of
degraded landscapes and forestlands, improving governance, increasing forest finance etc as part of a post-
2020 global climate agreement + India has not signed the declaration.
48. Common carbon metric: Protocol developed by UNEP Sustainable buildings & climate Initiative (UNEP-
SBCI) for measuring energy use & reporting GHG emissions from building Operations + It support GHG
emissions reductions through accurate measurement of energy efficiency improvements in building
operations.
49. UN Capital Development Fund: Established by UNGA in 1966 + It provide microfinance access to LDCs
+ Autonomous, voluntarily funded UN organization affiliated with UNDP + It is headquartered at New York,
United States.
50. Emission Gap Report, 2022: Published by UNEP + The top 7 emitters (China, the EU27, India, Indonesia,
Brazil, the Russian Federation and the United States of America) of GHG + Collectively, G20 members are
responsible for 75% of global GHG (Greenhouse Gas Emission) emissions + World is falling short of the
goals set forth in the Paris Climate Agreement adopted in 2015, with no credible pathway to 1.5°C in place.
51. Adaptation Gap Report, 2022: Published by UNEP + A third of the 197 parties to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) have incorporated quantified and time-bound targets
on adaptation. And 90% of them have considered gender and disadvantaged groups + International adaptation
finance flows are 5-10 times lower than required and this gap continues to grow.

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52. Climate change performance index (CCPI), 2022 : It is compiled by Germanwatch, New Climate Institute,
and Climate Action Network + Monitors climate mitigation progress of 60 countries and European Union +
No country performs well enough in all index categories to achieve an overall very high rating + India has
been ranked amongst top 5 countries in the world, and the best among the G20 countries + Denmark, Sweden,
Chile and Morocco were the only four small countries that were ranked above India as 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th
respectively + The ranking given by CCPI places India as the only G-20 country in the top 10 rankers.

53. CARE Project: It is an initiative of World Bank + It will build resilience to climate threats and disasters by
sharing regional data and knowledge + It fund technology to support resilience in South Asia + It works with
two regional organizations, the Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard Early Warning System for Africa and Asia
(RIMES) and Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC).
54. CSCAF 2.0: An initiative of Ministry of Housing and Urban affairs + Itintends to inculcate a climate-
sensitive approach to urban planning and development in India + Climate Centre for
Cities under National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) is supporting MoHUA in implementation +
It has28 indicators across 5 categories Energy and green Buildings, Urban planning, Green cover &
biodiversity, Mobility and air Quality, Water management, Waste management.
55. IFLOWS-Mumbai: It is an integrated Flood Warning System + It is a joint initiative between MoES and
Municipal corporation of Greater Mumbai + It relay alerts of possible flood-prone areas between six to 72
hours in advance + It incorporate weather models from NCMRWF and IMD + Mumbai is the second city
after Chennai to get this system.
56. Green Crackers : Green crackers cause 30 per cent less air pollution as compared to traditional ones + They
reduce emissions substantially and absorb dust and don’t contain hazardous elements like barium nitrate +
There are three categories of green crackers: SWAS - Safe Water Releaser, STAR – Safe Thermite Cracker,
SAFAL – Safe Minimal Aluminium + These can be produced by licensed manufacturers, approved by CSIR
+ Trees and forests can be restored using ANR at less than a third of the cost of tree planting, based on WRI
estimates + Can restore much more land, much more quickly, as it requires very little human intervention.
57. Glyphosate = Government has restricted use of glyphosate except for Pest Control Operators + It is a non-
selective herbicide (it will kill most plants), used to clear all kind of weeds from agricultural fields + It
prevents the plants from making certain proteins that are needed for plant growth + The major consumption
is done in orchards and plantation crops.
58. World Green City Award 2022 = Hyderabad city won the overall ‘World Green City Award 2022’ and
‘Living Green for Economic Recovery and Inclusive Growth’ award + The results are announced by The
InternationalAssociation of Horticulture Producers.
59. World Energy Outlook = Released annually by International Energy Agency (IEA) + World is in the midst
of the first global energy crisis, triggered by Russia's invasion of Ukraine + India is likely to see world's
biggest rise in energy demand this decade, with demand climbing 3 per cent annually + Outlook projects
continued expansion in coal generation (in absolute terms) in India, peaking around 2030.

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60. State of Climate Action Report 2022 = Released by: Climate Action Tracker (an independent analytic group
comprising Climate Analytics and New Climate Institute), the United Nations High-Level Climate Change
Champions, World Resources Institute and others + It provides a comprehensive assessment of the global gap
in climate action across the world’s highest emitting systems.
61. Breakthrough Agenda Report 2022 = It has been released by the International Energy Agency, the
International Renewable Energy Agency and the UN Climate Change High-Level Champions + This is a
first-of-its-kind annual progress report, requested at the UN Climate Change Conference COP26 in November
2021 as part of the launch of the Breakthrough Agenda (BA) + The BA currently covers more than 2/3rd of
the global economy, including G7, China and India.
62. World Water Development Report 2022 = It was released by UNESCO + It was officially launched by the
UNESCO Director-General at the 9th World Water Forum in Dakar, Senegal.
63. Swachh Sujal Pradesh = Andaman and Nicobar (A&N) Islands have become India’s first Swachh Sujal
Pradesh + Swachh Sujal Pradesh certification (by Ministry of Jal Shakti) has three important components as:
Safe and secure drinking water supply and management, ODF (open defecation free) Plus, Cross-cutting
interventions like convergence, IEC (Information, Education Communication), action planning, etc. + All
villages on A&N Islands have received Har Ghar Jal certification.
64. Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) Report Card, 2022 = World Metrological Organisation recently
released it + Report has been released annually since 2017 in partnership with Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO (IOC-UNESCO) and other GOOS partners + GOOS is a permanent
global system for observations, modeling, and analysis of marine and ocean data + It highlighted biological
observations for the first time and identifies gap in system + It pointed at inequality in operational services
across oceans like Indian, Atlantic and Southern Ocean.
65. International Argo program = It maintains global array of about 3,800 floats that measure pressure,
temperature and salinity of upper 2,000 metres of world’s ocean + This is a major component of both GOOS
and Global Climate Observing System, providing near real time data (on temperature, salinity) for ocean and
atmospheric services.
66. Carbon Capture And Storage (CCS) : Norway is building world's first open-access CCS infrastructure on
Norway's North Sea coast + It will allow any emitter that has captured his CO2 emissions to deliver that CO2
for safe handling, transport and storage + CCS is a way of reducing carbon emissions, which could be key to
helping to tackle global warming
67. Rule Curve : As per Tamil Nadu Water Resources Organisation, Mullaperiyar is first reservoir to have Rule
Curve implemented in country + Rule Curve is a tabulation which specifies quantum of storage of water or
empty space to be maintained in a reservoir during different times of year, based on the rainfall data for 35
years + Under Rule Curve method, water is not allowed to be stored to permissible maximum level at the
time when reservoir receives huge inflows.
68. Per And Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) : New research suggests that rainwater around the world is
contaminated by PFAS + PFAS are chemicals that have partially or completely fluorinated carbon chains of
varied lengths + Due to these strong carbon-fluorine bonds, they do not degrade easily in the environment
and are often referred to as “forever chemicals” + PFAS like perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and
perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) are listed under Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants and
their production and use are restricted or eliminated in the Parties.
69. Arctic Amplification = Arctic is heating up 4 times as fast as rest of world + It refers to enhancement of
near-surface air temperature change over Arctic relative to lower latitudes + Global warming, Ice-albedo
feedback, lapse rate feedback, water vapour feedback and ocean heat transport are primarycauses of AA.
70. Strong Thermal Emission Velocity Enhancement (STEVE) : It is a puzzling aurora-like phenomenon that
leads into a purple streak of light + Auroras are caused by interaction of energetic particles of solar wind
with atoms of upper atmosphere + Aurora occurs primarily in high latitudes of both hemispheres + STEVE
appears significantly lower in the atmosphere unlike the typical auroras + STEVE first appeared in 2017 and
has been appearing often since + It has been observed in New Zealand, Canada, Alaska and UK between
October to February.
71. Zombie Ice = Zombie ice from massive Greenland ice sheet will eventually raise global sea level by at least
10 inches + Zombie or doomed ice is ice that is still attached to thicker areas of ice, but is no longer getting

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fed by those larger glaciers because parent glaciers are getting less replenishing snow + Without
replenishment, zombie ice is melting from climate change and will inevitably raise seas.
72. Tonga Volcano : According to a new study, Volcanic eruption in Tonga (January 2022) is likely to add to
global warming and depletion of Earth’s ozone layer + Generally, volcanic eruptions have a cooling effect on
atmosphere as particles spewed from volcanoes shades incoming solar radiation + Underwater eruption of
Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcano injected 146 teragrams (1 teragram equals a trillion grams) of water
vapour (a greenhouse gas) into the stratosphere + Excess stratospheric H2O will persist for years, could affect
stratospheric chemistry and dynamics and may lead to surface warming.
73. Aridity Anomaly Outlook Index = At least 85% of districts were facing arid conditions across India,
according to the Aridity Anomaly Outlook Index for July, issued by India Meteorological Department (IMD)
+ Aridity Anomaly Index is the departure of aridity index value from normal (expressed in percentage) +
Aridity Index refers to the water stress suffered by a growing plant due to shortage of available moisture (both
rainfall and soil moisture), calculated as the percentage of annual water deficit to annual water need or annual
potential evapotranspiration.

Species in News
Ø Cheetah: The cheetah is the fastest land animal, which has the fastest running speed record of 93 and 98
km/h (58 and 61 mph) + It is considered to be a big cat and belongs to the Felidae family + They have a small
rounded head, a lightly built body, and a roundly spotted coat + They have long thin limbs and long tails.
Difference between Africa Cheetah and Asiatic Cheetah
Parameter African Cheetah Asiatic Cheetah
IUCN Status Vulnerable Critically Endangered
CITES Status Appendix I Appendix I
Habitat Around 6,500-7,000 African cheetahs 40-50 found only in Iran.
present in the wild.
Physical Features Bigger in size as compared to Asiatic
Smaller and paler than the African
Cheetah. cheetah. Has more fur, a smaller
head and a longer neck. Usually
have red eyes and they have a
more cat-like appearance

Ø Black Leopard = or Black Panther (Ghost of the Forest) is a melanistic colour variant of spotted any Panthera,
particularly of the leopard in Asia and Africa, and the jaguar in the Americas + Found mainly in Southwestern
China, Burma, Nepal, Southern India, Indonesia, and the southern part of Malaysia(I.e mainly in the regions
with the highest rainfall and dense foliage) + Most of the records about the existence of black leopards in
India has been from North East India and Western Ghats + Sightings of rare Black Leopard (Melanistic
Leopard) were reported in Navegaon Nagzira Tiger Reserve (NNTR), Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve, Pench
Tiger Reserve in Maharashtra and the Nagarhole National Park (kabini) in Karnataka + IUCN Status:
Vulnerable
Ø Fishing Cat = Nocturnal (active at night) + In India, fishing cats are mainly found in the mangrove forests of
the Sundarbans, on the foothills of the Himalayas along the Ganga and Brahmaputra river valleys and in the
Western Ghats + Despite multiple threats, the Fishing Cat was recently down listed to “Vulnerable” from
“Endangered” in the IUCN Red List species assessment + Appendix II of CITES + In 2012, the West Bengal
government officially declared the Fishing Cat as the State Animal + Earlier, Wildlife Institute of India (WII-
Dehradun) and the Andhra Pradesh Forest Department are has planned for a maiden exercise of collaring 10
fishing cats in the Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary(Andhra Pradesh). The project aims to capture the fishing cats
and collaring them with light weight equipment containing the Geographical Information System + Recently,

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Chilika Development Authority (CDA) designated the Fishing Cat as ambassador of Chilika Lake, Odisha in
a step towards conservation of the feline species
Ø Gangetic Dolphin = Popularly known as ‘Susu’ of rivers + Only live in freshwater and are essentially blind
+ They are reliable indicator of the health of the entire river ecosystem + It is also National Aquatic Animal
of India + It can be found in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sangu river systems of Nepal,
India, and Bangladesh + In India, it covers seven states namely, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal + It prefer deep waters, in and around the confluence + Major
threats to dolphins in India include overfishing in the habitat, pollution, infrastructure etc. + Gangetic dolphins
are one among the 21 species identified under the centrally sponsored scheme, “Development of Wildlife
Habitat” + India’s national aquatic animal (declared in 2009) + IUCN: Endangered + Schedule I of WPA,1972
& Appendix 1 of CITES + The species is a reliable indicator of the health of the entire river ecosystem + The
Gangetic Dolphin is endemic to the Indian sub-continent and has a fairly extensive distribution range. It is
found in the Ganga -Brahmaputra - Meghna and Karnaphuli- Sangu river systems of India and Bangladesh,
while a few individuals survive in the Karnali, and the Sapta Kosi Rivers in Nepal + It is blind and finds its
way and prey in river waters through echolocation + Being a mammal, the Ganges River dolphin cannot
breathe in water and must surface every 30-120 seconds + It is one of four freshwater dolphin species in the
world. The other three are: 'Baiji' in Yangtze River in China (Functionally extinct since 2006) + 'Boto' in
Amazon River + 'Bhulan' in Indus River in Pakistan
Ø Rescue guide for Ganges River Dolphin = released by Jal shakti Ministry + The document has been
prepared by the Turtle Survival Alliance and the Environment, Forest and Climate Change Department
(EFCCD) of the Uttar Pradesh Government + The manual is endorsed by the IUCN Cetacean Specialist Group
(IUCN/SSC Cetacean Specialist Group (CSG) is one of the more than 100 Specialist Groups and Task Forces
that constitute the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC)) + Please Note: Cetaceans are aquatic mammals
constituting the infraorder Cetacea, including whales, dolphins, and porpoises
Ø National Dolphin Research Centre(NDRC) = India's and Asia's first National Dolphin Research Centre
(NDRC) is coming up in the premises of Patna University, Bihar + centre is being set up on banks of Ganges,
as per recommendation of a steering committee constituted for implementation of Project Dolphin + As per
the committee, Bihar had a natural advantage as it accounted for 50% of the world’s river dolphin population
+ It was first time proposed in 2011.
Ø Irrawaddy Dolphin (Snubfin dolphin) = Endangered + Besides the Irrawaddy River, it is also found in
India’s Ganges, Chilka Lake and Southeast Asia’s Mekong River + They prefers to live in estuaries and
brackish water near coasts + Irrawaddy dolphins fall under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972
Ø Crocodiles = India is home to three crocodilian species + Indian Crocodile Conservation Project was
launched in 1975 in different States
Ø Mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris): Vulnerable + reptilian species also called marsh crocodile or
broad-snouted crocodile and is one of the three-crocodile species (Saltwater Crocodile and Gharial) found in
India + It is extinct in Myanmar and Bhutan, and possibly extinct in Bangladesh + Its habitat includes wetlands
(inland), marine neritic (shallow part of ocean), artificial/aquatic & marine + It is a hole-nesting species, with
egg-laying taking place during the annual dry season + Vadodara is the only city in India where crocodiles
live in their natural habitat amidst human population + Threat: Water pollution, food for human consumption,
illegal use and trade such as for medicinal purpose, apparel/accessories etc + Appendix 1 of CITES +
Vulnerable + schedule 1 of WPA,1972 + Last year, Gujarat relocated the Mugger crocodile from Sardar
Sarovar dam to facilitate a seaplane service at the Statue of Unity
Ø Saltwater Crocodile: Least concern(IUCN) + largest of all living reptiles + found throughout the east coast
of India
Ø Gharial: Critically Endangered (IUCN) + fish eating crocodile + native to the Indian subcontinent +
Population of Gharials are a good indicator of clean river water + Natural Habitat: Fresh waters of the northern
part of India + Primary Habitat: Chambal river + Secondary Habitat: Ghaghra and Gandak river, Girwa river
(Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary in Uttar Pradesh), the Ramganga river in Jim Corbett National Park and the
Sone river

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Ø Northern River Terrapin (Batagurbaska) = Brackish water species + One of the largest turtles to be found
in Southeast Asia + Earlier, they were found in the river mouths of Odisha and the Sunderbans + Described
as the world’s second most endangered turtle (Yangtze giant soft shell turtle being the most endangered
freshwater turtle) + It is regionally extinct in Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. + IUCN: Critically
Endangered + CITES: Appendix I + Wildlife Protection Act : Schedule I
Ø Black Squirrel = According to recent report, a rare black squirrel captured from Kerala in 2008, is a variant
of the Indian three-striped palm squirrel + Recently scientists tries to find out the reason for the color change
in this species. The color change was caused by a gene mutation. The MelanoCortin-1 Receptor (MC1R) gene
in the animal is responsible for activating the change in pigmentation, and making it black [Just Remember
MC1R gene & Read about Indian Palm squirrel]
Ø Vulture Conservation and Breeding Centres (VCBC) = Vulture Conservation Breeding Centre (VCBC)
is a joint project of the Haryana Forest Department and the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) + It is
a collaborative initiative to save the three species of vultures, the White-backed, Long-billed and Slender-
billed, from looming extinction + At present there are nine Vulture Conservation and Breeding Centres
(VCBC) in India, of which three are directly administered by Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) + the
three species of vultures bred in the VCBC are the White-backed, Long-billed and the Slender-billed vulture
+ The major reason behind the vulture population getting nearly wiped out was the drug Diclofenac, found
in the carcass of cattle the vultures fed on. The drug, whose veterinary use was banned in 2008, was commonly
administered to cattle to treat inflammation + the objective of the VCBCs was not onlyto look after the vultures
and breed them in captivity, but also to release them into the wild. The first objective of the VCBC was to
produce a few hundred pairs of each of the three species of theendangered vultures + (To study the cause of
deaths of vultures, a Vulture Care Centre (VCC) wasset up at Pinjore, Haryana)
Ø Vulture Restaurants = The first vulture restaurant was built in South Africa in 1966 + Vulture restaurants
functions in many countries including India + Phansad Wildlife sanctuary (Maharshtra) is India’s 1st ever
Vulture restaurant(2015) (Don’t Confuse with 1st Vulture Conservation and Breeding Centres (VCBC)
located in Pinjore, Haryana)
Ø Kadaknath = or Kali Masi is breed of chicken originating from Jhabua and Dhar districts of western Madhya
Pradesh + received GI tag in 2017 + popular for its black meat which is famous for its meat quality + also
famous for its low cholesterol and high protein content.
Ø Amur Falcon = Least Concern + Small raptor of the falcon family + It is the world’s longest travelling
raptors. It starts journey for about 22,000 kms with the onset of winters + It breeds in south-eastern Siberia
and northern China before migrate a long distance across India and over theArabian sea to winter in Southern
and East Africa + They get their name from the Amur River thatforms the border between Russia and China +
Doyang Lake (Nagaland) is known as a stopover forthe Amur falcons during their annual migration from their
breeding grounds to warmer South Africa. Amur Falcon stays for a month in Nagaland and helps in
maintaining the ecosystem by feeding on a large number of insects, thus controlling the population of insects
+ Nagaland is alsoknown as the “Falcon Capital of the World”
Ø Bhungloti = Bhungloti is a creeper that in combination with the pith of the roots of a jackfruit treeyielded a
saffron dye. This was mainly used by Buddhist Bhikkus in Assam + Recently, a 'Buddhistvillage' in Charaideo
district of eastern Assam has adopted ‘Chala Reserve Forest’ to conserve thetraditional sources of colours
from Bhungloti
Ø Tardigrade = also called water bear or moss piglet refer to any of more than 1,100 species of free-living tiny
invertebrates belonging to the phylum Tardigrada + They are considered to be close relatives of arthropods
(e.g., insects, crustaceans) + Recently, Scientists have identified the first “quantum entangled” animal in
history-frozen tardigrade, in a recent study. Frozen tardigrade are microscopic multicellular organisms known
to tolerate extreme physiochemical conditions through a latent state of life known as cryptobiosis +
Cryptobiosis: Also known as anabiosis, it is a metabolic state of life entered by an organism in response to
adverse environmental conditions such as desiccation, freezing, and oxygen deficiency. In the cryptobiotic
state, all measurable metabolic processes stop, preventing reproduction, development, and repair. When
environmentalconditions return to being hospitable, the organism will return to its metabolic state of life as it
wasprior to the cryptobiosis
Ø Propolis = Generally, propolis is used by honey bees to protect it from rainwater and drafts + Honeybees use

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this resin produced from substances they collect from plants and buds, to plug tinygaps in hive from gases of
the volcano + Recently, About 50 days after Cumbre Vieja volcano in the Canary Islands erupted, tens of
thousands of bees were found alive inside hives that had been covered in volcanic ash due to Propolis
Ø Yellow Gold 48 = Recently, Bayer (German agrochemicals major) has launched the first-ever yellow
watermelon variety Yellow Gold 48 under Seminis brand in India + It has been developedfrom superior
germplasm as part of Bayer's global research and development efforts + It is best suited for cultivation from
October to February and for harvest from April onwards and will be available in the market until mid-July +
It has been commercially introduced in India following two years of local trials.
Ø Mishri Cherries = The first commercial shipment of Mishri variety of cherries from Kashmir valley has been
exported to Dubai from Srinagar + Mishri varieties of Cherries not only taste delicious but also contain
vitamins, minerals, and plant compounds with health benefits + The Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir
produces more than 95% of India’s production of commercial varieties of cherries. It produces four varieties
of cherry — Double, Makhmali, Mishri,and Italy.
Ø Sloth Bear = First World Sloth Bear Day on October 12, was observed Ministry of Environment, Forests and
Climate Change and the Central Zoo Authority + Features of sloth bear : Identified by their very distinct long,
shaggy dark brown or black fur, and distinct white V or Y shaped chest patch + Solitary creatures and
generally nocturnal in nature + Diet: Omnivore + Life span: Up to 40 years + Habitat Range endemic to the
Indian subcontinent with small populations in Nepal and Sri Lanka + Conservation status + Listed under
Schedule I of (Wildlife Protection) Act, 1972 + Vulnerable on IUCN Red List.
Ø Monarch Butterfly = The International Union for the Conservation of Nature added the migrating monarch
butterfly for the first time to its red list of threatened species and categorized it as "endangered" + This is one
of the most recognisable butterflies in the world + In North America, millions of monarch butterflies
undertake the longest migration of any insect species known to science
Ø Snow Leopard = According to a study by the Zoological Survey of India, snow leopard regulates the
populations of its herbivores prey species Siberian ibex and blue sheep + Schedule-I species of the Indian
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 + IUCN Red list status: Vulnerable + Habitat: mountainous landscape of
central Asia covering Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Sikkim.
Ø Light-mantled Albatross (Phoebetria Palpebrate) = Asia’s first sighting of the Light-mantled Albatross, a
seabird native to the Antarctic seas, was recorded near Rameswaram coast (Tamil Nadu) + This seabird habits
over a circumpolar distribution in the Southern Ocean and forages over the cold Antarctic + IUCN status:
Near Threatened.

Islands/Valleys/Lakes in News
Ø Barren Island = It is part of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and is located in the Andaman Sea, around 140
kilometres northeast of Port Blair + Barren Island is India’s and South Asia’s only active volcano + The
volcano erupted for the first time in 1787 and latest in 2017 + It is a barren landscape and uninhabited by
humans + It belongs to the North and Middle Andaman administrative district
Ø Chilika Lake = Odisha + Chilika is Asia’s largest and world’s second largest lagoon + It is the largest
wintering ground for migratory birds on the Indian sub-continent and is home to a number of threatened
species of plants and animals + In 1981, Chilika Lake was designated the first Indian wetland of international
importance under the Ramsar Convention + Major attraction at Chilika is Irrawaddy dolphins which are often
spotted off Satpada Island + The large Nalabana Island (Forest of Reeds) covering about 16 sq km in the
lagoon area was declared a bird sanctuary in 1987 + Kalijai Temple – Located on an island in the Chilika
Lake
Ø Pulicat Lake = Andhra Pradesh – Tamil Nadu Border + Recently, Increase in numbers of migratory birds
visiting the Pulicat Lake was noticed + It is the second largest brackish water lakein the country; next only to
Chilika lake + Greater flamingos and pelicans are some of the famousmigratory birds that visit this place +
The region in which Pulicat lake is situated receives rainfallfrom both South-West as well as North-East
monsoon winds + Nelapattu Bird Sanctuary(Andhra Pradesh) is a famous bird sanctuary located near this lake

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+ The lake is also home for black-headedibis, Asian openbill, black-crowned night heron, and little cormorant.
Other migratory birds that visit the sanctuary include northern pintail, common teal, little grebe, northern
shoveler, Eurasiancoot, Indian spot-billed duck, grey heron, Oriental darter, black-winged stilt, garganey and
gadwall+ The presence of Barringtonia and Acacia nilotica plant species near the Pulicat lake region provides
an ideal breeding site for spot-billed pelicans + Flamingo Festival is held every year to promote tourism in
Pulicat and Nelapattu
Ø Pangong Tso Lake = Pangong Tso, which means ‘high grassland lake’, is a long boomerang- shaped
endorheic (landlocked) lake spanning eastern Ladakh and West Tibet + This landlocked lake is the world’s
highest saltwater lake + More than two-thirds is under Chinese control, while the remaining one-third of the
Lake lies in India + The lake is NOT a Ramsar site yet. It is in the process of being identified under the
Ramsar Convention as a wetland of international importance + The Karakoram Mountain range, which
crosses Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, China and India, with heights of over 6,000 meters including K2,
the world’s second highest peak, ends at the north bank of Pangong Tso. Its southern bank too has high broken
mountains sloping towards Spanggur Lake in the south + Recently, China is constructing a bridge in Ladakh
connecting the north and south banks of Pangong Tso (lake). Khurnak Fort, close to where China is building
the new bridge, is near the halfway mark of the lake. It is also under the Chinese control.
Ø Sambhar Salt Lake = world famous Sambhar Salt Lake in Rajasthan, which is constantly shrinking with the
degradation of soil and water quality and a decline in the population of migratory birds + The lake, situated
80 km south-west of Jaipur, is the country’s largest inland saline water body which attracts thousands of
migratory birds every year + The death of more than 20,000 birds belonging to about 10 species which migrate
annually to the lake had made international headlines in [Link] birds foraging in the Sambhar marshlands
had died due to avian botulism(illness, caused by a bacterium called Clostridium botulinum + It affects the
nervous system of birds)

Projects in News
Ø Sardar Sarovar Narmada Dam = terminal dam and gravity dam built on Narmada River in Gujarat + took
form in 1979 as part of a development scheme to increase irrigation and produce hydroelectricity + second
biggest dam in terms of volume of concrete used in it + third highest concrete dam in India
Ø Dagmara Hydro Electric Project = largest hydropower project of Bihar on Kosi river + Run-of-the- River
hydro project + located near village Dagmara on the right bank and Simri on the left bank.
Ø Jangi Thopan Powari hydroelectricity Project = Himachal Pradesh + on Sutlej river + run-of- the-river
(ROR) project
Ø Mekedatu Dam Project = Mekedatu is a deep gorge situated at the confluence of the rivers Cauvery and
Arkavathi river, about 100 km from Bengaluru, Karnataka + Mekedatu, meaning goat’s leap, is a deep gorge
situated at the confluence of the rivers Cauvery and its tributary Arkavathi + In 2013, then Karnataka
announced the construction of a multi-purpose balancing reservoir project for drinking water needs and
electricity generation + The project aims to store and supply water for drinking purposes for the Bengaluru
city and generate power + Tamil Nadu objected against the project saying that the project would affect the flow
of Cauvery water to TamilNadu and also said that the project was in violation of the final award of the Cauvery
Water Disputes Tribunal.
Ø Krishnaraja Sagar Dam = built across river Cauvery in 1924 + Karnataka + The dam is named for the then
ruler of the Mysore Kingdom, Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV + The Chief Engineer, Sir M. Vishveswaraya
engineered the construction of the dam during the Wadeyarkings regime in 1932
Ø Kaman Aman Setu = located at Uri in North Kashmir + Friendship Bridge between India and Pakistan, is
also the last point of the India-Pak border in the Uri district + India and Pakistan Armiesrecently held a Flag
meeting and exchanged sweets here.
Ø Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project = Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) + Thisnuclear
power plant is the largest nuclear power of India + Tamil Nadu + Construction started in 2002 + KKNPP is
scheduled to have six VVER-1000 reactors. All these reactors have been built or is being built in collaboration
with Russian state company and Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL). Reactors have the

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installed capacity of 6,000 MW of electricity + Unit one and two of kudankulam plant are already operational.
Units three & four were inaugurated in2016 + India and Russia started talk for constructing two units of
nuclear plant at same site underthe General Framework Agreement (GFA). GFA was signed in June 2017 for
units five and six +Recently, Russia started construction of fifth nuclear power unit at Kudankulam. It is
going to beIndia’s first light water reactor.
Ø Mullaperiyar Dam Issue = Earlier, The Supreme Court has decided to consider the plea demanding to reduce
the water level in the Mullaperiyar dam during monsoon as there is a dangerof earthquakes and floods in the
area as monsoon progresses in the State. Supreme Court has directed the Supervisory Committee to take an
immediate and firm decision on the maximum waterlevel that can be maintained at Mullaperiyar dam, amid
torrential rain in Kerala + The dam is located on the confluence of the Mullayar and Periyar rivers in Kerala
+ Although the dam is located in Kerala, it is operated by Tamil Nadu following an 1886 lease indenture for
999 years (the Periyar Lake Lease Agreement) that was signed between the Maharaja of Travancore and the
Secretary of State for India for the Periyar Irrigation works.
Ø Ken-Betwa River Interlinking Project (RLP) = It is approved by Cabinet + It is the first projectunder the
National Perspective Plan for interlinking of rivers + Ken-Betwa RLP transfers water from Ken to Betwa
River through the construction of Daudhan Dam + Both these rivers are tributaries of river Yamuna + It will
carry water from water surplus areas to drought prone and water deficit areas in Bundhelkhand Region +
Implementing Agency: Ken-Betwa Link Project Authority (KBLPA), a Special Purpose Vehicle + However,
there are concerns like the project willpartly submerge the Panna Tiger Reserve in MP and affect the habitat
of vultures and jackals
Ø Srisailam Reservoir = Constructed across the Krishna River + Andhra Pradesh
Ø Indira Gandhi Canal = Longest canal of India + It starts from the Harike Barrage at Harike, a few kilometers
below the confluence of the Satluj and Beas rivers in the Indian state of Punjab + It terminates in irrigation
facilities in the Thar Desert in the north west of Rajasthan + Serve Punjab,Haryana and Rajasthan
Ø Hybrid Power Plant: Adani Green has commissioned the world's largest 600 MW Solar and 150 MW wind
power project in Jaisalmer + Hybrid Power Plants are those power plants which generate electricity from two
or more sources, usually renewable, with one connection point. E.g. Solar + Wind, Solar + Hydraulic, Solar
+ Biomass etc.
Ø Dark Sky Reserve = Department of Science & Technology has announced setting up of India’s first dark
sky reserve at Hanle in Ladakh as a part of Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary + It will be one of the world’s
highest-located sites for optical, infra-red, and gamma-ray telescopes + It will promote astronomy-tourism,
giving a boost to local tourism and economy through science + Dark Sky Reserve is a place that has policies
to ensure that a tract of land or region has minimal artificial light interference + International Dark Sky
Association, a U.S.-based non-profit, designates places as International Dark Sky Places, parks, sanctuaries
and reserves, depending on criteria they meet.

TRIBES IN NEWS
Ø Rengma Naga Tribe = Rengma is a Naga tribe found in Nagaland, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh+ first
official recording of the Rengma Nagas staying in Assam’s Karbi Hills (then known asMikir Hills) was made
in 1855 + The harvest festival of the Rengmas is called Ngada
Ø Sumi Nagas = Sümi tribe are the major ethnic group among Nagas, who are Indo-Mongoloid tribalgroups, in
Nagaland, India + Sümi Nagas practiced Aki Kiti (a semi-contact combat sport), and headhunting like other
Nagas before their conversion to Christianity + Sumis have two different clan heads, Swu (Sumi) and Tuku
(Tukumi) + They celebrate Tuluni Festival + Ahuna is a traditional post-harvest festival of the Sumis + Sümi
is one of the recognised scheduled tribes of India.
Ø Konyak Tribes = Konyaks are the largest of Naga tribes. They are traditional hunters and warriorsof Nagaland
+ They inhabit the area extending from Nagaland into Arunachal Pradesh, Myanmaras well + Konyaks were
animists, worshipping elements of nature, until Christian missionaries arrived in the late 19th [Link]
society is mostly Christian now + Aoleng Manyu Festival is the biggest festival of the Konyaks + 'Lao Ong

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Mo' Festival is the traditional harvest festival

Ø Apatani Tribes = Arunachal Pradesh + Apatani, or Tanw, also known by Apa and ApaTani, are known for
their fish and paddy culture, along with cane and bamboo crafts + Their vibrant traditional village councils
are called bulyañ + They speak a local language Tani and worship the sun and the moon + Festivals areMarun,
Myako, Dree, and Yapung + The elders in the tribe propagate knowledge through folk stories, songs, couplets
in the form of Miji-Migun, Busi-Ayu +They were the first tribe in India to come in contact with the British
in the 12th century + The UNESCO has proposed the Apatani valley for inclusion as a World Heritage Site for
its “extremelyhigh productivity” and “unique” way of preserving the ecology.
Ø Tai Khamti = One of the major tribe of Arunachal Pradesh + The word ‘Khampti’ means ‘a landfull of gold’
+ They follow Theravada Buddhism and have their own script which the people call it Tai script (Lik-Tai) +
Khampti dance is also known as kapung (ka implies dance and pung meansstory)
Ø Chakma and Hajong Communities = Chakmas and Hajongs were originally residents ofChittagong Hill
Tracts in the erstwhile East Pakistan. They left their homeland when it was submerged by the Kaptai dam
project in the 1960s + The Chakmas, who are Buddhists, and the Hajongs, who are Hindus, also allegedly
faced religious persecution and entered India through thethen Lushai Hills district of Assam (now Mizoram).
The Centre moved the majority of them to theNorth East Frontier Agency (NEFA), which is now Arunachal
Pradesh + At present, they don’t have citizenship and land rights but are provided basic amenities by the state
government.
Ø Dongria Kondhs = a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG) + tribe located in the Niyamgiri hill
range in the state of Odisha + They converse among themselves in the Kui Language that does not have a
written script but is spoken among the Kondh tribe.

Animal Conservation
Ø Operation Olivia = conducted by Indian Coast Guards (ICG) + to protect turtles as they arrive tonest in
Odisha + initiated in the early 1980s + It involves round-the-clock surveillance from November till May using
fast patrol vessels, air cushion vessels, interceptor craft etc. + Please Note: All five species of sea turtles found
in India are included in Schedule I of Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, and in Appendix I of CITES
Ø Conservation Assured Tiger Standard (CATS) = Recently, MoEFCC announced ConservationAssured
Tiger Standards (CATS) accreditation for 14 out of India’s 51 53 tiger reserves (53rd tiger reserve : Guru
Ghasidas National Park (Chattisgarh) + 52nd : Ramgarh Vishdhari Wildlife Sanctuary (Rajasthan) + The
themefor this year International Tiger Day is- "Their Survival is in our hands”. This day is celebrated on29th
July on anniversary of agreement of Saint Petersburg Tiger Summit in Russia in 2010 + CATSare globally
accepted conservation tool that sets best practices and standards to manage tigers + Itwas launched in 2013,
implemented across 125 sites, including 94 in India + Global Tiger Forumand WWF India are implementing
partners of the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) for CATS assessment in India + The 14
reserves are Manas, Kaziranga, and Orang (Assam); Sundarbans (West Bengal); Valmiki(Bihar); Dudhwa
(Uttar Pradesh); Panna, Kanha, Satpuda and Pench (Madhya Pradesh); Anamalai and Mudumalai (Tamil
Nadu); Parambikulam (Kerala) and Bandipur (Karnataka)
Ø 4th Asia Ministerial Conference (AMC) on Tiger Conservation = recently organised by the Government
of Malaysia and Global Tiger Forum (GTF) + The conference is an important event for reviewing progress
towards the Global Tiger Recovery Programme and commitments to tiger conservation + Kuala Lumpur Joint
Statement was adopted + AMC is a meeting of 13 tiger rangecountries to discuss the plight and plans for
conservation of the wild tiger population + TRCs consist of Malaysia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China,
India, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand, and Vietnam + According to the St. Petersburg
Declaration on Tiger Conservation (2010), TRC agreed to Global Tiger Recovery Programme (GTRP) which
envisagesdoubling the wild tiger population by 2022
Ø Dragonfly Census = Conducted by World Wide Fund for Nature(WWF-India) in partnership withBombay
Natural History Society(BNHS), United Nations Environment Programme, Zoological Survey of India and
others + The first Dragonfly census was carried out in 2018 which revealed atotal of 51 different species of
these insects in New Delhi and NCR.

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Environment and the World

Ø Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) = International body for assessing the science related
to climate change + It was set up in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to provide policymakers with regular assessments of the scientific
basis of climate change + IPCC assessments provide a scientific basis for governments at all levels to develop
climate related policies, and they underlienegotiations at the UN Climate Conference – the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) + Every few years (about 7 years), the IPCC produces
assessment reports that are the most comprehensive scientific evaluations of the state of earth’s climate + So
far, five assessment reports have been produced, the first one being released in 1990. The fifth assessment
report had come out in 2014 in the run up to the climate change conference in Paris + IPCC don’t conduct
any research of its own.
Ø Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) = Often
described as the “IPCC for biodiversity” IPBES + an independent intergovernmental bodycomprising 129
member Governments + It provides policymakers with objective scientific assessments about the state of
knowledge regarding the planet’s biodiversity, ecosystems + Established in 2012 by UN, but functions
independently, HQ in Bonn, Germany
Ø Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV) Initiative = by UNEP + Launched in 2002 atthe World
Summit on Sustainable Development + global public-private initiative to reduce vehicular air pollution
through promotion of cleaner fuels and vehicles in developing countries + PCFV worked towards global
elimination of leaded petrol (graduated decline of Sulphur as well) by providing support in different areas.
(In India, it was phased out in 2000).
Ø Turtle Survival Alliance(TSA) = TSA was formed in 2001 as an International Union forConservation
of Nature (IUCN) partnership for sustainable captive management of freshwater turtles and tortoises + The
TSA arose in response to the rampant and unsustainable harvest of Asianturtle populations to supply Chinese
markets, a situation known as the Asian Turtle Crisis + Mission: ‘Zero Turtle Extinctions in the 21st Century
Ø Indian Ocean Sea Turtle Agreement (IOSEA) = non-binding intergovernmental agreement + aims to
protect, conserve, and recover sea turtles and their habitats in the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia + The
agreement falls under the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals + India is
signatory to IOSEA of the convention in Migratory Species (CMS), a United Nation backed initiative + It
puts in place a framework through which states of Indian Ocean and South -East Asian region, as well as
connected states, can work together to conserve and replenish depleted marine turtle populations for which
they share responsibility.
Ø Bonn Challenge = Launched by the Government of Germany and IUCN in 2011 + Bonn Challengeis a global
effort to bring 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land into restoration by 2020, and
350 million hectares by 2030 + The Challenge surpassed the 150-million-hectare milestone for pledges in 2017
+ At the UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (COP) 2015 inParis, India also joined the voluntary Bonn
Challenge pledge to bring into restoration 13 million hectares of degraded and deforested land by the year
2020, an additional 8 million hectares by 2030 + India has pledged to restore 21 million ha of degraded and
deforested land by 2030.
Ø Dublin Statement = on Water and Sustainable Development, 1992 + In 1992 the International Conference
on Water and the Environment was held in Dublin, Ireland + The output from this conference was a
declaration regarding water that was presented to the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) that was held in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 also known as the “Earth Summit” +
Dublin statement considers water as an economic good + (PleaseNote: In December 2020, for the first time
in history, a tradable water price futures index was launched on the Chicago Stock Exchange on the Nasdaq
Veles California Water Index (NQH2O).Nasdaq developed the NQH2O Index in partnership with Veles
Water Limited) + (Indian Constitution: While no particular provision in the Indian Constitution categorically
recognises water as a positive human right, the judiciary has interpreted right to water as a fundamental right)
Ø Kunming Declaration = The “Kunming Declaration” was adopted by over 100 countries in the ongoing
virtual 15th meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Convention on Biological
Diversity (UNCBD) + Kunming declaration calls upon the parties to “mainstream” biodiversity protection in
decision-making and recognise the importance of conservation in protecting human health. The declaration

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made a reference to the ’30 by 30′ targetwhich is a key proposal being debated at the COP15, that would
afford 30% of the Earth’s land and oceans protected status by 2030 + Theme of the COP-15: “Ecological
Civilization: Building aShared Future for All Life on Earth” + Main objective of CoP 15 is to develop and adopt
a post2020“Global Biodiversity Framework” with a to replace and update the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity
(SPB) 2011-2020 and Aichi Biodiversity Targets
Ø Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC) 1972 = legally binding treaty that outlaws biological
arms + The BWC is the first multilateral disarmament treaty to ban an entire category of weapons of mass
destruction + BWC opened for signature in 1972, and entered into force in 1975 + It currently has 183 states-
parties, including Palestine, and four signatories. Ten states haveneither signed nor ratified the BWC + India
ratified this treaty in 2015 + The State parties reviewthe operations of this treaty at the Review Conferences.
So far 8 review conferences have been [Link] next review conference i.e. 9th review conference will be held
in Geneva in 2021 + It hasno implementing body + The BTWC does not have a verification clause, nor does
it have clearly laid down rules and procedures to guide research in this field + It bans “microbial or other
biological agents, or toxins, whatever their origin or method of production” that “have nojustification for
prophylactic, protective or other peaceful purposes”. In other words, while bio- weapons are banned, research
for medical and bio-defence purposes are allowed + There is traditional distinction at the international
institutional level between biological weapons (a field governed by the BTWC) and diseases (a domain under
the World Health Organization) + Please Note: India has multiple institutions dealing with biosafety and
biosecurity threats.
Ø UN Food Systems Summit = UN Food Systems Summit is taking place in New York. It will seekto set the
stage for global food systems transformation to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030 +
Originally announced in 2019 by UN Secretary-General António Guterres, the UN Food Systems Summit
was conceived following conversations with the joint leadership of thethree Rome-based United Nations
agencies – the Food and Agriculture Organization, the International Fund for Agricultural Development and
the World Food Programme – at the High- level Political Forum in 2019 + The term “food system” refers to
the constellation of activities involved in producing, processing, transporting and consuming food
Ø World Food Programme(WFP) = It was established in 1961 by the Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) and the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) and became a fullfledgedUN programme in 1965
+ Headquarter: Rome, Italy + World Food Programme (WFP) is the food-assistance branch of the United
Nations + It is the world's largest humanitarian organization, the largest one focused on hunger and food
security + In addition to emergency food relief, WFP offerstechnical assistance and development aid, such as
building capacity for emergency preparedness and response, managing supply chains and logistics, promoting
social safety programs, and strengthening resilience against climate change + The agency is also a major
provider of direct cash assistance and medical supplies, and provides passenger services for humanitarian
workers
Ø Net zero or Carbon neutrality = It is achieved when more carbon is sucked out from the atmosphere or
prevented from being emitted than what a country emits + It is critical to ensuring that the planet does not
heat up an additional half a degree by 2100 + A little over 120 countries have committed, with varying degrees
of firmness, to reaching carbon neutrality by 2050. Five countries have net zero pledges set for after 2050,
including Australia and Singapore, which havenot set a firm target yet + China, the world’s biggest emitter,
has committed to peaking its emissions before 2030 and achieving net zero by 2060 + The United States has
said it would achieve net zero by 2050 and nearly halve emissions by 2030 + Net zero is similar concept to
Carbon Neutrality but they are not same, Net Zero goes beyond just Carbon and is typically on a larger scale.
Net Zero refers to when all greenhouse gases being emitted into the atmosphere are equivalent to the
greenhouse gases being removed from the atmosphere on a global scale, where as Carbon Neutral means the
amount of Carbon being emitted is equal to the amount of carbon being absorbed from the atmosphere, due
to carbon sinks such as forests which absorb and store more carbon from the atmosphere than they emit.
Ø Global Methane Initiative (GMI) = India recently co-chaired GMI Steering Leadership Meeting +
International public-private partnership focused on reducing barriers to the recovery and use of methane as a
clean energy source + India joined GMI in 2004 + Hq: Washington DC + It was created in 2004 and has
membership from 45 countries
Ø Global Methane Pledge : Recently also at the UNFCCC COP26 (Glasgow), the Global Methane Pledge was

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launched that aims to cut down methane emissions byup to 30% from 2020 levels by the year 2030
Ø Methane Alert and Response System (UNFCCC COP 27) : A new satellite-based system to detect methane
emissions and tackle them to slow climate change + The data-to-action platform was set up as part of the UN
Environment Programme’s (UNEP) International Methane Emissions Observatory (IMEO) strategy to get
policy-relevant data into the right hands for emissions mitigation + The system will be the first publicly
available global system to connect methane detection to notification processes transparently.
Ø A-76 = A huge ice block has broken off from western Antarctica into the Weddell Sea, becomingthe largest
iceberg in the world and earning the name A-76 + It is the latest in a series of large iceblocks to dislodge in a
region acutely vulnerable to climate change, although scientists said in thiscase it appeared to be part of a
natural polar cycle + Slightly larger than the Spanish island of Majorca, A-76 had been monitored by scientists
since it began to separate from the Ronne Ice Shelf + It joins previous world’s largest title holder A-23A.
Ø Sea Snot Outbreak = slimy layer of grey or green sludge that floats up on surface of seas, whichcan cause
damage to marine ecosystem + It is marine mucilage formed when algae are overloadedwith nutrients due to
water pollution combined with effects of climate change + Over a period of time, it could end up poisoning
all aquatic life, including fishes, crabs, oysters, mussels, corals, sponges and sea stars + Turkey’s Sea of
Marmara, that connects the Black Sea to the Aegean Sea,has witnessed the largest outbreak of ‘sea snot’ + A
‘sea snot’ outbreak was first recorded in the Turkey in 2007.
Ø Mission LiFE: Mission LiFE is an India-led global mass movement which aims to nudge individual and
collective action to protect and preserve the environment + Its concept was introduced by the PM at the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) COP-26 in Glasgow + Objective: Mobilise
at least 1 billion Indians and other global citizens to take individual and collective action for protecting and
preserving the environment in the period 2022 to 2027 + It will run as a 5-year programme + NITI Aayog
will curate and incubate Mission LiFE in the first year then It will be implemented by the Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) in a non-linear and non-sequential manner.
Ø Global Mangrove Alliance (GMA) : The GMA was launched in 2018 at the World Ocean Summit by
Conservation International (CI), the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), The Nature
Conservancy (TNC), Wetlands International, and World Wildlife Fund (WWF) + Today, the alliance includes
more than 30 organizations + It has released its annual report, ‘The State of the World’s Mangroves 2022’.
Ø IUGS Geological Heritage Site : According to IUGS, a Geological Heritage Site is a key place with
geological elements and/or processes of scientific international relevance, used as a reference with a
substantial contribution to the development of geologicalsciences through history + The designation of First
100 geological sites is done under the project International Geoscience Programme (IGCP-731) + IGCP
serves as a knowledge hub of UNESCO to facilitate international scientific cooperation in the geosciences +
Mawmluh Cave, in Meghalaya has been listed as one of the ‘First 100 IUGS (International Union of
Geological Sciences) Geological Sites’ in the world.
Ø International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) : It is an intergovernmental
knowledge and learning centre that develops and shares research, information, and innovations to empower
people in the eight regional member countries of the HKH – Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India,
Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan + It aims to enable sustainable and resilient mountain development for
improved and equitable livelihoods through knowledge and regional cooperation.
Ø International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) : It is also
known as seed treaty, is a major international agreement to conserve, use and manage Plant Genetic Resources
for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA) around the world for benefit of people everywhere + It is a legally binding
agreement that was adopted by 31st session of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in 2001 and entered
into force in 2004 + India is a party to the treaty + It also provided international legal framework needed for
establishment of Svalbard Global Seed Vault in Norway + Funding for the treaty comes from its Contracting
Parties and from FAO.
Ø Declaration for Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture of the FAO Committee on Fisheries (COFI) : It
was developed to mark the 25th Anniversary of the (Food and Agriculture Organisation) Code of Conduct
for Responsible Fisheries + COFI is a subsidiary body of the FAO Council, established by the FAO
Conference in 1965 + It is the only global inter-governmental forum where FAO Members meet to review
and consider the issues and challenges related to fisheries and aquaculture.

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Ø Global Alliance For Industry Decarbonization : International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), co-
founding partner Siemens Energy, and 13 companies including Tata Steel and Jindal Steel Works have
launched Global Alliance for Industry Decarbonization + New Alliance aims to accelerate net-zero ambitions
and decarbonization of industrial value chains in pursuit of Paris Agreement climate goals + First meeting of
Alliance, which was formed under Bali Declaration, is planned to take place at COP27 in Sharm El Sheikh,
Egypt in November 2022 + Decarbonisation refers to the process of reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
resulting from human activity in atmosphere.
Ø Innovation Roadmap of the Mission Integrated Biorefineries (IRMIB) : India announced launch of
Innovation Roadmap of the Mission Integrated Biorefineries” (IRMIB) at Global Clean Energy Action Forum
+ IRMIB is developed by co-leads from Brazil, Canada, UK and European Commission + IRMIB aims to fill
the void by identifying gaps and challenges in current biorefining value chains
Ø Mission Integrated Biorefineries (MIB): It is the 7th mission under Mission Innovation (MI) which was
launched in April 2022 + MI is a global initiative catalyzing a decade of action and investment in research,
development and demonstration (RD&D) to make clean energy affordable, attractive and accessible for all +
MI consists of 22 countries and EU + India is a founding member + MIB aims at greater international
collaboration and financing for Energy RD&D during the next five years.
Ø Green Fins Hub: It is a global digital platform that offers enhanced and global membership for participating
dive and snorkel operators to conserve the marine environment + Launched by: United Nations
Environmental Programme (UNEP), along with UK-based charity Reef-World Foundation.
Ø Coalition For Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) : It is a global partnership of national governments,
UN agencies and programmes, private sector, and academic and research institutions + It was launched in
2019 by Indian Prime Minister at UN Climate Action Summit (New York) + It aims to promote resilience of
infrastructure systems to climate and disaster risks, thereby ensuring sustainable development + Currently, it
has 31 Countries, 6 International Organisations and 2 private sector organisations as members + It’ll work at
intersection of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and Paris Climate Agreement + India signed
‘Headquarter Agreement’ with CDRI, thereby according the status of an 'independent and international legal
entity' to CDRI.
Ø Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) :
Established in 2012, it is an independent intergovernmental body committed to strengthen science-policy
interface for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, long-term human well-being and sustainable
development + Secretariat located in Bonn, Germany + It is not a United Nations body. However, United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) provides secretariat services to IPBES + It now has 137 member
countries including India + All States Members of the United Nations are eligible for IPBES membership
Ø UN Ocean Conference (UNOC): The second UNOC ended with the Lisbon Declaration, a political
declaration entitled ‘Our Ocean, Our Future: call for action’ + It is co-hosted by Kenya and Portugal at Lisbon
+ In 2017, first UNOC was held at UN Headquarters in New York, co-hosted by the Governments of Fiji and
Sweden. + As part of it, over 150 countries collectively agreed to scale up science-based and innovative
actions to address ocean emergency, supporting the implementation of SDG 14 (Life Below Water) + This is
in line with the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021-2030).

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