Cognitive Process

Attention

Attention is the focus of consciousness on a particular object or idea at a particular

time, to the exclusion of other objects or ideas.

Sharma RN (1967) defines - Attention is the process which compels the individual to
select some particular stimulus according to his interest and attitude out of the
multiplicity of stimuli present in the environment.

DUMVILLE defines - attention is the concentration of consciousness upon one object

rather than upon another.
Types of Attention
Voluntary Attention
Voluntary attention demands a conscious effort on our part. For example, solving
an assigned problem in mathematics or answering a question in an examination
needs voluntary attention. It is further subdivided into two categories:

1. Implicit volitional attention:

A single act of will is responsible for arousing attention. For example, a
teacher assigns practice work to a child and warns of punishment, if not
completed. This can make him exercise his will power, attend to the assigned
tasks and finish it properly
2. Explicit volitional attention:

Attention is sustained through repeated acts of will. In explicit volitional

attention, continuous effort is necessary to maintain focus. It requires strong
motives, willpower and keep attention for accomplishment of the task.

Example the attention paid during examination days for securing good
grades.
Involuntary Attention

Non-volitional attention refers to the type of attention that arises without conscious
effort or will. It occurs instinctively in response to certain stimuli. For example, a
mother's attention is automatically drawn to her crying child.

We give involuntary Attention to loud sounds, bright lights and strong odors etc

It is further divided into two categories

1. Enforced non-volitional attention: It is aroused by the instincts is called
enforced non-volitional attention. For example, giving attention out of
curiosity.

1. Spontaneous non-volitional attention: It is aroused by sentiments is called

spontaneous non-volitional attention. For example, we give an automatic or
spontaneous attention to an object, idea or a person around which our
sentiments are formed.
Determinants of Attention

Determinants of attention are also termed as methods of arousing attention or

factors and conditions favorable for capturing attention.

These can be classified as:

1. External (objective)—those found in one’s environment and

2. Internal (subjective)—those within the person himself

Methods of securing attention are based upon these external and internal
factors of attention
External factors or conditions
➢ Nature of stimulus: all types of stimuli do not evoke the same degree of
attention. An attractive stimulus should always be chosen for capturing
maximum attention. A picture attracts attention more readily than words.
➢ Intensity of stimulus: A strong stimulus will attract our attention more quickly
then a weak one. E.g. loud sound, bright light, strong smell, an acute pain
attracts our attention.
➢ Size of stimulus: As a general rule larger objects in the environment are
more likely to catch our attention than smaller objects. A small object or a
picture on a large background also attracts attention.
➢ Change and novelty: change in varieties strike attention more easily than
routine. The use of maps and charts attracts students attention instantly when
compared to the routine verbal talk. Novelty means something new or different.
It attracts attention very easily. A new building, a new teacher are all examples
of common novelty.
➢ Contrast: any object that is strikingly different from its surroundings will tend to
standard and attract our attention. E.g. a small black dot on white sheet.
➢ Location of stimulus: anything located at the centre attracts our attention. E.g.
main headlines in the newspaper.
➢ Isolation of stimulus: a man sitting alone at some corner of the park is an
isolated individual and thus draws our attention.
➢ Repetition of stimulus: any stimulus that is repeated several number of
times catches our attention. E g. A repeated cry, tapping the door etc
➢ Movement of stimulus: a moving stimulus catches ever attention more
quickly than a stimulus that doesn't move. E g. Birds flying, an aeroplane at a
distance.
➢ Systematic form: anything that is organised and systematic attracts our
attention. E g a row of building, a neat garden, soldiers marching in a parade.
Subjective or Internal Factors
Certain factors are called subjective because they are within the individual who attends
to the stimulus.

Subjective factors are those that are acquired in the course of development.

Interest and attention: Interest is a very helpful factor in securing attention. We attend to
objects in which we are interested than those in which we are not interested.

Motives: Motives: The basic drives and urges of the individual are very important in
securing attention. Thirst, hunger, sex, curiosity, fear are some of the important motives
that exercise definite influence upon attention, When hungry we savor even distasteful
food but when the belly is full we may not attend to even the tastiest one,
Motives : Our basic motives help to draw attention. Factors like thirst, hunger,
curiosity, and fear affect attention. For example, a thirsty person is more attracted
to water than anything else.

Mental set-up: A person always attends to those objects towards which his mind
has a leaning. For example, on the day of examination the slightest thing
concerning the examination easily attracts the attention of the students.

Aim/ Goal − Each person has an ultimate goal in his/her life. For example, a
student to pass the exam with good marks will pay more attention to his books and
exams.
➢ Past experiences − From past experiences, if we can determine that a particular
person is sincere to us, we will pay more attention to him/her. In this way, an
effective stimulus is always chosen to draw maximum attention.
➢ Desire − A person's desire become a major cause of paying attention to something.
For example, a student who wants to be a cricketer in the future will pay more
attention to his cricket practices.
➢ Emotion: The emotional state of a person determines the level of attention. For
example, a person attends only to the bad qualities of his enemy.
➢ Habit: sometimes as a matter of habit we attend to stimuli, e.g. a doctor may attend
to a phone call even in the middle of the night due to habit.
➢ Temperament: a man having a religious temperament will attend to religious matter,
a politician will attend to political matter because of their temperament.
Duration and Degree of Attention ( measurement
of Attention)

Maximum amount of material that can be attended to in one period of attention is called
span of attention.

There are Four major conditions of attention which are referred as the duration and
degree of attention. These are as follows:

1. Fluctuation of Attention.
2. Sustained attention
3. Division of Attention
4. Span of Attention
Fluctuation of Attention: ( shifting Attention)

➢ It appears for us that our attention can be concentrated on a particular thing

or object or person for more time. But careful observation clearly shows that
we cannot concentrate on a single thing or stimulus for more than a few
seconds.
➢ When we are seeing an object or listening to a sound, after a few seconds,
the attention will be shifted towards another stimulus or other area of the
stimulus for a few times and returns back to the original or initial stimulus.
This process is called fluctuation.
Sustained Attention

(Act of Fixation of Mind)

To sustain attention is to concentrate one’s activity continuously upon some object

or a happening or a problem. The individual attention always remains on track and
the activity proceeds systematically without any serious distraction. All internal as
well as external factors of getting attention can be helpful in this track.
Division of Attention:

● Attending to more than one act at a time is known as division of attention.

● In such situations, we will divide our attention towards more than one act. For
example, a tailor will be stitching the cloths and also speaking to his
customers.
● A nurse will be observing the pulse of a patient and also changes on his face.
We ride a scooter while speaking to our friends.
● In such activities the attention is not divided, but it is possible to perform more
than one act because, either our attention is shifted from one act to another
rapidly, or our attention is concentrated on only one act and the remaining
activities are carried on automatically.
Span of Attention

● Span of attention is the amount of time that a person can concentrate on a

task without getting distracted.
● An average adult human being has been found to have an attention span of
about 10 to 20 minutes.
● However, every person has a different level of capacity to focus on a
particular thing or activity. Older children and adults have a better span of
attention than young children and old age people.
Alterations in Attention ( Distraction)

Distraction means any stimulus whose presence interferes with the process
of attention or draws away attention from the object which we wish to
attend.

—HR Bhatia (1968) —

These alterations in attention reduce the efficiency of work.

Sources Of Distraction

The sources of distraction vary very much. They affect the individual according to his own mental
set-up and personality characteristics. The sources of distraction can be classified into:
➢ External factors: Noise, music, improper lighting, uncomfortable seats, unfavorable
temperature, inadequate ventilation, defective methods of teaching, defective voice of the
teacher, etc.
➢ Internal factors: Emotional disturbances, ill health, boredom, lack of motivation, fatigue,
etc.
The nurse should take great care to get away | possible causes of distractions in working €a so
as to Sustain attention.
Types of Distraction

1. Continuous distraction: The distraction is Continuous in nature. For

example, the Sound of radio played continuously, the noise at the market
place, etc. Experiments have shown that adjustment to continuous distraction
takes place quickly.
2. Discontinuous distraction: The distraction is irregular in nature. For
example, the hearing of somebody's voice every now and then. It interferes
with work because of the impossibility of adjustment.
Some major means of removing distractions are:
➢ Being active in work

➢ Disregard for distraction

➢ Making the distraction a part of the work

Perception
Introduction

Perception is the interpretation of sensory stimuli reaching the sense

organs and the brain. When our sense organs come in contact with the
world, are stimulated by external stimuli and receive sensations it results
in perception. Interpretation gives meaning to sensation thereby making
us aware of objects.
Definitions

‘PERCEPTION IS THE INTERPRETATION OF SENSORY STIMULI WHICH REACH THE

SENSE ORGANS AND BRAIN’, Interpretation gives meaning to sensation and we
become aware of objects eg. You may hear a sound but take a moment to
perceive it as motor of a bus or car or something else.
‘Perception is the experience of objects, events or relationships obtained by
extracting information from and interpreting sensations’.
—JH Jackson, O Desiderato and DB Howieson (1976) –
‘Perception is an individual's awareness aspect of behavior, for it is the way
each person processes the raw data he receives from the environment into
meaningful patterns’. —RE Silverman (1976) —-
Principle of Perception ( Perpetual Organization)

Gestalt Principles ( Max Wertheimer, Stephan Palmar) are principles/laws of

human perception that describe how humans group similar elements, recognize
patterns and simplify complex images when we perceive objects.
 Principle of Figure-ground relationship

According to principle of figure-ground relationship, a figure is perceived in

relationship to its background. The perception of the object or figure in terms
of color, size, shape and intensity, etc. depends upon the figure ground
relationship. We perceive a figure against a background or background
against a figure depending upon the characteristics of the perceiver as well
hu as the relative strength of the figure or ground.
➢ In any war, when tanks are camouflaged, confusion between figure and
ground is deliberately caused and the coverage of leaves and bushes mixes
readily with the jungle. Many animals like parrot or squirrel are often difficult to
distinguish from their background and are thus given protection by nature.

➢ A proper figure-ground relationship is quite important from the angle of the

perception of a figure or the ground. In case where such relationship does not
exist we may witness ambiguity in terms of clear perception as may be
revealed through the following figure depicting reversible figure-ground
perception.
Here the pattern shown may be

perceived in two plausible ways

depending on which of the two

shapes, vase or two faces, is

perceived as the figure and which

as_ background. Moreover, it is

impossible to perceive both figure

and background at the same time.

 Principle of grouping
The main founder of Gestalt psychology is Max Wertheimer.
According to Gestalt principle, objects can be perceived
meaningfully when they are grouped together. This school of
thought looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole.
The following principles make our perception more meaningful.
Principle of proximity:

Proximity means nearness. The objects which are nearer to each other can be
perceived meaningfully by grouping them. In Figure we see three sets of two lines
each and not six separate lines.
Principle of similarity:

There is a tendency to perceive objects of a similar size and shape or color as a

unit or figure. In the figure we see vertical columns of circles and squares.
Principle of continuity:

Any stimulus which extends in the same direction or shape is perceived as a

whole. Our attention is held more by continuous patterns rather than discontinuous
ones. In Figure we see a curved line and a straight line. We do not see a straight
line with small semicircles above and below.
Principle of Closure:

It is the ability to see whole objects when the object itself is not a complete one.
Gestalt psychologists have shown that there is always a tendency for incomplete
figures to complete themselves
Principle of symmetry

Objects having symmetrical shape are perceived as groups. For example,

brackets of different shapes shown in Figure are perceived meaningfully because
the symmetrical ones are grouped together.
 Principle of context
Perceptual organization is also governed by the
principle of context, i.e., an examiner may award
higher marks to the same answer book in a pleasant
context than in an unpleasant one.
 Principle of contrast
Perceptual organization is much affected through contrast effects as the stimuli
that are in sharp contrast to nearby stimuli may draw our maximum attention
and carry different perceptual affects. For example, in Figure 6.5A and B the
surrounding circles in Figure 6.5A make the central circle seem larger than the
central circle in Figure 6.5B even though the two are of the same size.
 Principle of Adaptability

Perceptual organization for some stimuli depends upon the adaptability of

the perceiver to perceive similar stimuli. An individual who adapts himself
to work before an intense bright light will perceive normal sunlight as quite
dim.
Factors Affecting Perception
There are individual differences in perceptual abilities. Two people may perceive
the same stimulus differently. Factors affecting perception are

Sense Organs

Perception depends upon the sense organs or receptors on which the stimuli act
and the sensory neurons that transmit the nerve current from the receptors to the
sensory area of the brain. For example, if cones are not developed in the retina,
color cannot be perceived.
Brain

Perception depends upon the functioning capacity of both the sensory and
association areas of the brain. For example, if the auditory area is destroyed we
cannot have auditory perception.

Memory images and past experiences

Memory images help us in the comprehension of the object or stimulus before us.
Generally, perception involves the integration of sensory experience in the light of
past experience and present psychological [Link] example, a child has
come in contact with a horse for the first time. He has already seen a cow. When
he is asked what it (horse) is, he may say it is a cow or like a cow.
Personal Interests and Mind Set
We perceive those concerning our interests, attitudes, motives, expectations and mindset
quickly and clearly. Our acquired interests also determine the object or objects which we
perceive. A person who has a hobby of collecting stamps will quickly notice any new
stamp on a letter.

Needs and Desires

Our needs or desires also modify our perceptions. Besides these our beliefs, opinions
and cultural ideals also modify our perception of things, situations and objects.
Nature of the Stimuli

In addition to the above functional factors, structural factors that affect perception
are nature of physical stimuli such as size, background, novelty, motion and
proximity of the stimuli and their arrangements and the neural effects they evoke
in the nervous system of the individual.

Emotions:

Our emotions also Influence the interpretation of sensory information. Eg. A small
child who is afraid of darkness will perceive a white dress hanging in the room as
a ghost.
Errors in Perception (Perpetual Disorder)

Our perception is not always accurate, due to reasons internal or external, known
or unknown, errors in }: perception occur. Such errors can be classified into two
categories.

A. Illusion

B. Hallucination.
Illusion:
● It is a misinterpretation of actual perception. When the
interpretation of a particular stimulus goes wrong, it gives rise to a
wrong perception or illusion.
● For example, a rope in the dark is perceived as a snake or
vice-versa. The voice of an unknown person is mistaken as a
friend's voice. An unknown person standing at a distance may be
perceived as a known person.
● Illusions are caused by inadequacies of our sense organs,
distance of the object from the sense organ which perceives it,
misleading stimuli in the environment, our perceived notions and
expectancy.
Hallucination
➢ Hallucination is identified as one of the major errors of perception.
➢ It is a sensory perception that occurs in the absence of any corresponding
external sensory stimuli. Hallucinations are imaginary perceptions in which
one sees or hears something that is not seen or heard by others around him.
➢ An alcoholic may see ‘pink elephants, a paranoid schizophrenic may hear
voices, experience foul odors in the absence of any sensory stimulation.
➢ Hallucinations are more common in mentally ill people.
➢ Depending upon the sensory modality involved people experience different
types ofhallucinations. For example, visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory and
gustatory.
➢ Accurate perception is absolutely necessary in order to record an accurate
observation. It is possible to make errors in perception due to a number of
reasons.
Causes of Inaccurate Perception
Reality is determined through
perception. It affects how
one processes, interprets,
remembers, synthesizes and
decides about reality.
Various causes for
inaccurate perception are
● Defective functioning of sense organs: Sensory defects like myopia,
deafness and anesthesia can cause inaccurate perception.
● Inadequate stimulus: Our receptors may not be stimulated adequately if the
stimuli are vague, indefinite or not strong enough. A very weak light or soft
sound will make it difficult to perceive correctly.
● Too many stimuli at one time: When too many stimuli are present at one
given time, perceiving each stimulus separately is difficult.
● Poor health: Sense organs cannot function correctly and adequately as a
result of illness.
● Limited attention: If we try to apprehend more things than we can at a time,
we are liable to have an inaccurate perception.
● Figure merges in the ground: Sometimes objects are perceived with
difficulty because they resemble their surroundings. For example, a white
patch is difficult to detect on a white wall.
EXTRA SENSORY PERCEPTION E.S.P.

EXTRA SENSORY PERCEPTION is perception occurring independently of sight,

hearing or other sensory processes. People who have Extra Sensory Perception
are said to be PSYCHIC. Extra Sensory Perception implies perception without the
involvement of any sense organs. E.S.P. is also referred to as “Psi”. Much of early
research on E.S.P. was done by J.B. RHINE in 1934 (Duke University). E.S.P.
includes the possibility of some sort of influence, from one brain to another, other
than by way of sense organs. This phe enon is also called as Para-Psychological
phenomenon. They include :
TELEPATHY (Thought Transferance) : Action of one mind on the other at a
distance through emotional experience, without communication through senses.

CLAIRVOYANCE : ability of seeing mentally what is happening or existing out of

sight. PRECOGNITION : or the perception of future events or predicting events
prior to the happening.

RETROCOGNITION : the ability to see into the distant past.

EXTRA CORTICAL MEMORY : Memory of the previous birth.

LEVITATION : ability to float on water or walk on the surface of water or land.

PSYCHOKINESIS : moving objects without physical force.

PSYCHOMETRY : the ability to read information about a person or place by

touching a physical object.

MEDIUMSHIP : the ability to channel dead spirits through Crystal Ball, Ouija
Board.

NEAR DEATH EXPERIENCE (NDE) : the soul leaves the body.

Memory
Introduction

● Memory place a very important role in our learning and psychological growth. Through
memory of our past experience we handle new situation. It helps us in our relearning,
problems solving an thinking.
● Memory is regarded as the special ability of our mind to conserve or store what has
been previously learned are experienced and recollect or reproduce it after sometime.

WOODWORTH: “MEMORY CONSISTS IN REMEMBERING WHAT HAS PREVIOUSLY BEEN

LEARNED".

RYBURN DEFINED, ‘MEMORY IS THE POWER THAT WE HAVE TO STORE OUR

EXPERIENCES AND BRING THEM INTO THE FIELD OF OUR CONSCIOUSNESS SOMETIMES
AFTER THE EXPERIENCES HAVE OCCURRED.’
Memory and remembering carry the same meaning. While differentiating between
memory and remembering, Levin (1978) says

➢ ‘Memory can be compared to a giant filing cabinet in the brain with data

stored, classified and cross-filed for future reference.

➢ Remembering depends upon how the brain goes about coding its input:
 Types of Memory
There are 3 types of Memory : (Sensory Memory, short term memory,. and long term memory .

INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL

Immediate or Sensory Memory
Sensory Memory
● it is also called sensory register.
● it has a large capacity can store a good deal of information i.e. about 16 items.
● It can hold information for a very short duration ranging from fraction of a second to
a few seconds.
● Sensory memory is associated with the sensory channels like vision, hearing, touch
and so on.
● The visual sensory register holds information for about 1 second. The auditory
register holds information for about 4 to 5 seconds.
● Sensory image is like the flash of letters on a screen or the auditory image of a
spoken word.
● Attention is an important aspect of Sensory Memory.
● From sensory Memory information may be processed into the Short - term Memory
or Long term Memory or may be discarded.
Short term memory

➢ It holds relatively small amount of information eg. 7 item's.

➢ It holds information for a short period of 20-30 secs
➢ They may consist of sounds, images, words or sentences.
➢ Rehearsal is an important characteristic of short term memory. Rehearsal
keeps item at the centre of attention. Rehearsal takes place in the special part
of this short term memory called rehearsal buffer.
➢ Information from the Short term memory may be transferred to Long term
memory through elaborate rehearsal.
➢ Attention is an important aspect of Short term memory
Long term memory ( LTM)

➢ Long-term memory (LTM) deals with continuous storage and an unlimited

capacity to store information for days, months, years and even a lifetime.

➢ LTM codes information according to meaning, pattern and other

characteristics.

➢ LTM helps in storage, retention and remembrance of life events at record

notice making things quite easy.

Long-term memory can be categorized into

❖ Declarative
❖ Procedural memory.
Declarative memory: Declarative memory also termed as explicit memory is
based on recall and retrieval. It deals with the memory of facts, data and
events. For example, a student knows that the library is open only till 2.00
pm on Sundays. This fact is stored as declarative memory which can
consciously be recalled.

Declarative memory can further be subdivided into Semantic memory and

episodic memory
Procedural memory on the
other hand deals with
different actions and skills.
For example, riding a
scooter, wearing a pair of
shoes, cooking, etc.
Nature of Memory
Memory is a complex process which involves learning, retention, recall and
recognition.
Learning or Registration
Our mind has a special ability by virtue of which every experience or
learning leaves behind traces. These are conserved in the form of ‘engrains:
This is known as learning.

Retention
These engrams or memory traces are preserved in our brain with the help of
our nervous system. This process is known as retention
Recall

Recall means perfect revival of the past experiences.

Recognition

Recognition means that the recalled experience at the conscious level. Recall and
recognition are closely related. Recall provides the material in memory while
recognition is the process of accepting or rejecting it. Recall is an active process
while recognition is more a passive behavior.
Fundamental characteristics of the memory process are:

➢ Memory involves input: Registering or encoding information where a

memory trace is formed from translating the sensory data.
➢ Storage: It is either temporary or permanent.
➢ Output: It involves retrieval. Memory would be useless unless there is a
mechanism to retrieve the information.
Factors influencing memory
Memory refers to the process of remembering. The factors which influence
memory are divided into extrinsic factors and intrinsic factors.

Extrinsic factors:
❏ Meaningfulness of material to be memorized.
➢ Useful and meaningful material which suits the needs, motives and purposes
of an individual can be learned properly, retained for a long time and be
reproduced easily when needed.
➢ Similarly material in the form of sentences, paragraphs can be effectively
managed and memorized only if they are meaningful.
➢ Such meaningful material draws the attention of the learner, creates a sense
of will power and arouses his interest in learning, retaining and reproducing
the material.
❏ Amount of material to be memorized
Greater the amount of material and greater the effort in memorization it needs,
greater is the possibility of failure in terms of learning, retention and
reproduction. Therefore, it is always safer to have a convenient amount of
material for memorization at a particular sitting.
❏ Time required to vocalize responses:
Memory span is consistently higher for short words than for long words. This
increase in span is due to the lesser duration of time needed to pronounce the
shorter words.
❏ Distraction:
Greater the distraction present, poorer would be the performance of the
individual. Alternately, either a calm and quite atmosphere or a stimulating
environment proves to be an effective aid to learning.
Intrinsic factors
➢ Age of the Individual: investigators claim that memory span increases
between the age of 16 and 26 years. Youngsters can remember better
than the aged.
➢ Maturity: very young children cannot retain and remember complex
material.
➢ Will to learn: material read, heard or seen without genuine interest is
difficult to be remembered or recalled.
➢ Interest and attention: interest as well as attention is essential for
learning and memorization.
➢ Intelligence: a more intelligent person will exhibit better memory.
➢ Rest and sleep: adequate sleep and rest helps to relieve fatigue. Fresh
mind is naturally able to learn more and retain it for a longer period.
Medical conditions: major causes for memory loss are contributed by medical
conditions and eating habits.
● High blood pressure
● Dementia can leave a person with severe memory impairment
● Hypothyroidism
● Brain tumours
● Alzheimer's disease: nerve cells are degenerated in this disease
● ADHD (attention deficit hyperactive disorder)
● Nutritional deficiency
● Alcohol intake
● Drugs like Benzodiazepines
● Head injury
Theories of memories
Theorry of General
Memory Functions

This theory focuses on 3

distinct processes of
memory
1. Encoding
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
1. Encoding is the process of receiving sensory input and transforming it into a

code which can be stored.

2. Storage is a process of actually putting coded information into memory.

3. Retrieval is the process of gaining access to stored coded information when

needed. Memory is seldom an accurate record of what was experienced.

Information processing theory
Information processing theory
➢ Information processing theory was developed by Richard Atkinson and
Richard Shiffrin (1968). According to this theory memory starts with a memory
input from the environment.
➢ Information that is attended to and recognized in the sensory register may be
passed on to STM where it is held for 20 to 30 seconds.
➢ Some of the information reaching STM is processed by being rehearsed, after
being repeated over and over that will link it up with other information already
stored in the memory..
➢ Information that is rehearsed by then is passed along to LTM. Information not
so processed is lost.
➢ Information placed in LTM is organized into categories where it may reside for
days, months, years or for a lifetime. When we remember something, a
representation of the item is withdrawn or retrieved from LTM
Levels of Processing Theory

The levels of processing model (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) focuses on the depth of
processing involved in memory, and predicts the deeper information is processed,
the longer a memory trace will last.
Unlike the multi-store model, it is a non-structured approach. The basic idea is that
memory is just what happens as a result of processing information.

Memory is just a by-product of the depth of information processing, and there is no

clear distinction between short-term and long-term memory.
Levels of processing: The idea that the way information is encoded affects how well it is
remembered. The deeper the level of processing, the easier the information is to recall.
We can process information in 3 ways:

Shallow Processing
– This takes two forms
● Structural processing (appearance) which is when we encode only the physical
qualities of something. E.g. the typeface of a word or how the letters look.

● Phonemic processing – which is when we encode its [Link] processing only

involves maintenance rehearsal (repetition to help us hold something in the STM)
and leads to fairly short-term retention of [Link] is the only rehearsal type
to occur within the multi-store model.
 ● Deep Processing
– This takes two forms
Semantic processing, which happens when we encode the meaning of a word and
relate it to similar words with similar meaning. Deep processing involves
elaboration rehearsal which involves a more meaningful analysis (e.g. images,
thinking, associations, etc.) of information and leads to better recall.

For example, giving words a meaning or linking them with previous knowledge.
Participants were presented with a series of 60 words about which they had to
answer one of three questions. Some questions required the participants to
process the word in a deep way (e.g. semantic) and others in a shallow way (e.g.
structural and phonemic). For example:

● Structural / visual processing: ‘Is the word in capital letters or small letters?
● Phonemic / auditory processing: ‘Does the word rhyme with . . .?’
● Semantic processing: ‘Does the word go in this sentence . . . . ?
Methods of Improve Memory
Success in the process of memorization depends much on the methods of learning or
memorization adopted by the learner.
The list of various methods of memorizing is given below

➢ The Recitation Method: In this method the learner first reads the matter once or
twice and then recites and recalls that matter without looking at the matter. The
subject evaluates himself from time to time and notes down those points which he
has not been able to recall.
➢ The Whole and Part Method: According to Whole method the child may read the
matter fully again and again from the beginning to the end and thus memorize it.
This is useful for poems, and small matter.
According to Part method the learning material is divided into smaller units and the
child may try to memorise each part individually.
Spaced (Distributed) and Unspaced Massed Method: In this Spaced method of
learning the child is not required to memorise the entire subject matter in one
continuous sitting. After learning for some time, some rest is given to the child. The
principle of “work and rest” is followed. In Unspaced method the child has to
memorize the assigned work in one sitting without any interval or rest. The
learning goes on continuously without any interruption till it is mastered.

Overlearning/Repetition : In order or remember we must learn several number of

times.
Making use of the Principle of Association
Always attempts should be made to connect it with one’s previous learning on the
one hand and with so many related things on the other.

Utilizing as Many Senses as Possible

Things are better learnt and remembered when they are presented through more
senses than one. Therefore an attempt should be made to take the help of
audiovisual aid material and receive impressions through as many senses as
possible.

Funnel Approach
The funnel approach means learning general concepts before moving onto
specific details. When we understand the general concepts first, the details make
more sense.
Acrostic
It is an invented sentence where the first letter of each word is a clue to an idea
that needs to be remembered. Acrostics are useful especially for long list of things
whose names do not begin with vowels. For example, to remember the bones of
the skull the acrostic sentence can be—‘Old People From Texas Eat Spiders
Occipital, Parietal, Frontal, Temporal, Ethmoid and Sphenoid’
Mnemonic Divices
Mnemonic devises are systems or brief methods designed to improve
memory. Mnemonic devices are techniques a person can use to help them
improve their ability to remember something. In other words, it's a memory
technique to help your brain better encode and recall important information.

Memory Pegs : Memory Pegs with the analogy of a cloakroom in mind, the
reminder cues are called memory pegs to hand the to-be-remembered items eg.
The letter of word VIBGYOR can be used as “Pegs” on which to hand the names
or rainbow colours — Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red.

Rhyming system :Think of the words that rhyme with numbers 1 is a bun, 2 is
shoe, 3 is a tree, 4 is a door and so on. Now when you have a list to remember,
you can associate the items on the list with your images of the number.
The Method of Loci : The word Loci means “places”. The memory pegs of this
system are parts of your image of a scene. Supposing you want to remember for
examination, Classical conditioning. Then start by imagining a dog, experimental
room, food, bell and any person as an experimenter. Rehearse this image over
and over until it is well established in your mind. After you have formed your
image, associate the events like extinction, stimulus generalization etc. with this.
The trick is to make association with as many concepts as needed.

Make a story : If you have a list of unrelated items to remember a useful device is
to relate the items in a made-up story. The story starts with the first item on the list
and each succeeding items in included in that order.
Chunking : Chunking is suppose you want to remember your credit card number
19891609001, you can break the numbers into chunks, the first four digits could
be remembered as the year you passed your school or associate with any
significant thing that happened in that year — next four digits could also be taken
as date eg. Some one’s birthday. The last three numbers form a chunk that is easy
to remember by itself
Forgetting

➢ Forgetting means that the individual faiis to recall an idea or group of ideal to

the conscious level, when asked to do so.

➢ It is due to the weakening of the ‘engrams’ that the formed in our mind at the

time of learning Forgetting generally takes place due to lack of interest and

lack of attention. ‘
Definitions

According to MUNN ; “FORGETTING IS THE LOSS, PERMANENT OR

TEMPORARY OF THE ABILITY TO RECALL OR RECOGNISE SOMETHING
LEARNED EARLIER’,

According to DREVER: “ FORGETTING MEANS FAILURE AT ANY TIME TO

RECALL AN EXPERIENCE WHEN ATTEMPTING TO DO SO OR TO PERFORM
AN ACTION PREVIOUSLY LEARNED”.
Types of Forgetting

Forgetting is just the opposite of remembering and essentially a failure in

the ability to reproduce. It can be classified into ( classification 1)
1. Natural forgetting: Forgetting occurs with lapse of time in a quite normal
way without any intention of forgetting on the part of the individual.
2. Morbid forgetting (abnormal): Person deliberately tries to forget
something (repression).
classification 2
1. General forgetfulness: One suffers a total loss in one’s recalling some
previous learning.
2. Specific forgetfulness: The individual forgets only one or a specific part
of his earlier learning.
3. Physical forgetfulness: One loses his memory on account of factors like
age, disease, biological malfunctioning of the brain and nervous
system, accidents, consumption of liquor or other intoxicating
materials, etc.
4. Psychological forgetfulness: One loses his memory on account of
factors like stress anxiety, conflicts, temper provocation, lack of
interest, apathy, repression or similar other emotional and psychic
difficulties.
Causes of forgetting
● Inadequate impression while learning
Inadequate or improper learning is likely to be forgotten. Will is the most
important factor in remembering. Forced learning either results in no learning
or has a very temporary effect.
● Lapse of time:
Time is said to be a great healing factor. What is learned or experienced is
forgotten with lapse of time.
● Interference of association:
We forget something because what has been learned earlier interferes with
the remembering of what has been learnt later on.
● Rise of emotions:
Emotions play a key role in learning as well as in forgetting. The sudden rise
of emotions in excess blocks the process of recall.
● Poor physical and mental health
Deterioration in health makes an individual less confident and more upset.
Neither is he able to learn it effectively nor is he able to recall it easily after
sometime. People having lower intelligence quotient (IQ) or suffering from
mental defects have generally been found to have poor retention and recall
abilities. In some cases a brain injury may also become the sole cause for
loss of memory.
● Inadequate practice
We forget because of inadequate repetition or practice of learning material
that has been over learned with long hours of studying. Studying without
proper spacing strains our nerves and results in fatigue.
Theories of Forgetting

Trace decay theory:

A ‘Trace’ or ‘ Engram’ is some form of physical and chemical change in the
Nervous system. It says that learning results in neurological changes leaving
certain types of memory traces or engrams in the brain. With the passage of time
through disuse, these memory traces of learning impressions get weaker and
weaker and finally fade away. It leads us to conclude that the older an experience,
the weaker its memory
This theory has proved a failure in many instances of forgetting. In LTM such as
learning to ride a bicycle forgetting does not occur even after years of neglect.
However, this theory has provided good results in explaining forgetfulness in the
case of STM. Drill, practice, rehearsal or repetition of learning always results in
preventing decay.
Interference Theory

Mechanism of interference is responsible for forgetting. Interference is caused on

a account of the negative inhibiting effects of one learning experience on another.
We forget things because of such interference.
The psychological term used for these types of interference is retroactive
inhibition and proactive inhibition
Proactive interference is when older memories interfere with the retrieval of
newer memories. Because older memories are often better rehearsed and more
strongly cemented in long-term memory,
Retroactive interference is when newer memories interfere with the retrieval of
older memories. Essentially, this type of interference creates a backward effect,
making it more difficult to recall things that have been previously learned.
Interference Theory as a whole has proved to be quite successful in providing
adequate explanation for natural and normal forgetting for both STM and LTM
Repression Theory

Repression means to push down painful experiences into the

unconscious mind. People under heavy emotional shock forget
their names, homes, wives, children etc. Emotions such as fear,
anxiety, sadness, worry makes us to forget. Eg. During exams we
forget because of anxiety. Or we forget to go to the dentist if we
do not like the dentist.
For example, a sudden rise of emotions in excess may completely block

the process of recall. That is why a child fails to recall the answer to a

question in the presence of a teacher whom he fears very much.

Memory and Nurse
➢ A person who has forgotten certain information or events due to illness may
find it quite disturbing. The nurse has to reassure him that such memory can
return with treatment and time.
➢ Loss of memory can be a feature of serious neurological illnesses. The nurse
should watch for and report such an occurrence.
➢ Visitors often get depressed by the atmosphere of the hospital and remember
sad events of similar nature in their own lives, including serious illnesses and
deaths of relatives etc. The nurse should control such activity of the visitors,
and encourage positive memories and discussions.
Thinking and Reasoning
Thinking

Thinking is a complex mental activity. It is symbolic in character, initiated by a

problem which the individual is facing, involves the response of the individual to
this problem.

According to VALENTINE ‘ THINKING IS AN ACTIVITY WHICH CONSISTS

ESSENTIALLY OF A CONNECTED FLOW OF IDEAS WHICH ARE DIRECTED
TOWARDS SOME END OR PURPOSE’.
Characteristics of thinking

➢ Thihking is a cognitive activity.

➢ It is goal directed. .
➢ It is a problem solving behavior but all problem solving behaviours are not
thinking. Thinking is related to inner cognitive behavior.
➢ It is process of mental exploration.
➢ It-is a symbolic activity as the process of thinking involves use of symbols.
➢ Images, Concepts, Symbols and Languages are used as instruments of
thinking.
Types of Thinking
Thinking is mental process is usually classified into the

Perceptual or Concrete thinking: It is the simplest form of thinking. It involves

perception. ( interpretation of Sensation according to one’s experience)Here, thinking is
based on actual or concrete objects or events. e. g. Children who have seen an apple for
the first time will think it is a ball. Only after having eaten the apple they will know it is a
fruit.

Conceptual or Abstract thinking: like perceptual thinking it does not require the
perception. Here one makes use of concepts or ideas. Language plays an important role
in conceptual thinking. This may not involve actual objects. Eg. When you explain to the
child that black means darkness he will think about darkness as night.
Reflective or logicalthinking: It is a higher type of thinking, it is aimed at solving
problems. It is differentiated from simple problems. It involves organizing
information, finding solutions, removing all obstacles and solving the problem.

Creative thinking: This type of thinking involves creating something new and
unique. It is in search of new relationships and associations and describe and
interpret the nature of the things, events, and situation. It is not bounded by any pri
established rule. Artists, writers, novelist, dancers, directors, can all be called
creative thinkers.
Other types of Thinking

Directed and Non directed thinking

In directed thinking a purpose, a goal and a problem are to be solved through
thinking. It is purposeful thinking. It is goal-directed thinking which includes
reasoning, problem-solving, concept formation and creative thinking. It is logical
and reality oriented thinking.

Non-directed thinking is a wishful thinking that is influenced by our needs,

feelings and wishes. It is also called autistic thinking. Non-directed thinking lacks
reasoning and logic. It involves fantasy, dreaming and day-dreaming.
Levels of Thinking ( Based on Bloom’s Taxonomy)
Levels of thinking
Bloom’s Taxonamy was created by Dr. Benjamin Bloom in 1956 to promote higher
forms of thinking in education. This proceß of thinking involes six levels. While
infants and toddlers mostly use the first two levels, by the age of 3 yrs children can
use all six.
1. Remember: This level helps us to recall foundational or factual
information—names, dates, formulas, definitions, components or methods,
Appropriate learning outcome verbs for this level include—cite, define,
describe, label, list match, name, outline, quote, recall, report, reproduce,
retrieve, show, state, and tell.
2. Understand: this level helps us to explain main ideas and concepts and make
meaning by interpreting, classifying, summarising, comparing and explaining.
Appropriate learning outcome verbs for this level are abstract, arrange, articulate,
categorize, clarify, compare, conclude, contrast, differentiate, discuss, distinguish,
estimate, explain, give examples of, illustrate, interpret, summarize and translate.

3. Apply: This level helps us to recognize or use concepts in real world situations and
address when, where or how to employ methods and ideas, Appropriate learning
outcome verbs for this level include—apply, calculate, carry out, classify, compute,
demonstrate, employ, examine, predict and use.
4. Analyze: Analyze means breaking a topic or idea into components or examining
a subject from various perspectives. It helps us to see, how the whole is created
from the parts. Appropriate learning outcome verbs for this level include analyze,
categorize, classify, compare, contrast, detect, organize, separate and structure.

5. Evaluate: It means making judgments about something based on criteria and

standards. This requires checking and critiquing an argument or concept to form
an opinion about its value. Appropriate learning outcome verbs for this level
include appraise, assess, compare, conclude, consider, criticize, determine,
evaluate, judge, justify, test and validate.
6. Create: It involves putting elements together to form a coherent or functional
whole. Creating includes reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure
through planning. This is the highest and most advanced level of Bloom’s
taxonomy. Appropriate learning outcome verbs for this level include—arrange,
assemble, build, collect, construct, design, develop, synthesize and write.
Reasoning

● According to GARRET “ reasoning is a step wise thinking with a

purpose or goal in mind “
● Reasoning is regarded as the highest form of thinking because it
needs a well organised brain
Types of Reasoning

1. Inductive Reasoning : here from many particular truths or judgement,

universal truth or judgement is concluded. It proceeds from particular
facts to a general conclusion. On the basis of fact observed and
experienced under similar conditions, we try to discover universal
relationship or generalizations.
2. Deductive Reasoning

Here, we try to apply the universal truth or generalized principle in solving

particular problems. In deductive reasoning we start completely agreeing
with some already discovered or pre-established generalized fact or principle
and try to apply it to particular cases. Deductive reasoning is from general to
specific. (General rule to specific application).
Problem Solving

● Problem solving is an important kind of thinking.

● Problem solving behavior occurs in difficult situations In which a solution
is not obtainable by the habitual method.
● Problem situation occurs when there is an obstacle to reach the goal.
The obstacle may be physical, social or financial, which may hinder
progress of the individual towards a goal.
Problem Solving Method

1. Trial and error or mechanical means

2. Insight or sudden flash of an idea

Steps
Scientific method of Problem solving involves seven steps
➢ Recognising the problem: It is quite possible to have a problem and not be
aware of it especially in its early stage. Hence the first step is to identify the
problem.
➢ Defining the problem: To state exactly what the problem is i.e. identifying the
problem in definite terms.
➢ Collecting relevant information or data: from all possible sources that have
bearing on the problem. Appropriate tools are gathered, books and magazines
may be collected.
➢ Formulation of Hypothesis or possible solutions: One tries to think of the
various possibilities for the solution of one’s own problem in the light of the
information and his own experiences. Intelligence and other cognitive abilities
also help in the formulation of an appropriate hypothesis.
➢ Evaluation of the hypothesis for possible solutions: Here, we put into
practice the course of action we have chosen as the most appropriate
and verify its rightness by the results or conclusions. All tentative
solutions should be closely analysed and evaluated.
➢ Verification: The validity of the derived conclusion is tested by employing
them in solution of various similar problems. If they are found suitable
in solving these problems, they are accepted for the current situation.
➢ Choosing another action if unsuccessful: If another action is necessary
you will have to return to your list of possible solutions and choose
again.
Elements in Development of thought ( Tools of thinking)

● Five Main Tools of Thinking in Human being are as follows: a. Images b.

Concepts c. Language d. Symbols e. Brain.

● Human being is capable of thinking. Thinking process requires certain aids

which are called as tools of thinking.
Image
Image is a mental picture formed in the mind in the absence of stimulus. This
takes place when we try to remember the experience of stimulus. We are able to
think on the basis of these images.

Concept
Thinking always takes place by using the concepts in the mind. Without concepts
there cannot be thinking, because everything around us is recorded in the brain in
the form of concepts.
Uses of concepts
● It is a time and labor saving device.
● It facilitates the transfer of learning.
● It reduces the complexity of the individual’s world.

Symbols and Signs

Symbols and signs represent and stand as substitutes for actual objects,
experiences and activities.
Symbols and Signs
Svmbols and signs represent and stand as substitutes for actual objects,
experiences and [Link] lights, railway signals, school bells, badges,
songs, flags and slogans all stand for the symbolic expression. These symbols
and signs stimulate and economize thinking. They instantly tell us what to do or
how to act. For example, the waving of the green flag by the guard tells us that the
train is about to move and we should get into the train

Languages
Language is the most efficient and developed vehicle for carrying out the thinking
process. It broadens our thinking. When one listens, reads or writes words,
phrases or sentences or observes gestures in any language, one is stimulated to
think.
Brain

Finally it is the brain which is the seat of all mental processes. Since thinking is
also a higher mental process, the role of brain is crucial. All our experiences are
stored in the brain as engrams. Our thinking takes place on the basis of these
engrams. Hence, it is quite obvious that brain is an essential tool of thinking.
Errors of Thinking
Various errors of thinking are
Partialism: This error occurs when the thinker observes the problem through one
perspective only, ic., the thinker examines only one or two factors of the problem
and arrives at a premature solution.

Adversary thinking: This is like ‘You are wrong. So, I should be right.’ type of
reasoning. Politicians are masters in this type of thinking and use it to their
advantage.

Initial judgment: Here the thinker becomes very subjective. Instead of

considering the issue or problem objectively the thinker approaches it with
prejudice or bias.
Arrogance and conceit: Simply stated, the thinker has his own perception and
believes that there is no other better solution than the one he has already found.
This blocks creativity. It is a phenomenon wherein the villagers think that the
prettiest girl in the village is the most beautiful girl in the world. ( Village venous
effect)

Black and white thinking: Thinking of things in absolute terms, like ‘always;
‘every’ or ‘never! For example, if your performance falls short of perfect you see
yourself as a total failure.

Overgeneralization: This sneaky distortion takes one instance or example and

generalizes it to an overall pattern. For example, a student may receive a C on
one test and conclude that she is stupid and a failure.
Mental filter: Similar to overgeneralization, the mental filter distortion focuses on
a single negative piece of information and excludes all the positive ones. The
mental filter can foster a decidedly pessimistic view of everything around you by
focusing only on the negative.

Magnification and minimization: Exaggerating negatives and understating

positives.

Emotional reasoning: Making decisions and arguments based on how you feel
rather than objective reality.
Aptitude
Introduction

● Aptitude means quickness in learning and understanding. It may be a natural

talent or an acquired ability. It is the special aptness or fitness for a special
ability such as mechanical, musical, artistic, scholastic or religious.
● Individuals possess specific aptitude or ability in addition to intellectual
abilities or intelligence which helps them to achieve success in certain
occupations or activities.
● Thus aptitude means specific ability or capacity distinct from general
intellectual ability that helps to acquire proficiency or achievement in a given
field.
Definitions

ACCORDING TO BINGHAM (1937)

APTITUDE REFERS TO THOSE QUALITIES CHARACTERIZING A PERSON’S
WAY OF BEHAVIOR WHICH SERVE TO INDICATE HOW WEll HE CAN LEARN
TO MEET AND SOLVE A CERTAIN SPECIFIED KIND OF PROBLEM.

ACCORDING TO HAHN & MACHEAM : “APTITUDES ARE CORRECTLY

REFERRED TO AS LATENT POTENTIALITIES, UNDEVELOPED CAPACITIES
TO ACQUIRE ABILITIES AND SKILLS AND TO DEMONSTRATE
ACHIEVEMENTS”.
Characteristics/ concept of Aptitude

➢ Certain aspects of many aptitudes maybe inborn.

➢ It depends upon heredity and environment.

➢ Attitude differs from ability and achievement, Ability is present oriented

whereas achievement is past oriented. But aptitude is future oriented.

➢ Aptitude measures the specific abilities.

➢ Aptitude is an innate component of a competency to do a certain kind of work
at a certain level.
➢ Aptitudes are learnt potentialities.
➢ Aptitude is derived from general mental ability and it predicts one’s possible
success or failure in a vocation.
➢ Aptitude helps an individual to learn faster and achieve success.
➢ Aptitude is very helpful in choosing any kind of activity, in which we wish to be
successful or enjoy ourselves.
➢ Aptitude is different from skill and proficiency.

➢ Skill is the ability to perform a given act with ease and precision, is skill is a

psychomotor activity,

➢ but proficiency has the same meaning, except that it is more comprehensive.
Types of Aptitude
Various types of aptitude are:

Manual aptitude: It indicates motor abilities or skills required for semi-skilled

occupations

Mechanical aptitude: It involves the ability to understand and solve problems

involving mechanical relationships and arrangements such as those which occur
in the adjustment, repair and assembly of machinery.

Clerical aptitude: It indicates perceptual and intellectual abilities, mental and motor
skills,
Other types of aptitude: These include musical, graphic, scholastic/professional
aptitudes. Commonly recognized aptitudes that are testable include
● General learning ability
● Verbal aptitude
● Numerical aptitude
● Inductive reasoning aptitude (differen
● tiation or inductive learning ability)
● Finger dexterity aptitude
● Number series aptitude
● Language learning aptitude
● Mechanical comprehension
● Symbolic reasoning aptitude (analytical reasoning)
● Visual memory
● Visual pursuit (line tracing)
Individual differences and variability in Aptitude
➢ Aptitudes are highly individualized and specialized apart from one’s general level of
intelligence. For example, two individuals may have the same level of intelligence
but not do well in the same kind of education or training due to differences in their
aptitude.
➢ It is these differences in aptitude that will decide the area in which they will practice
successfully.
➢ One nurse may have an aptitude for handling surgical instruments and do well in the
operation theater; another may have an aptitude for problem-solving in research and
enjoy research and teaching.
➢ Aptitudes are very important in determining success in professional practices.
➢ An aptitude is a composite of different component abilities that together make
for success in performance in a particular field.
➢ Higher the aptitude, higher are the chances of success and lower the
aptitude, lower is the probability of achievement.
➢ Higher the aptitude, lesser is the time required for learning and mastery.
Lower the aptitude, greater is the time required for learning.
Psychometric Assessment of Cognitive Processes

➢ Neuropsychological testing is a procedure that measures and identifies

cognitive impairment and functioning in individuals.

➢ Neuropsychological testing provides diagnostic clarification and grading of

clinical severity for patients with subtle or obvious cognitive disorders.

➢ These include:
➢ Children who are not achieving appropriate developmental milestones

➢ Fetus exposed to drugs, alcohol or illness Patients with head injuries

➢ Patients with Parkinson disease or other neurological diseases

➢ Patients exposed to chemicals or toxins Substance abusing patients

➢ Stroke victims

➢ Patients with dementia

Types of Aptitude test
The most common aptitude tests are:
➢ Mechanical reasoning: These types test your knowledge of physical concepts and
are generally used to evaluate you for technical positions.

➢ Situational judgment: These tests gauge your reactions to situations and your
decision-making.

➢ Diagrammatic/spatial reasoning: These tests see how well you can reach a
conclusion based on processes contained in diagrams.

➢ Numerical reasoning: In these tests, the abilities with numbers, math, and data are
tested.
:
➢ Verbal reasoning: Your language, reading comprehension, and vocabulary
are tested in these types. Aptitude tests administered depending upon the
profession they are trying to get into.
➢ Inductive/ Abstract reasoning: Under the pressure of time, these tests see
how well you analyze patterns and [Link] aptitude tests do not rely on
acquired linguistic or numeric abilities but on innate abilities and are thus
termed nonverbal reasoning tests.
➢ Logical reasoning: Logical reasoning tests measure how well you recognize
patterns and sequences and identify relationships between objects.
➢ Clerical aptitude: This aptitude indicates different abilities like perceptual,
intellectual abilities, mental skills and motor skills. Some of the popular clerical
aptitude tests are Detroit clerical aptitude examination and Minnesota
vocational test for clerical workers