Unit1:Vocab: Blending: A red (mom) and yellow (father) blend to make orange (child), this represents the hypothesis.

,Homozygous: Having identical genes (one from each

parent) for a particular characteristic or two alleles of a trait that are the same (YY or yy). Particulate hypothesis: The idea that parents pass on discrete heritable units (genes),
best represents which this hypothesisGenome: The entire set of genes in an [Link]: An allele that is masked by a dominant allele. Genetics: A branch of biology that
deals with heredity and variation of organisms. Heterozygous: Having two different genes for a particular characteristic or two alleles of a trait that are different (Yy).Dominant:
The allele of a gene that masks or suppresses the expression of an alternate [Link]: Carry the hereditary information or genes.T/F: in a mono-hybrid cross between
two heterozygous individuals (Tt), 25% of the individuals will be homozygous recessive (tt).When you have an individual with an unknown genotype, to find the unknown
individuals genotype you do a test cross with a homozygous recessive [Link] traits are equally shown in incomplete co-dominance individuals. Lethal genes are
capable of causing the death of an [Link]. Some humans may have 47 chromosomes instead of 46 chromosomes, due to genetic [Link]. The physical appearance
of an organism is called a [Link] generation represented by "P" is the parental [Link]. A type of cross that deals with two traits at a time is called a di-hybrid
cross. In meiosis two, four non-identical daughter cells are [Link]. in Trisomy 21 (Dows Syndrome), an individual has only one chromosome in the 21 position. Mcq: During
meiosis occurs, in which chromosomes swap their genetic [Link] over. Due to meiosis you receive what percentage of genetics from each parent?50%. The
number of chromosomes in a gamete is called? haploid chromosome number. The number of chromosomes in all other cells (not gametes) is called? diploid chromosome
number. Why are sex linked genes a violation of Mendel's Principles? Men only receive one allele, on their X chromosome. What is expected ratio in a dihybrid cross that will
always occur if two true heterozygous parents are bred/crossed (TtYy x TtYy)? 9:3:3:1. When both phenotypes are displayed this is called?co-dominance. When a mixture or
blend of two phenotypes is displayed this is called? incomplete dominance. Human blood types are an example of which of the following?co-dominance and multiple alleles. A
gene that can kill an individual if they have it. lethal genes.

Unit 2:V= selective breeding: When humans only allow animals with desired traits to breed and produce the next generation. cloning: The process of forming identical offspring
from a single cell. nucleus: DNA is found in this organelle in eukaryotic cells. electrophoresis: Separating DNA into fragments, allowing scientists to visualize/analyse sections of
DNA. recombinant DNA: Combining DNA from two different organisms to create a new sequence of DNA. interphase: DNA replication occurs during this phase of mitosis. gene
therapy: Adding or deleting segments of genes to treat genetic disorders. DNA nucleotide: Composed of a ribose sugar, phosphate backbone, and nitrogen bases (adenine,
cytosine, guanine,uracil). cytoplasm: DNA is found in this organelle in prokaryotic cells. ribosomes: Site of protein synthesis in the cell. hydrogen: The type of bond holding the
nitrogenous bases together in a DNA molecule. amino acid: The monomer of a protein. semi-conservative: Half of a new DNA strand comes from the old strand, therefore DNA
replication is considered codon: Three bases odnstoren aminoacid. anti-codon: Three bases on a tRNA molecule that are complementary to the codon on an mRNA molecule.
M.c.q: In DNA what does adenine pair with :thymine In RNA what does adenine pair with? uracil In DNA replication, discontinuous synthesis is completed in short fragments
called? Okazaki fragments These |proteins bind to each strand of DNA during replication to keep them separated? Single stranded binding proteins This carries the genetic code
from DNA to the ribosomes to specify the amino acid sequence of a protein? mRNA - messenger RNA The body must use mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, DNA, amino acids, and ribosomes
to perform what? protein synthesis This is responsible for transferring the correct amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosomes for protein synthesis? tRNA - transfer RNA
The first step in protein synthesis where mRNA carries the message of DNA to the ribosomes? transcription The second step in protein synthesis where tRNA brings the correct
amino acids to the ribosomes, to create the protein? translation Why was the cloning of dolly the sheep so special/revolutionary? B and C are both reasons why the cloning of
dolly was revolutionary If you have 27 nucleotides, you will have how many codons? 9 The last codon, which signals the end of protein synthesis, is always a? Stop codon The
first codon, which is always the start codon is what amino acid? methionine (MET) This type of gene mutation is a permanent change in a DNA sequence caused by extra
nucleotide(s)? insertion/addition In this type of gene mutation, one base is replaced by a different one? substitution In this type of gene mutation part of a DNA molecule is not
copied during DNA replication? deletion Mutations resulting in changes in the number of chromosomes? Numeric Chromosomal Mutations Which is not a type of structural
chromosomal mutation? Numerical , In this type of structural chromosomal mutation, a segment of a chromosome is repeated. Duplication. In this type of structural
chromosomal mutation, a part of a chromosome is reversed. Inversion. T.F: 1.F,2.F Y SHAPE 3.t 4.f helicase 5.t 6.t 7.t 8.f 9.t 10. t///Rna:
AUG/CCG/GGA/AAA/CUG/GCC/UAU/UAA - [Link]: Met/Pro/Gly/lys/Leu/Ala/tyr/stop – DNA: ATG/CCG/GCA/AAA/CTG/GCC/CGC/TAA – mR:
UAC/GGC/CGU/UUU/GAC/CGG/GCG/AUU – A.A: Tyr/Gly/Arg/Phe/Asp/Arg/Ala/Iso – tR: AUG/CCG/GCA/AAA/CUG/GCC/CGC/UAA 3= deoxyribes sugar-b.d:hydrogen bonds-
p.c:phosohate= frame shift,if the number of inserted nucleitides isn’t a multiple of three and does interrupt the entire sequence of amino acids./non, if the number of
nucleotides inserted is a multiple of three and doesn’t interrupt the entire sequence of amino acids. Ex: CAG/CCC/ACA:frame:CAG/ICC/CAC>glr-set-his,non:CAG/TTT/ACT>Glr-
Phe-Pro-Tw= c: Frame- Shift are worse because a frame shift Mutation. Changes the entire sequence of amino acid in Protein. It's more likely to Change the shape of protein and
its the ability , to work of the protein structure is changed and it has affected it's function in any nutation this may large a disease.2,DNA, contains the ribose sugar instead of a
[Link],is a single stranded instead of double [Link],contains uface in place of thymine and they both store genetic informations, bot consist of sugar,
nitrogenous base and phosphate backbone.3= Ex. of numeric is trisomy it occurs when there's an extra Chromosome Ex. of monosomy structure is duplication. the segment of
Chromosomes is repeated the numeric is when it involves changes in the number ofchromosome describe. Structural has 4 types deletion duplicationinversie and
translocation.4= Substitutions :one base is replaced by a different one can rent in Me amino [Link]: occurs when a part of DNA Molecule is not copied during DNA
[Link]: Mutation is permenent Charge in DNA Sequence Caused by the addition of nucleotides, extra nucleotides are inserted. L.A1=The first step, is copying
theDNA to the RNA, and this is called transcription . DNA is to large to leave nucleus, so the mRNA has to deliver it's message. A Portion of DNA is opened .RNA Polymerase
Synonymous makes mRNA. =2= The first step before replication is for DNA gyrase to attach it self Onto the DNA to ensure the supercoiling doesn't occur. Replication first starts
when helices basically Seperates the ladder in half by splitting the two strands into two seperate ones. C. splits hydrogen bonds, so the Next step is to ensure that both strands
will remain Seperated and that's what the SSB proteins do by attaching onto the strands of DNA. The Primes places primers called RNA primers to make where replication Should
begin. DNA Polymerase 3 begins by adding new nucleotides Strands of DNA to the existing ones in the s - 3 direction. This What causes discontinuous Synthesis in the DNA
because the replication can occur in this direction, so far the strand that's Facing the other directions, polymerase builds is to make proteins enzymes involved RNA Polymerase.
Unit3: Happens when species reproduce many more offspring than can possibly survive since the world has limited resources? Overproduction,The change in allele frequencies
in the gene pool of a population over several generations is the definition of? evolution,A type of evolutionary change that is quick, occurs in short periods of time?punctuated
equilibrium,A type of evolutionary change that is slow, but continuous? Gradualism,Is the evolutionary process by which reproductively isolated populations evolve to become
distinct species? Speciation,Some organisms use what to increase their chance of survival?A and B only,When humans select favourable traits of plants and animals, and only
allow those individuals to bread and form the next generation. This is called what? artificial selection,The entire set of genes in an individual organism is called what?
Genome,Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Neisseria gonorrhoeae are now almost always resistant to benzyl penicillin. This is an example of?antibiotic-resistant
bacteria,Occurs when natural selection favours both extremes? disruptive natural selection, Occurs when natural selection favours the intermediate (moderate)
traits?stabilizing natural selection,Occurs when natural selection favours one extreme? directional natural selection,This indicates extensive genetic diversity, which is
associated with robust populations that can survive bouts of intense selection? a large gene pool,This indicates low genetic diversity which makes populations more susceptible
to extinction?a small gene pool,When individuals do not mate preferentially, so random mixing of gametes will occur, this is called? random mating,When the frequency of an
allele or genotype in a gene pool (such as a population) does not change from generation to generation, allowing the population to survive intense periods of natural selection.
Genetic equilibrium,Which is not a criteria of genetic equilibrium?non-random mating, Refers to diversity in gene frequencies, from generation to generation, therefore no
genetic equilibrium. genetic variation, Is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype?natural selection, Genetic exchange due to
the migration of individuals between populations. gene flow,When the probability of individual mating is not the same for all individuals of a population (i.e. brown beetles only
mating with other brown beetles, never tan beetles). non random mating,Reproductive isolation leads to? Speciation,A type of reproductive isolation where plants and animals
are separated by location, not allowing them to breed? geographic isolation,The entire set of genes in an inter-breeding population is called what? gene pool,A type of
reproductive isolation where individuals cannot mate because their reproductive organs are not compatible? Mechanical isolation{=2=}( Stabilizing selection) “Most individuals
in a given species have moderate traits, and the traits in the gene pool go against the extreme traits.” (Directional Selection) “When a gene pool of a species favour one of the
extreme traits and neglect the other extreme.” (Disruptive Selection) “When a gene pool of species favour both extremes while neglecting the moderate traits.”evolution table:
(Co-Evolution) “In reaction to a genetic alteration in another species (or group), a shift in the genetic composition of one species (or group) occurs.” (Divergent Evolution) “Refers
to the possibility the type of evolution where individual characteristics may lead to the emergence of a new species” (Convergent Evolution) “As a result of needing to adapt to
comparable surroundings or ecological niches, animals that are not closely related evolve with similar features on their own.”pace of evolutionary change( Gradualism) “Change
is a slow but constant process in gradualism. It's difficult to observe over a short period of time, but if you look back far enough in a species' history, you'll notice a steady
selection of features through time.”(Punctuated Equilibrium) “Over a few generations, a species changes dramatically, then settles down, demonstrating little evolutionary
change for the most of their geological history.” (evolutionary theory terms web): Answer: Overproduction of individuals and the lack of resources to help them survive leads
to an imbalance. This imbalance forces competition between them so they can survive within their environment. This is when variation of traits and phenotypes come in.
Those with unfavourable traits/phenotypes are eliminated from the environment. Those individuals with favourable variations thrive hence the term ‘survival of the fittest.’
This notion is referred to as ‘natural selection.’ Those who survive, pass on their traits to the next generation as traits are inherited. This gradual accumulation of the
favourable traits subtly leads to change in the allele frequencies of the gene pool. When the allele frequencies are altered, this may lead to the formation of a new species,
or the same species with more favourable traits. {S.A} Summarize in your own words the contributions of the following scientists to the theory of evolution; Aristotle,
Lamarck, Lyell, Linneaus, Darwin, and Malthus. Aristotle believed that all species were fixed creations that were arranged by their complexity. He formed a system of
classification which separated the organisms that have blood and those that do not. Lamarck was one of the first scientists to understand that evolutionary change happens over
time. He stated that adaptations may occur throughout the lifetime of an individual. Lyell stated that the earth was millions of years old, and had the theory that earth was
shaped due to erosion over time. Linneaus grouped organisms, and gave latin names to them. Darwin is well-known for his ‘theory of Natural Selection’, and had many
observations which aided us in understanding the processes of evolution. Malthus figured out that populations are limited by resources in the environment such as food and
water. Choose TWO of the following “Fact or Fiction” statements and explain why they are not true. “Evolution is a theory about the origin of life. (Fiction)” “ The fittest
organisms in a population are those that are the strongest, fastest, and/or largest. (Fiction)” Evolution is not a theory about the origin of life. Most evolutionary biology studies
how life changed after the formation of its origin. The fittest organisms are not the fastest, strongest, or largest. They are the ones that have greater reproductive ability than
other individuals.{ Explain how Darwin’s Finches are an example of evolution. }“Darwin’s Finches are a quintessential example of evolution. Darwin observed that the finches had
different types of beaks and phenotypes depending on the food they ate and their geographical location. The finches that developed the traits suited for their environment
passed on their traits to their descendants. Those with the unfavourable traits died off as they were unable to survive in the environment. The ones that survived were able to
pass their traits on to the next generation. This natural selection and the inheritance of traits explains to us how evolution occurs.” { Summarize Darwin’s 6 main observations}
“Darwin stated that populations are limited by the amount of resources evident in the environment. This occurs as a result of overproduction which leads to an imbalance in the
environment. Darwin states that individuals differ greatly in their characteristics; no two individuals in a population are alike. A large portion of this variation is inherited.
Variation in populations comes form inherited genes, and is evident in all populations. This is how Darwin’s views relate to the concept of variation. Darwin stated that survivors
continue to pass on their qualities to the following generation, resulting in population changes and, in rare cases, the emergence of a new species. He perfectly describes how
speciation occurs, and how it’s a by product of natural selection, and the alteration of allele frequencies and gene pools. Darwin states that more individuals produced than the
environment can support leads to competition; those with the weakest combinations of traits die, while those with the best combinations live to reproduce. This is how ‘survival
of the fittest’ works, as the fittest are classified as the ones with the greatest reproductive ability. Darwin states that variation is random and not directed toward any one trait;
however, qualities that are more adapted to the environment are more likely to thrive. This perfectly describes the notion of adaptation. Darwin states that species are not
uniformly spread around the planet; they have evolved to thrive in specific settings.”{ Explain evolution using the terms natural selection, gene pool, allele frequency, and
population. } “Limited resources limit the amount of individuals that can survive and this becomes a problem due to overproduction. Natural selection comes into play when
competition is created as a result of this imbalance. Individuals with favourable traits thrive, while others die off. This reproduction of the ones with favourable traits alters the
allele frequency within the gene pool. This process continues within the population to create a different one or even form a new species.”{ ) Define speciation. What 5 factors}
“Speciation is an evolutionary process in which a new species emerges. It’s driven by evolution, which is a process that results in the accumulation of small genetic changes
called mutations in a population over a long period of time. Geographic isolation: Geographic isolation refers to a population of animals, plants, or other creatures that are
isolated from other organisms of the same species in terms of genetic [Link] differentiation: The process by which competing species exploit the environment
differently in order to coexist is referred to as niche [Link] isolation: If the reproductive organs of two individuals are incompatible, they may not be able
to reproduce [Link] physiology, Altered behaviour { Define genetic equilibrium. What 5 factors}. “ Genetic Equilibrium happens when an allele/genotype in a
gene pool, where the frequency doesn’t change from one generation to another. They are likely to survive intense periods of natural selection without leading to extinction.
Large population: The allele frequencies are more likely to change by chance from generation to generation in a smaller population; they do not fluctuate in a bigger population
[Link] mating: Mating must take place at random. If individuals selectively marry, there will be no random mixing of gametes, and gene frequencies will shift to
favour those chosen during non-random mating. No gene flow: When genes are introduced or eliminated from a population, allele frequencies can [Link] mutation,No
natural selection{ Define genetic variation} “ Genetic Variation refers to diversity within allele frequencies from one generation to the next, therefore no genetic equilibrium
occurs. Natural selection: is the difference in individual survival and reproduction owing to phenotypic characteristics; changes in allele frequencies through time. Gene flow: A
genetic exchange that occurs when fertile individuals or gametes/alleles migrate between populations. Genetic drift. Non-random mating: When the likelihood of two
individuals in a population mating is not the same for all potential pairs of individuals. Mutation. UNIT4: Eukaryotic cells: always have a nucleus and other membrane-bound
organelles. Dna with [Link] cells: no nucleus or any membrane-bound organelles.. dna without [Link] –archea : Consists of prokaryotic cells; no nuclear
membrane, Halophiles which live in very salty water such as the dead [Link] –eukarya: rganisms that contain a membrane-bound nucleus.•Contains 4 Kingdoms. It has 4
kingdoms (fungi, plantae, animalia, and protista). domain –bacteria: Consists of prokaryotic cells; no nuclear membrane. Can be aerobic or [Link] –eubacteria: The
most abundant organisms on Earth.•kingdom –Protista : Autotrophic & heterotrophic. include algae and [Link] –fungi: Used to be in the Plant kingdom because they
appear to have similarities with plants. Unicellular or multicellular,kingdom –archaebacteria: Unicellular & prokaryotic.•Live in extreme environments such as undersea vents,
acidic and salty environments where other organisms cannot [Link] –Plantae : Autotrophic- perform photosynthesis, kingdom –Animalia:
Heterotrophic•Eukaryotic•Multicellular•Most are able to move with some form of locomotion•Most have definitive tissues & [Link] : the range of different living
things and systems in an area. The more plant, insect and animal species there are in one area the greater the biodiversity and the healthier the ecosystem, Conservation Biology
: study of the loss of Earth's biological diversity,Restoration Ecology: complementary approaches to managing healthy, functioning natural systems,Binomial Nomenclature : the
system of nomenclature in which two terms are used to denote a species of living organism. /S.A/What types of evidence are used to classify organisms and determine
evolutionary relationships?Fossil Records: We know a great deal about the organisms that lived millions of years ago from studying their fossilized [Link] ANALYSIS/BIO-
CHEMISTRY: Scientists can sequence and study huge chunks of DNA, and then compare them to one another,When they do this, they look for strands of DNA/RNA/proteins that
exhibit homologous sequences. EMBRYOLOGY: Closely related species go through similar stages of development, although the adults may not resemble each other very closely.
Morphology: study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species ●External Morphology: physical appearance (ex. shape, structure, colour, pattern,
size)●Internal Morphology: structure of the internal parts like bones and organs. Bio-geography: is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space
and through (geological) [Link] are the 6 strategies discussed in class to monitor biodiversity? Give a brief description of each. Monitoring Ecosystem:climate trends●animal
population trends. Field Guides:●are books for the identification of birds, flowers, minerals, or other things in their natural [Link] Quadrats:●a quadrat is
small area of habitat, typically one square meter, selected at random to act as a sample for assessing the local distribution of plants or animals. Monitoring Transects:●a transect
is a line across a habitat or part of a habitat, it can be as simple as a string or rope placed in a line on the ground. Dichotomous Keys:●area tool that allows the user to determine
the identity of items in the natural world, such as trees, flowers, [Link] the three main reasons to maintain biodiversity as discussed in class. Provide one example for
each reason. Diverse gene pool:●Larger numbers of plant and animal species means a greater variety of genes/traits. Economic value:●Healthy, bio-diverse ecosystems, provide
humans with; clean air and water, social opportunities, job opportunities, recreation and tourism. Sustainability:●The healthier the ecosystem, the longer it will thrive!●Healthy,
sustainable ecosystems are better at; combating pollution, stabilizing climate, protecting water resources, forming and protecting [Link] are the four strategies discussed in
class that are used to conserve biodiversity? Explain eachstrat-egy using an example. Habitat preservation:Is a land management practice that seeks to conserve, protect, and
restore habitat areas for wild plants and animals. Wildlife corridors:are links between wildlife habitats that have been segregated,built to link fragmented habitats back together.
Species preservation programs:Exist to prevent further animal extinctions. Public education:done through schools, conferences, media, [Link] two threats to
biodiversity (as discussed in the “hot topic”presentations) and explain why they are a problem. What is their affect on ecosystems, species diversity,populations, etc.? Habitat
destruction: In the United States, the most serious threat to animal life is habitat loss, which occurs as a result of habitat destruction, fragmentation, or degradation. When an
ecosystem is significantly transformed by human activities like agriculture, oil and gas exploration, commercial development, or water diversion, it may no longer be capable of
providing food, water, cover, and places for wildlife to raise young. There are fewer and fewer areas for wildlife to live every day. Climate change: Climate change is a severe
problem because it can lead to weather patterns becoming less predictable. Crops can become more difficult to grow within farming areas since expected rainfall and
temperature levels cannot be reliable anymore. There is also a strong link between climate change and events such as hurricanes, winter storms, floods, and downpours.