The Arab American University

Department of Physics

Laboratory Manual
General Physics Lab for Medical Students
100111650

Prepared by

Anan Hussein Ali [Link] Abu Saa

4th Edition
Fall, 2019

1
 CONTENTS

No. Experiment Name Page

1 Experimental Errors and Data Analysis 3

2 Density Measurements 13
3 Force Table (Vectors) 19
4 Motion in One Dimension 24
5 Young’s Modulus 28
6 Friction 32
7 Conservation of Energy 38
8 Ohm’s Law 42
9 Specific Heat Capacity 48
10 Archimedes’ Principle 50
11 Viscosity 59
12 Measurement of Capacitance 63

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 Experiment 1
Experimental Errors and Data Analysis

OBJECTIVES
To examine the types of experimental errors and some methods of error and data analysis that will
be used in subsequent experiments in which measurements are actually made.

APPARATUS
Pencil, ruler, and 2 sheets of graph paper

INTRODUCTION
Laboratory investigations involve taking measurements of physical quantities, and the process of
taking any measurement always involves some uncertainty or experimental error. Suppose that
you and another person independently took several measurements of a physical quantity (e.g. the
length of an object). It is unlikely that you both would come up with exactly the same results.
Therefore, questions such as the following arise:
1. How do you compare your experimental result to the accepted value of a physical
quantity?
2. Whose data are better, or how does one express the degree of uncertainty or error in
experimental measurements?
3. How does one graphically analyze and report experimental data?

THEORY
I. Types of Errors
Experimental errors can be generally classified as being of three types: personal, systematic, and
random.

1. PERSONAL ERROR
Personal error arises from personal bias or carelessness in reading an instrument, in recording
observations, or in mathematical calculations. Figure (1) is an example of personal errors in
reading a scale due to parallax.

Fig.1: Example of personal error due to parallax in reading scale.

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2. SYSTEMATIC ERROR
Systematic errors are associated with particular measurement instruments or techniques, such as
an improperly calibrated instrument or bias on the part of the observer. Figure (2) is an example of
a systematic error.

Fig.2: An improperly zeroed instrument gives rise to systematic error.

Avoiding systematic errors depends on the skill of the observer to detect them and to prevent or
correct them.

3. RANDOM ERROR
Random errors result from unknown and unpredictable variations in experimental situations.
Random errors are also referred to as accidental errors and are sometimes beyond the control of
the observer. Conditions by which random errors can result include:
1. Unpredictable fluctuations in temperature or line voltage.
2. Mechanical vibrations of the experimental setup.
3. Unbiased estimates of measurement reading by the observer.
Reducing and minimizing the effect of random errors can be made by improving and refining
experimental techniques and repeating the measurement a sufficient number of times so that the
erroneous readings become statistically insignificant.

II. Accuracy and Precision

The accuracy of a measurement signifies how close it comes to the true (or accepted) value, i.e.,
how correct it is. Obtaining greater accuracy for an experimental value depends in general on
minimizing systematic errors.
Precision refers to the agreement among repeated measurements, i.e., the “spread” of the
measurements, or how close together they are. Obtaining greater precision for an experimental
value depends in general on minimizing random errors.

III. Expressing Experimental Error and Uncertainty

1. FRACTIONAL ERROR
The fractional error is the ratio of the absolute difference to the accepted value:

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 absolute difference
Fractional error = (1)
accepted value

E−A
=
A

2. PERCENT ERROR
The fractional error is commonly expressed as a percentage to give the percent error of an
experimental value:

absolute difference
Percent error = x100%
accepted value

E−A
= x100% (2)
A

Example 1
A cylindrical object is measured to have a diameter (d) of 5.25 cm and a circumference (c) of
16.38 cm. What is the experimental value of π and the percent error of the experimental value if
the accepted value of π is 3.14?
Solution: d = 5.25 cm. c = 16.38 cm.
c 16.38
π= = = 3.12
d 5.25
E−A
x100%
Percent error = A

3.12 − 3.14
= x100% = 0.60%
3.14

3. PERCENT DIFFERENCE
It is sometimes instructive to compare the results of two equally reliable measurements when an
accepted value is not known. The comparison is expressed as a percent difference, which is the
ratio of the absolute difference between the experimental values, E2 and E1, to the average or mean
value of the two results, expressed as a percent.

absolute difference E 2 − E1
percent difference = × 100% = x100% (3)
average (E 2 + E1 ) / 2
Dividing by the average or mean value of the experimental values is a logical choice, because
there is no way of deciding which of the two results is better.

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Example 2
What is the percent difference between two measured values of 4.6 cm and 5.0 cm?
Solution: With E1 = 4.6 cm and E2 = 5.0 cm.

E 2 − E1
percent difference = x 100%
( E 2 + E1 ) / 2

5.0 − 4.6
percent differnce = × 100%
(5.0 + 4.6) / 2
0 .4
= × 100% = 8%
4.8
When there are three or more measurements, the percent difference is found by dividing the
absolute value of the difference of the extreme values (i.e., values with greatest difference) by the
average or mean value of the measurements.

4. THE ERROR IN ANY PARTICULAR MEASUREMENT

Maximum error in any scale measurement is usually half the distance between two adjacent scales
that is half its smallest division. Thus if a ruler is graduated in mm, then in measuring the length
of an object there are a possible error of ± 0.5mm in judging the position of each end of the object
against the ruler. Then the maximum possible error is ± 1 mm.

Example 3
If the length being measured using a ruler is 62cm, the maximum possible error is ±1mm. The
relative (fractional) possible error is (0.10cm/62cm) = [Link] percentage error is (0.10/62) x
100% = 0.16%.

Example 4
If an ammeter measure a current I = 2.5 A, whose scale divisions are 0.1A apart. The maximum
possible error is ±0.05 A. Then the percentage error is (0.05 /2.5) x 100% = 2%

Example 5
If a room temperature T=15.0 Co was measured by thermometer whose scale divisions are 0.2Co
apart. The maximum possible error is 0.1 Co. The percentage error is (0.1/15.0) x 100% = 0.67%.

5. ERRORS OF SEVERAL OBSERVATIONS FOR THE SAME READING

5.1 AVERAGE (MEAN) VALUE
Most experimental measurements are repeated several times, and it is very unlikely that identical
results will be obtained for all trials. For a set of measurements with predominantly random errors,
(i.e., the measurements are all equally trustworthy or probable), it can be shown mathematically

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that the true value is most probably given by the average or mean value. The average or mean
value x of a set of N measurement is
x + x2 + x3 + ....... + xN 1 N
x= 1
N
=
N
∑x
i =1
i

Example 6 (4)
What is the mean value of the set of the following numbers?
5.42, 6.18, 5.70, 6.01, and 6.32?

1 N
x=
N
∑x i =1
i

5.42 + 6.18 + 5.70 + 6.01 + 6.32

= = 5.93
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5.2 MEAN DEVIATION
Having obtained a set of measurements and determined the mean value, it is helpful to state how
much the individual measurements are scattered from the mean. A quantitative description of this
scatter or dispersion of measurements will give an idea of the precision of the experiment.
To obtain the mean or average deviation of a set of N measurements, the absolute deviations
d i are determined; that is,
d i = xi − x (5)

The mean deviation d is then

d1 + d 2 + d 3 + .... + d N 1 N
(6)
d =
N
=
N
∑d
i =1
i

Example 7
What is the mean deviation of the set of numbers given in Example 10?
Solution: First find the absolute deviation of each of the numbers.
d1 = 5.42 − 5.93 = 0.51

d2 = 6.18 − 5.93 = 0.25

d3 = 5.70 − 5.93 = 0.23

d4 = 6.01 − 5.93 = 0.08

d5 = 6.32 − 5.93 = 0.39

Then

1 N
0.51 + 0.25 + 0.25 + 0.08 + 0.39
d =
N
∑d
i =1
i =
5
=0.29

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The mean deviation is a measure of the dispersion of experimental measurement about the mean
(i.e., a measure of precision). It is common practice to report the experimental value E of a
quantity in the form
E = x±d
E = 5.93 ± 0.29
It is also common practice to express the dispersion of the mean deviation as a percent of the
mean:
d
E=x± x100%
x
0.29
E = 5.93 ± x100% = 5.93 ± 4.9%
5.93
The ± term gives a measure of the precision of the experimental value.
5.3 STANDARD DEVIATION
To avoid the problem of negative deviations and absolute values, it is statistically convenient to
use the square of the deviation.
The variance σ2 of a set of measurements is the average of the square of the deviations

1 N
σ 2
=
N
∑d
i =1
i
2
(7)

The square root of the variance σ is called the standard deviation

∑ (x )
1 N
2 1 N
(8)
σ =
N i =1
i −x =
N
∑d
i =1
i
2

For a small number of measurements, it can be statistically shown that the standard deviation is
given by

1
( ) 1
N N
2
σ= ( )∑ xi − x = ( )∑ d i2 (9)
N − 1 i =1 N − 1 i =1
Example 8
What is the standard deviation of the set of numbers given in Example 10?
Solution: first find the square of the deviation of each of the numbers.
d1 2 = (0.51)2 = 0.26
d2 2 = (0.25)2 = 0.06
d3 2 = (0.23)2 = 0.05
d4 2 = (0.08)2 = 0.01
d5 2 = (0.39)2 = 0.15
Then

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 1 N
0.26 + 0.06 + 0.05 + 0.01 + 0.15
σ= ( )∑ d i2 = = 0.36
N − 1 i =1 4
The experimental value E, is then commonly reported as
E = x ± σ = 5.39 ± 0.36

Table (1)

Xi X d i = xi − x d (X i −X )
2 σ

5.42 0.51 0.26

6.18 0.25 0.06
5.70 5.93 0.23 0.29 0.05 0.36
6.01 0.08 0.01
6.32 0.39 0.15

The standard deviation is used to describe the precision of the mean of a set of measurements.
VI- Graphical Representation of Data
It is often convenient to represent experimental data in graphical form, not only for reporting, but
also to obtain information.
Graphing Procedures
When drawing a graph the following steps are to be followed
1. Two thick lines are drawn at right angles to each other, one vertically near the left edge of
the graph sheet and the other horizontally at the bottom edge.
2. It is customary to represent the independent variable (the cause) along the x- axis as
abscissa. Then the dependent variable (the effect) is represented along y-axis as ordinate.
3. A suitable choice of the scales is then made. The choice of the scales should be such that
the coordinates of any point in the graph may be ascertained easily and quickly. The scale
should be simple to prevent mistakes. The scale should be planned that the graph fills the
entire sheet and the experimental points are distributed as widely as possible.
4. Scales are marked properly by labeling the axes with values that they represent (including
units).
5. Then the data are plotted as points on the graph. It should be done carefully each point is
indicated by a circle.
6. After marking the points, it should be examined with the help of a ruler whether the points
fall on a straight line or curve. The best straight line is the one that passes through the
majority of points and has the remaining points symmetrically distributed around it. Figure
(4).
7. A straight line is represented by the equation y = mx + c. Where m is the slope of the
straight line and c is the y-intercept.

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 Fig.4: A straight-line graph
The slope m is
∆Y Y − Y1
m= = 2 (12)
∆X X 2 − X 1

8. If the graph is a curve, it should be smooth and should pass through the majority of the
plotted points. The slope is different at different points on the curve, so the slope is
calculated corresponding to a chosen point p as shown in figure (5). The tangent to the
curve is drawn at p, the slope of the tangent is the slope of the curve at that point.

Fig. 5: Calculating the slope of a curve

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 LAB REPORT
Experiment 1
Experimental Error And Data Analysis

Name: - …………………………………………. ID: - ………………………

Partners Names: - ……………………………………. Date: - ……………………..

1- If the accepted value of π is 3.14, what is the fractional error and the percent error of an
experimental value of π = 3.15?
1- Fractional error --------------------

2- Percent error --------------------

2- In an experiment to measure the acceleration due to gravity g, two values, 972 cm/s2 and
967 cm/s2, are determined. Find:
1- the percent difference of the measurements and
2- the percent error of their mean. (Accepted value: g = 980 cm/s2).

1- Percent difference ---------------------

2- Percent error of mean ---------------------

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3- Table 2 shows data taken in a free-fall experiment. Five measurements were made of the
distance of fall (y) at each of five precisely measured times. Complete the table.

Table (2)
Time Distance (cm) y d σ t2(s2)
t (s)
y1 y2 y3 y4 y5
0 0 0 0 0 0
0.1 4.9 4.8 4.8 4.9 4.7
0.2 19.3 19.3 19.0 19.4 19.5
0.3 43.9 44.0 43.8 43.7 43.6
0.4 78.4 78.3 78.0 78.1 77.9
0.5 122.2 122.1 122.0 122.5 122.3

a) Plot a graph of y versus t.

b) The equation of motion for an object in free fall starting from rest is y = ½ gt2, where g
is the acceleration due to gravity. Plot a graph of y versus t2 for the data in table 2.
c) Determine the slope of your graph.

d) Calculate the experimental value of g from the slope value.

Conclusions

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 Experiment 2
Density Measurements

OBJECTIVES
1. To determine the density of a certain materials.
2. To acquire experience in the use of the micrometer and the Vernier caliper.

APPARATUS
Laboratory balance, sphere (glass or metal), Vernier caliper, cylindrical metal rod, micrometer and
ruler.
THEORY
The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume. The symbol used for density is
the Greek letter ρ (rho) Thus.

mass
density =
volume

Or in symbols
m
ρ= (1)
V

The densities of all common substances, solids, liquids and gases, and all chemical elements have
been determined and are to be found listed in books of physical and chemical constants.
The SI units of density are the kg/m3, but when densities are being measured in the laboratory it is
generally most convenient to work in gm/cm3.
The volume of a substance of regular shape, such as, sphere or cylinder may be calculated from
the radius and the length measurements made by Vernier caliper Fig. (1), or a micrometer Fig. (2).
Examples
1- Volume of a sphere is:-
4
V= π r3
3

Where r is the radius of the sphere.

1- Volume of a Cylinder is:-
V = AL = π r2 L (3)

Where r is the radius and L is the length of the cylinder.

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 Fig.1: The Vernier Caliper

Fig.2: The Micrometer.

PROCEDURE:
Part (1) Regular Sphere.
1. Using a Laboratory balance, measure the mass of the sphere.
2. Using a micrometer, measure the radius of the sphere.
3. Calculate the volume of the sphere.
4. Calculate the density of the sphere.
5. Calculate the percent error of your experimental result. (Accepted value of the density is
given in Appendix 1).
6. Record your results in table (1).

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Part (2) Regular Cylindrical Rod.
1. Using a Laboratory balance, measure the mass of the rod.
2. Using a micrometer, measure the radius of the rod.
3. Using a Vernier Caliper, measure the length of the rod.
4. Calculate the volume of the rod.
5. Calculate the density of the rod.
7. Calculate the percent error of your experimental result. (Accepted value of the density is
given in Appendix 1).
6. Record your results in table (2).

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 LAB REPORT
Experiment 2
Density Measurements

Name: - …………………………………………. ID: - ………………………

Partners Names: - ……………………………………. Date: - ……………………..

Part (1) Regular Sphere.

1. Record your results in table (1)
Table (1)
Type of Mass Radius Volume Density Percent
material (gm) (cm) (cm3) (gm/cm3) error

Calculations

16
Part (2) Regular Cylindrical Rod.
2. Record your results in table (2)
Table (2)
Type of Mass Radius Length Volume Density Percent
material (gm) (cm) (cm) (cm3) (gm/cm3) error

Calculations

Questions:
1. In part (1), what is the density of the sphere in kg/m3?

2. Explain the probable sources of errors in this experiment.

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3. Write the Vernier reading shown in figure (3), and its error.

Fig.3

Reading = …………………cm Error = ± ……………………cm

4. Write the micrometer reading shown in figure (3), and its error.

Fig.4

Reading = …………………cm Error = ± ……………………cm

Conclusions

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 Experiment 3
Vectors

OBJECTIVES
To determine the resultant (R) of two forces or more by two different techniques (graphically and
analytically) and to compare it with their balancing (equilibrant) Force (F) found experimentally.

APPARATUS
Force table, pulleys, weight hanger, strings, weights and protractor.

THEORY
Most quantities measured in science are classed as either scalar or vector quantities. A scalar
quantity is one, which has magnitude only; such as mass, length and times. A vector quantity is
one, which has direction as well as magnitude; such as displacement, velocity, acceleration and
force. Scalars are simply added by the ordinary rules of arithmetic. But in vectors addition, the
process is more complicated because directions should be taken into consideration.

Fig.1: Force table

Methods of Vector Addition
• Graphical Method
Vectors are represented graphically by arrows. The length of a vector arrow is proportional to the
magnitude of the vector and the arrow points in the direction of the vector. Figure (2) illustrate the
general rules for adding two vectors together, no matter what angles they make, to get their sum,
the rules are as follows.
1-Using a suitable scale (e.g. 1 cm represents 0.50N).
2-We draw AB to represent F1.

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3- From point B we draw a line making an angle θ with the extension of AB, and we take BC
on this line to represent F2.
4- We connect AC which represents the resultant R of F1 and F2. The length of the resultant
can be measured and compared to the scale. Angles can be measured with a protractor. This
method is known as 'head to tail' method of adding vectors.

Fig.2: "Head to Tail" Triangle Method

If more than two vectors are added, the head to tail method forms a polygon (Figure (3) for three
vectors). The resultant R is the vector arrow from point A to point D. the magnitude and direction
of R can be measured from the vector diagram.

Fig.3: Polygon method

• Analytical Method.
In this method each force is resolved into x and y components
Fx = F Cos θ (1)
Fy = F Sin θ (2)
Where θ is the angle between F and the positive x-axis
The vector sum of any number of forces can be obtained by adding the x and y components of the
forces. Therefore, for three forces F1, F2 and F3

Fx = F1x + F2x + F3x (3)

Fy = F1y + F2y + F3y (4)
The magnitude of the resultant force R is given by

R = Fx2 + F y2 (5)

And its direction with the position x - axis is given by

Fy (6)
θ = tan −1
Fx

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Experimental Procedure
1. On the force table, clamp pulleys at 20 and 80. Hang on each 200g & 150g respectively;
with the use of a third pulley, determine the magnitude and direction of the equilibrant
force, which makes the pin at the center of the ring. From the equilibrant force record the
magnitude and direction of the resultant force in your lab report. Figure (4) the equilibrant
has the same magnitude as the resultant but is in the opposite direction.

2. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force, R graphically.

3. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force, R analytically.
4. Record your results in your lab report.

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 LAB REPORT
Experiment 3
Vectors

Name: - …………………………………………. ID: - ………………………

Partner Name: - ……………………………………. Date: - …………….………..

1. Record your data in table 1

Table (1)
m1 (gm) F1 (N)= m1 g θ1 m2 (gm) F2(N)= m2g θ2

200 30o 150 150o

2. Determine the magnitude and the direction of the resultant force using the experimental
method. (Sketch a diagram to explain your results)

R(Experimentally) θR (Experimentally)

3. Calculate the magnitude and the direction of the resultant force using the Analytical
method.

R ( Analytically ) θR ( Analytically )

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 4. Calculate the magnitude and the direction of the resultant force using the graphical
(geometrical) method. Draw a vector diagram on a linear graph paper.

R (graphically ) θR (graphically )

Question
Which method gives more accurate results, graphical or experimental method? Explain the
probable sources of error for each method

Conclusions

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 Experiment 4
Motion In One Dimension
OBJECTIVES
To determine the average velocity and the instantaneous velocity of an object moving in one
dimension.
APPARATUS
Ticker tape timer, car, string, pulley, and paper tape.
THEORY
Motion is defined as the change in position as a function of time. The average speed ( s ) is
defined as the “distance traveled in a given time (∆t)” divided by ∆t. In other words,

distance
s = (1)
∆t
The average velocity of a moving object is defined as the displacement divided by ∆t.
∆x x 2 − x1
v = = (2)
∆t t 2 − t1
Where ∆x is the displacement which depends on the initial and final points only. The velocity at a
given instant (Instantaneous Velocity) is defined as the limit of the average velocity as ∆t goes to
zero,
x 2 − x1 dx
v= lim v = lim = (3)
∆x →0 ∆x →0 t 2 − t1 dt
The displacement and time are measured by a device called the ticker tape timer. A paper tape
attached to the car and passes under a disc of carbon paper. Immediately above the carbon paper is
an iron strip, vibrating 50 times per second, with a thin pin which makes a series of dots on the
tape as it is pulled along as shown in Fig.1.

Fig.1: Ticker tape timer

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On the paper tape select sets of 5 dots and number them 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5….etc. as shown in Fig.2.
1
The time for cart to travel the distance between dot 0 and dot 1 is equal to 5  s = 0.1s. The
 50 
distance between the dots can be measured with a meter stick. The average velocity is then
calculated by dividing ∆x/∆t

Fig.2: Paper tape

PROCEDURE:
1. Set you apparatus by placing the car on the flat table and attach the paper tape to the car and to
a driving mass, (m) that is hanged freely over a pulley. Fig.3

Fig.3: Car is moving on the flat table

2. Start your ticker timer and release the driving mass.

3. Ignore the first 3 - 5 points and measure the distance (∆x) between the 1st and 5th points.
4. Calculate ∆ti by multiplying the number of spaces between points times 0.02 sec. ∆t = 5 x 0.02
= 0.1sec.
5. Calculate the average velocity v = ∆x /∆t
6. Record all values in table 1.

25
 LAB REPORT
Experiment 4
Motion In One Dimension

Name: - …………………………………………. ID: - ………………………

Partner Name: - ……………………………………. Date: - ……………………..

1- Record your results in table (1)

Table (1)
Time Position Displacement (cm) Average velocity
t(s) xi (cm) ∆x = xi − xi −1 ∆x
v = (cm/s)
∆t
0 0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

2- Calculate the average velocity v = ∆x /∆t, and record your results in table 1.
3- Plot the position x versus t. The curve should be smooth and should pass through a
majority of the plotted points.

26
 4- On the curve select two points arbitrary. Draw a tangent line at that points and calculate
the instantaneous velocity using the slope of each tangent line.

5- What is the probable source of errors in this experiment?

Conclusions

27
 Experiment 5
Young’s Modulus

OBJECTIVES
1. To measure the longitudinal strain for an applied tensile stress.
2. To compute the elastic modulus (Young’s Modulus) for a rubber.

APPARATUS
Rubber, weight hanger and weights, meter stick and micrometer.

THEORY
All objects are deformed to some extent when acted on by forces. If, after deformation, a body
returns to its original dimensions, it is said to be elastic. Elasticity is a material property and is
characterized by an elastic modulus, which is defined as the ratio of the stress to the strain.
Elastic modulus = stress / strain. (1)
Stress (σ) is related to the deforming force and is equal to the applied longitudinal force (F)
divided by the cross sectional area (A) of the object normal to the force. Stress is measured in
units of N/m2
F
σ= (2)
A
A strain (ε) is the effect or relative changes in the dimensions or shape of a body subjected to a
stress. For the linear case, the tensile strain is defined as the ratio of the change in length (∆L) to
the original length (Lo). Strain is a dimensionless physical quantity because it represents a
percentage change.

∆L
ε= (3)
L
The elastic modulus for the linear case is called Young’s Modulus (Y) and is measured in units of
N/m2

σ F A
Y= = (4)
ε ∆L Lo

28
The elastic limit of the material is not exceeded and the ratio of the stress to the strain E is often
found to be constant and characteristic of a given material. Such materials obey Hooke’s law,
which for a spring force, is commonly expressed as F = -k ∆x , where k is a spring constant and
the minus sign indicates that the spring force is opposite to the displacement.
YA
F =( )∆L (5)
Lo
YA
Where k = is the spring constant of the material and is measured in units of N/m.
Lo
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the initial length (Lo) of the rubber.
2. Measure the width of a rubber using the ruler.
3. Measure the thickness of a rubber using the micrometer.
4. From the e width and the thickness calculate its cross-sectional area A.
5. Fix one end of the rubber to a stand and hang a 100gm from the other end to exert a stress
force on the rubber.
6. Measure the increase in length (∆L).
7. Repeat steps 4&5 by increasing the mass by 100gm and Measure the increase in length
(∆L).
8. Calculate the Stress, Strain and Elastic Modulus for each trial.
9. Plot Stress vs. Strain and find Young modulus from the slope.

29
 LAB REPORT
Experiment 5
Young’s Modulus

Name: - ………………………………………………. ID: - …………………….……

Partner Name: - ……………………………………. Date: - ………………………..

1. Record your results in table (1)

Table (1)
Lo= …………… cm A= ……………………… m2

M(kg) F= Mg (N) ∆L (cm) Stress (σ) Strain (ε) Y = σ/ Є

2. Calculate the average value of Young’s modulus.

3. Calculate the error in your results using standard deviation method.

30
4. Plot Stress vs. Strain. What type of graph you obtain?

5. Determine the slope of the graph.

6. Find the Young modulus Y of the rubber band..

7. Find the spring constant k of the rubber band.

Conclusions

31
 Experiment 6
Friction

OBJECTIVES
1. To measure the coefficient of static friction µs.
2. To measure the coefficient of kinetic friction µk.

APPARATUS
Board with attached pulley, wooden block, weight hanger and set of weights, string, meter stick and lab
balance

THEORY
Friction is the name given to the force, which opposes the motion occurring between contacting surfaces. It
plays a notable part in our daily life. For example, walking would be impossible if there were no friction
between the ground and the soles of our shoes.
Consider a block on a horizontal plane as shown in figure (1). An external force F is applied on the block,
the block will remain stationary if F is not too large. The force that keeps the block from moving acts to the
left is frictional force f, as long as the block is in equilibrium, f = F.

Fig.1: frictional force f.

Since the block is stationary, we call this frictional force the force of static friction fs. If we increase the
magnitude of F, the block will eventually slip, when F = fs, max. When the block is in motion the retarding
force is called the force of kinetic friction fk.
Experimentally, both fs and fk are proportional to the normal force acting on the block and depends on the
roughness of the two surfaces in contact. The force of static friction between any two surfaces in contact is

fs ≤ μ s N (1)
Where µs is the coefficient of static friction.

32
The equality in equation (1) holds when the block is on the verge of slipping, i.e., when fs,max = µs N. The
inequality hold when Fapplied < µs N. The force of kinetic friction is in the opposite the direction of motion
and is given by

Fk = µk N (2)
Where µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction.
The values of µk and µs depend on the nature of the surfaces, but µk is generally less than µs,max. The
coefficients of friction are nearly independent of the area of contact between the surfaces.
PROCEDURE:
PART (1): measuring the Coefficient of static friction µs
1. Weight the wooden block mb.
2. Attach one end of string to the wooden block and the other end to a hanger as shown in Fig.2

Fig.2: measuring µs

3. Add weights to the hanger until the block just begin to move.
4. Record your results in table 1.
5. Repeat step 3 with 50, 100, 150, 200, 250 gm masses (ma) respectively added to the block. Record your
results in table 1.

PART (2): measuring the Coefficient of kinetic friction µk

1. Set the inclined plane horizontally (θ = 0) as shown in Fig.3

2. Mark the travel distance L = 0.7 m on the track.
3. Choose the masses m and M so that the block starts to accelerate.
4. Measure the time for the wood block to travel the distance L. Repeat 3 times and take the average (ta).

33
 Fig.3: measuring µk

2L
5. Find the acceleration using the equation a = 2
t ave

6. Find µk using the equation µ k =

[mg − (m + M )a ] .
Mg
7. Repeat experiment 3 times and record your data in Table 1.

34
 LAB REPORT
Experiment 6
Friction

Name: - …………………………………………. ID: - ………………………...

Partner Name: - ……………………………………. Date: - ……………………….

PART (1): measuring the Coefficient of static friction µs

1. Record your results in table (1)
Table (1)

Mass of block, mb = ----------- kg

Added
mass Normal force Force required to move the block
ma (kg) N = (mb + ma) g (N) F = Mg (N)
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

2. Plot a graph of F versus N or M versus (mb + ma) . What do you conclude from your graph?

3. From the graph, calculate the coefficient of static friction µs.

35
PART (2): measuring the Coefficient of kinetic friction µk
1. Record your results in table (1)

Table (1)

2L m
L (m) M(kg) m(kg) t1 t2 t3 tave (s) a= 2
( 2) µk fk(N)
t ave s

2L
2. Calculate the value of the acceleration of the block using the equation ( a = 2
).
t ave

3. Calculate µk using the equation µ k =

[mg − (m + M )a ] .
Mg

4. Calculate fk using the equation. fk = µkN= µkMg

Questions:

1. Using Fig. 4, show that µs = M / (m b + ma )

36
 Fig.4
mg − ( M + m)a
2. In Fig. 5, Derive the equation µk = using Newton’s second law.
Mg

Fig.5

Conclusions

37
 Experiment 7
Conservation of Energy

OBJECTIVES
To demonstrate the concept of conservation of energy when a non-conservative force is present.

APPARATUS
Board with attached pulley, wooden block, weight hanger, string, meter stick and lab balance

THEORY
Energy is neither destroyed nor created but can be converted from one form to another. Or, when a system is
transformed from the initial state (i) to the final state (f) its total energy remains constant. If only
conservative forces such as gravity are present, then the mechanical energy of the system remains constant
at all times.
Ei = E f (Conservative forces) (1)

Ki + Ui = K f + U f

1 2 1
mvi + mgy i = mv 2f + mgy f
2 2
Where, v is the speed, m is the mass, y is the height in a gravitational field
When non-conservative forces such as friction are also present, then the total mechanical energy in the
initial state Ei is converted into mechanical energy in the final state E f plus work done against the non-

conservative force Wnc . This work is usually dissipated as heat.

E f = Ei + Wnc (Non-conservative forces) (2)

1 2 1
mv f + mgy f = mvi2 + mgy i + Wnc
2 2
Where Wnc = f x ..x = µ k Nx cos180 

N = mg cos θ , and x = L
Wnc = − µ k (mg cos θ )( L)

Where, µ k is the coefficient of kinetic friction, N is the normal force and x is the distance travelled.

38
PROCEDURE:
Demonstrate the concept of conservation of energy

1. Set the inclined plane at an angle θ. Fig.1

2. Release the block from point A to point B (distance L= 1.0m).

3. Measure the time for the piece of wood to travel the distance L down the track.
2L
4. Find the acceleration of the object using: a = 2
.
t ave

5. Find the final velocity v 2f = v2 + 2aL (setting vo = 0)

6. Find the work done against the non-conservative force (friction) Wnc using conservation of energy.

1 2
Wnc = K f − U i = mv − mgy
2
7. Find the work done against the non-conservative force (friction) Wnc using the equation:

Wnc = − µ k (mg cos θ )( L)

8. Compare the results obtained from steps 6 and 7.

39
 LAB REPORT
Experiment 7
Conservation of Energy

Name: - …………………………………………. ID: - ………………………

Partner Name: - ……………………………………. Date: - …………………..

Demonstrate the concept of conservation of energy

1. Record your results in table (1)

Table (1)
y = ………. m

2L m
L (m) m(kg) t1 t2 t3 tave (s) a= 2
( 2) Vf (m/s) Ui (J) Kf (J)
t ave s

2. Calculate the acceleration of the block.

3. Calculate the final velocity of the block using vf2 = vo2 + 2.a.L

4. Calculate the initial potential energy at point A using the equation Ui = mgy.

40
 1 2
5. Calculate the final kinetic energy at point B using the equation K f = mv f .
2

6. Calculate the work done against the non-conservative force (frictional force) Wnc = Kf - Ui

7. Calculate the work done against the non-conservative force (frictional force) Wnc using the equation:

y
Wnc = − µ k (mg cos θ )( L) , where, θ = sin −1 ( )
L

Conclusions

41
 Experiment 8
Ohm’s law

OBJECTIVES
1. To investigate Ohm’s law experimentally, and apply this law to find the resistance of an unknown
resistor.
2. To verify the equivalent resistance for series and parallel resistors combinations of resistors.

APPARATUS
Direct current power supply, ammeter, voltmeter, rheostat, unknown resistances, and connecting wires.

THEORY
The resistance R of a conductor depends upon a number of factors including its nature, dimensions
and even temperature. Most conductors have a constant resistance at constant temperature, so that the
current (I) produced through the conductor is directly proportional to the voltage (V) across it. The
relationship called Ohm's law states that

V = IR (R constant). (1)

The equivalent resistance Rs of two resistances R1 and R2 connected in series, as shown in

Figure 1-a, is given by

Rs = R1 + R2. (2)

In the parallel configuration, as shown in Figure 1-b, the equivalent resistance R p of R1 and R2 is
given by

1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2

or

Rp = (R1 R2) / (R1 + R2) (3)

42
PROCEDURE:
A. Ohm's Law
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (2). Do not turn the power supply until your instructor
confirms the circuit.

Fig. (2)
2. Determine the values of the unknown resistors R1 and R2 using color code (Appendix 6)
3. Use the Ohmmeter to measure the resistors R1 and R2 directly, and tabulate your results in
table 1.
4. Switch on the power supply and vary the input voltage in regular steps between 0 and 5 volts.
Record the values of the current (I) and voltage (V) across the resistor R1.
5. Calculate the average value of R1.
6. Plot a graph of V versus I. What do you conclude from your graph?
7. Find the value of R1 from the slope of the graph.
8. Tabulate your results in table-1.
9. Replace R1 b y R2. Repeat steps 4-8.
10. Calculate the error of the experimental values of R1 and R2 by using standard deviation
method.
A. Measurement of Resistances in Series
1. Connect R1 and R2 in series (see Figure 1-a) and, use the Ohmmeter to measure the equivalent
series resistance Rs. Record the results in Table 3. Then using the circuit shown in Figure 2,
measure the current I and the voltage V. Calculate the equivalent resistance Rs.
2. Calculate the equivalent series resistance, Rs using formula 2. Compare these results with
those found in steps 1.
3. Calculate the percentage error between the calculated values and the experimental values.
C. Measurement of Resistances in Parallel

1. Connect R1 and R2 in parallel (see Figure 1-b) and, use the Ohmmeter to measure the equivalent
series resistance Rp. Record the results in table 3. Then using the circuit shown in Figure 2,
measure the current (I) and the voltage (V). Calculate the equivalent resistance Rp.
2. Calculate the equivalent parallel resistances Rp us i ng formula 3. Compare these results with
those found in step 1.
3. Calculate the difference between the calculated values and the experimental values.

43
 LAB REPORT
Experiment 8
Ohm’s Law

Name: - …………………………………… ID: - ……………………….

Partner Name: - …………………………… Date: - ……………………

A. Measurement of R1 and R2
1- For each pair of I-V readings determine the value R=V/I. Record you results in data table (1).
Table (1)
R1=……….. Ω R2= ………….. Ω

V(Volts) I (mA) R1=V/I V(Volts) I (mA) R2=V/I

(Ω) (Ω)

3- Calculate the average value of R1 and R2.

4- Plot a graph of V versus I for R1 and R2.

44
5- From the obtained graph determine the value of R1 and R2.

6- What is the percentage error of R1 and R2?

7- Record your results in table (2).

Table (2)

Method R1 (Ω) R2 (Ω)

Average value of Resistance R (Ω)

Graph result Slope=ΔV/ΔI(Ω)

Error (Percentage errors% )

(Use Slope and Accepted value)

45
B. Measurement of Resistances in Series Rs and in Parallel Rp
1- For each pair of I-V readings determine the value R=V/I. Record you results in table (3).
Table (3)
Rs Rp

V(Volts) I (mA) Rs=V/I V(Volts) I (mA) Rp =V/I

(Ω) (Ω)

2- Plot a graph of V versus I for Rs and Rp.

3- From the obtained graph determine the value of Rs and Rp.

4- Calculate the average value of Rs and Rp.

46
5- Calculate the error of Rs and Rp using standard deviation method

4- Record this value in table (4).

Table (4)

Method Rs (Ω) Rp (Ω)

Average value of Resistance R (Ω)

Graph result Slope=ΔV/ΔI(Ω)

Error using Standard deviation

method

QUESTIONS
1. Explain the possible errors in your results.

Conclusions

47
 Experiment 9
Specific Heat Capacity

OBJECTIVES
To determine the specific heat capacity of some common metals by calorimetric methods.

APPARATUS
Calorimeter with stirrer, boiler, two thermometers (0 to 100 oC), piece of metals and
laboratory balance.

THEORY
Different substances require different quantities of heat to produce a given temperature change.
The material behavior is characterized quantitatively by specific heat, which is the amount of heat
necessary to raise the temperature of 1g of a substance 1 oC. The specific heat of material is
specific or characteristic for that material.
The amount of heat ∆Q gained or removed from a substance is proportional to the change in
temperature ∆T and the mass of the substance m.
∆Q = m c ∆T (1)
o
Where c is the specific heat capacity of the substance and its unit is cal/g . C.
The heat capacity (C) of a substance is proportional to its mass.
C=mc (2)
Therefore, equation 1 becomes,
∆Q = C ∆T (3)
Where C is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance 1oC,
and is measured in cal/oC.
The calorie unit of heat is defined as the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1g of
water 1oC.
The specific heat of a material can be determined experimentally by measuring the temperature
change of a given mass of material produced by a quantity of heat. In this experiment, hot metal is
added to the tap water in the calorimeter cup and the mixture is stirred until the system is in
thermal equilibrium; then by the conservation of energy , the heat lost by hot metal is equal the
heat gained by the calorimeter and its contents.
Heat lost = Heat gained
∆Qmetal = ∆Q water + ∆Qcup & stirrer

m m c m (Tm − T f ) = m w c w (T f − Ttw ) + m c c c (T f − Ttw )

(4)
m m c m (Tm − T f ) = (m w c w + m c c c )(T f − Ttw )

Where Tf is the final equilibrium temperature of the system.

Tm is the temperature of the hot metal.
Ttw is the initial temperature of the cold water and calorimeter.

48
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the mass of the metal mm.
2. Measure the mass of the empty cup mc.
3. Pour 70g of tap water into the Calorimeter and measure its temperature (Ttw).
4. Submerge the metal sample completely under hot water (about 90 C) and wait 2 minutes
for the temperature to stabilize. The temperature of the sample (Tm) is now that of hot
water.
5. Transfer the hot metal sample to the Calorimeter quickly (Be careful don’t burn your
hands).
6. Use the stirrer to distribute the heat and wait 3 minutes until the temperature is stable at
the equilibrium temperature Tf.
7. Determine the specific heat for the sample cm using equation.3

49
 LAB REPORT
Experiment 9
Specific Heat Capacity

Name: - …………………………………………….. ID: - …………………….…

Partner Name: - ……………………………………. Date: - ………………………..

1. Record your results in table (1)

Table (1)

Type of metal

Mass of cup mc (g)

Mass of cup + water (g)

Mass of water mw (g)

Temp. of cold tap water Ttw( o C)

Mass of metal mm (g)

Specific heat of cup cc 0.22 Cal/gm. oC (Aluminum cup)

Specific heat of water cw 1.0 Cal/gm. oC

Temp. of hot metal Tm ( oC)

Final equilibrium temp Tf ( oC)

2. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal cm using equation 4.

3. Calculate the percentage error in your result. ( Accepted value from Appendix 1 )

50
4. What is the main source of error in this experiment?

5. Calculate the heat Capacity of the metal Cm.

Conclusions

51
 Experiment 10
Archimedes’ Principle

OBJECTIVES
To investigate Archimedes’ Principle, Then apply this principle to find the density of copper,
stone and wood.

APPARATUS
Spring scale, graduated cylinder, Lab balance and three objects: (copper, wood and stone).

THEORY

When a body is immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upward buoyant force that may causes it to
flow. The reason for the buoyant force can be understood by considering the pressure depth
relationship, P = ρgh. In a fluid, the pressure on the lower surface of an object is greater than that
on the upper surface, so there is pressure difference, or an upward force.
The magnitude of the buoyant force is described by Archimedes’ Principle: “A body partially
or totally submerged in a fluid is buoyed (or pushed upward) by a force equal to the weight of
the displaced fluid”.
The magnitude of the buoyant force (FB) depends only on the weight of the fluid displaced by the
object and does not depend on the weight of the object. Archimedes’ Principle shows that an
object
• Will float in a fluid if the density of the object ρo is less than the density of the fluid ρf.
• Will sink in a fluid if the object’s density ρo is greater than that of the fluid’s density ρf.
The true weight (the weight of the object in air) is
T1 = ρo gV (1)
Where ρ is the density of the object, and V is its total volume.
The weight of displaced fluid is equal ρf gVf
B. Totally submerged object in water
The weight of displaced fluid is the amount of fluid that is equal to the submerged portion of the
object. To verify this principle, consider the object shown in Fig 1 and Fig.2.
The true weight of the object is measured as shown in Fig.1. If the object is immersed in a beaker
filled with water as shown in Fig.2, the water level will increase by an amount equals the volume

52
of the object and the tension is reduced by an amount equals the buoyant force. Using Newton’s
second law,

The buoyant force FB is the difference between the true weight W=T1 and the measured weight of
an object in a fluid T2.
FB = T1 - T2 = the weight of the displaced fluid (2)
T1 - T2 = ρw gVf (3)
But the volume of the displaced fluid equal the total volume of the object (Vf =V)
T1 T2 ρ wVg
− =
T1 T1 ρ 0Vg

T2 ρ
=1− w (4)
T1 ρ0
C. Partially submerged object in water
Consider an object of density ρo floating in water of density ρw as shown in Fig.3. Since the
object is in equilibrium, the buoyant force acting on the object is equal its weight.
FB = W
Weight of the displaced water = True weight
ρwVsg = ρoVg,
ρo = (Vs/V) ρw (5)
Where Vs is the volume of the submerged portion of the object.

53
 Fig.3: Floating object
PROCEDURE:

Part. A Copper
1. Measure the mass m of the cylindrical copper.
2. Measure the volume of the cylindrical copper.
3. Calculate the density of the cylindrical copper ρo = m/V.
4. Hang the cylindrical copper from a spring scale using thin string as shown in Fig.1.
5. Measure the tension T1 which is equal the weight of the object in air.
6. Fill the graded beaker with 400 cm3 of water.
7. Immerse the cylindrical copper as shown in Fig.2 in water and measure the increase in
water volume (Vs). Note that in this case, Vs = V
8. Measure the tension T2 while the object is totally submerged.
9. record your obtained data in table .1
T ρ
10. Calculate the density of copper using 2 = 1 − w .
T1 ρ0
11. Compare your results.

Part. B Stone
1. Repeat steps 1-11 for the stone and record your results in table 2.

Fig.4: Measuring the density of a Stone

Part. C Wood
1. Measure the mass m of the cylindrical wood.
2. Measure the volume V of the cylindrical wood.
3. Immerse the cylindrical wood in water (totally) and measure the increase in water volume
Note that in this case the increases in water volume equal the total volume of the wood V.
4. Calculate the density of the cylindrical wood ρo = m/V.
5. Fill the graded beaker with 400 cm3 of water.

54
6. Immerse the cylindrical wood in water for freely floating (partially) cylindrical wood.
Note that in this case the increases in water volume equal the submerged volume of the
wood Vs.
7. Calculate the density of wood using equation ρo = (Vs/V) ρw

55
 LAB REPORT
Experiment 10
Archimedes’ Principle

Name: - ……………………………… ID: - …………………….……

Partner Name: - ……………………. Date: …………………………..

Part. A Copper

1. Record your data in table (1)

Table (1)

Mass of cylindrical copper (g)

Volume of cylindrical copper (cm3)

Density of cylindrical copper (g/ cm3) ρ= m /V ρ= ………. g/ cm3

Weight of cylindrical copper in air T1 (N)

Weight of cylindrical copper in water T2 (N)

2. Calculate the density of the cylindrical copper using the equation ρ= m /V

T2 ρ
3. Calculate the density of the cylindrical copper using the equation =1− w .
T1 ρ0

56
 Part. B Stone
1. Record your data in table (2)
Table (2)
Mass of stone (g)

Volume of stone (cm3)

Density of stone (g/ cm3) ρ= m /V ρ= ………. g/ cm3

Weight of stone in air T1 (N)

Weight of stone in water T2 (N)

2. Calculate the density of the stone using the equation ρ= m /V

T2 ρ
3. Calculate the density of the stone using the equation =1− w .
T1 ρ0

Part. C Wood
1. Record your data in table (3)
Table (3)
Mass of cylindrical wood (g)

Volume of cylindrical wood V (cm3)

Density of cylindrical wood (g/ cm3) ρ= m /V ρ= ………. g/ cm3

Volume of submerged cylindrical wood Vs (cm3)

2. Calculate the density of cylindrical wood using the equation ρ= m /V

57
3. Calculate the density of cylindrical wood using the equation ρo = (Vs/V) ρw

Conclusions

58
 Experiment 11
Viscosity

OBJECTIVES
To determine the coefficient of viscosity η for a liquid.

APPARATUS
Measuring cylinder, small metallic ball, liquid, stopwatch, meter stick, micrometer and Vernier
caliper.

THEORY
Viscosity is the property of a liquid to offer resistance at the relative motion of their layers.
Viscosity of liquid depends on temperature. As temperature increases the coefficient of viscosity
decreases.
One of methods for determination the coefficient of viscosity η is Stokes’ method, based on
measuring the speed of a small sphere (ball) moving with uniform motion.
Consider a small ball of diameter (d) and density (ρb) falls freely in a stationary liquid of density
(ρL). Three forces are acting on the falling ball as shown in the Fig.1.
1- Force due to gravity W acting downward.
4
W = πr 3 ρ b g (1)
3
2- Buoyant force (Archimedes’) Fb acting upward.

4 3
Fb = πr ρ L g (2)
3
3- Force of viscosity (Stokes’ force). It appears from the resistance of the liquid and acting
upward
Fs = 6πηrV (3)
N .s kg
Where η is the coefficient of viscosity in 2 or , V is the velocity of the sphere in m.s-1
m m.s
and r is the radius of the ball in m.

At a first time the ball moves with constant acceleration, and after a small time when moving
about 15 cm in the liquid it will reaches a constant terminal velocity (VT). This occurs when the
sum of the forces pointing upwards is equal to the sum of forces pointing downwards. The
terminal velocity is reached at steady state. ( ΣF = 0 ).

W = Fb + Fs (4)

4 3 4
πr ρ b g = πr 3 ρ L g + 6πηrVT (5)
3 3
2
2r
VT = (ρb − ρ L )g (6)
9η

59
 1 d2
VT = (ρb − ρ L )g (7)
18 η

The quantity VT given in equation (7) represents the terminal velocity of the sphere in an infinite
extent of the liquid (unlimited medium). In the case of a liquid confined to a tube (limited
medium) it is found by experiment that the terminal velocity of the sphere varies with the radius
R of the tube according to the relation.
r
VT = VT/ (1 + 2.4 ) (8)
R
L
Where VT/ the measured terminal velocity ( VT/ = ) and VT is the true terminal velocity.
t

PROCEDURE:

1. Fill the measuring cylinder with liquid.

2. Fix a mark A well below the top of the liquid (about 15 cm from the top of the fluid), so
that the ball reaches a steady velocity by the time it reaches A.
3. Fix a second mark B near the bottom of the cylinder.
4. Measure the distance L between A and B, and record it in table (1).
5. Select about six balls with different diameters.
6. Measure the diameter of each ball and record it in table (1).
7. Release one of the balls into the liquid and measure the time needed for and measure the
time needed for the ball to travel the distance L using the stopwatch, record the time in
table (1).
8. Repeat step (7) using another ball of different diameter.
9. Record the temperature of the fluid.
10. Enter your data in table (1).

60
 LAB REPORT
Experiment 11
Viscosity

Name: - ………………………………. ID: - …………………….

Partner Name: - ………………………. Date: - …………………...

____________________________________________________________________

Record your results in table (1)

Table (1)

Distance AB, L = …………. cm Radius of the tube R= ……………….. cm

Density of liquid ρL = ……….. gm / cm3. Density of balls ρb= ……….gm / cm3.

o
Temperature of liquid = ……………… C.

Terminal
Diameter of Radius of
Time of velocity r (Diameter)2
the ball the ball /
VT = V (1 + 2.4 )
d (cm) r (cm) fall t (s) L(cm) T
R d2 (cm)2
VT/ =
t (sec)

1. Plot a graph of VT against d2. What do you conclude from your obtained
graph?

61
 2. From the graph, calculate the value of the coefficient of viscosity η of the
liquid.

3. What effect do you think temperature has on viscosity?

Conclusion

62
 Experiment 12
Measurement of Capacitance

OBJECTIVES:
1. To determine the capacitance of two unknown capacitors by the comparison
method.
2. To investigate series and parallel combination of capacitors.

APPARATUS:
Standard capacitor, two unknown capacitors, micrometer, dc power supply and
connecting wires.

THEORY:
A capacitor is an electrical component in which electrical charges may be stored. It
consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulating media such as air, mica
or any other suitable insulating material. If an electric potential difference (V) is
applied between these plates, an equal and opposite charge (Q) is accumulated on
each plate. The capacity of this capacitance is given by

Q
C= (1)
V

Where C is in farad and represents the ability of a capacitor to store electric charges.
The Farad is a large quantity and a smaller units normally is used as µF=10-6F,
nF=10-9F and pF = 10-9F. When two capacitors C1 and C2 are connected separately at
the same potential V. The charges Q1 and Q2 on each capacitor are,

Q1 = C1V (2)

Q2 = C2V (3)

Dividing (2) by (3) gives

Q1 C1
= (4)
Q2 C 2

If unknown capacitor Cx and a standard capacitor Co are used, then equation (4) is
rewritten as
Qo C o
= (5)
Qx C x

63
 Qo
The ratio may be obtained by discharging the capacitors through a galvanometer.
Qx
The deflection (D) is proportional to the quantity of the charge (Q) passing through
the micrometer during discharge process. Therefore, equation (5) can be written as
C o Do
= (6)
C x Dx
In electrical circuit, capacitors may be connected either in series or in parallel. If they
are connected in series, then the equivalent capacitance is
1 1 1 1
= + + ....... + (7)
Ceq C1 C 2 Cn

Where n is the number of capacitors connecting in series. For only two capacitors C1
and C2, equation 7 becomes
CC
C eq = 1 2 (8)
C1 + C 2
While, if they are connected in parallel, then the equivalent capacitance is

C = C1 + C2 + ……………..+Cn (9)
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the apparatus as shown in figure (1).

Fig. (1)
2. Don't close any switch until the circuit has been checked by your instructor.
3. Charge the standard capacitor Co by connecting points 1 with 2.
4. Discharge the capacitor through the micrometer by disconnects points 1 and 2
and then connects point 2 and 3.
5. Record the maximum deflection Do in table (1)
6. Repeat steps 2-5 three times.
7. Repeat steps 3-6 for the unknown capacitor C1.
8. Record the maximum deflection D1 in table (1)
9. Repeat steps 3-6 for the unknown capacitor C2.
10. Record the maximum deflection D2 in table (2)
11. Connect the two unknown capacitor C1 and C2 in parallel and repeat steps 3-6.
12. Record the maximum deflection Dp in table (4)
13. Connect the two unknown capacitor C1 and C2 in series and repeat steps 3-6.
14. Record the maximum deflection Ds in table (3)

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 LAB REPORT
Experiment 12
Measurement of Capacitance

Name: - ………………………………… ID: - …………….……………

Partner Name: - ………………………… Date: - …………...……………

1. Record your results in data table (1)

Data table (1)

Standard capacitor Co = …………… µF

Trial Do D1 D2 Ds Dp
1.

2.

3.

Do = D1 = D2 = Ds = DP =

C1 = C2 = Cs= Cp =

∆C1= ∆C2= ∆Cs= ∆Cp=

2. Calculate C1, C2, Cs and Cp and record the results in data table (1).

C1 D
= 1
Co Do

65
3. Calculate the percentage error ∆C1%, ∆C2%, ∆Cs% and ∆Cp% and record the
results in data table (1). (Ask your instructor about the accepted values of the
capacitors)

Conclusions

66
 Appendix 1
A. Densities of some common materials
(g/cm3)

MATERIAL DENSITY
ALUMINUM 2.7
BRASS 8.6
COPPER 8.9
STEEL ~ 8.0
IRON 7.8
WOOD ~ 0.6
WATER 1.0
GLASS ~ 2.6

B. Specific Heat Capacity of some common materials

(cal/[Link] or kcal/[Link])

MATERIAL Specific Heat

cal/[Link]
ALUMINUM 0.22
BRASS 0.092
COPPER 0.093
SILVER 0.056
IRON 0.11
LEAD 0.031
WATER 1.0
GLASS 0.16

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C. YOUNG’S MODULUS FOR SOME MATERIALS
(N/m2)

MATERIAL YOUNG’S MODULUS (N/m2)

ALUMINUM 7.0x1010
BRASS 9.1x1010
COPPER 11.0x1010
STEEL 20x1010
BONE (0.9-1.6) x1010
RUBBER ~ 1x106

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 Appendix 2
Metric (SI) prefixes

PREFIX ABBREVIATION VALUE

Tera T 1012
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Kilo K 103
Hecto h 102
Deca da 101
Desi d 10-1
Centi c 10-2
Milli m 10-3
Micro µ 10-6
Nano n 10-9
Pico p 10-12
Femto f 10-15

Power and Roots:

X0 =1
X 1=X
X n X m =X n+m
X–n =1/Xn
(X n) m = X nm
X n/X m =X n-m
X nY n =(XY) n
X n/Y n = (X/Y) n
X 1/n= n X
m
Xm/n
=
n
X

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 Appendix 3
The International system of units
A: base Units
Quantity Name of Unit Symbol
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second s
Electronic current Ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Luminous Intensity Candela cd
Amount of substance Mole mol

B: derived units
Quantity Name of Unit Symbol
Area Square meter m2
Volume Cubic meter m3
Frequency Hertz Hz
Density Kilogram per cubic meter Kg/ m3
Speed, velocity Meter per second m/s
Acceleration Meter per second squared m/ s2
Force Newton N=kg.m/ s2
Work, energy Joule J=N.m
Power Watt W=J/s
Electric charge Coulomb C=A.s
Electric field Volt per meter V=J/C
Potential, electromotive Volt Ω=V/A
force
Electric resistance Ohm F=C/V=A.s/V
Capacitance Farad V/m=N/C
Resistivity J=N.m Ω.m

70
 Appendix4
Conversion of units
Length:
1m =102cm =103mm =10-6μm
1Km = 103m
1cm = 10-2 m
1 μm = 10-6m

Area:
1m2 =104cm2
1cm2 =10-4m2

Volume:
1m3 =106cm3
1cm3 =10-6m3

Time:
1hour = 60min = 3600s

Angle:
1revolution = 360o =2π rad

Mass:
1Kg = 103gm

Force:
1N = 105dyne (dyne=[Link]/s2)

Energy:
1J =107 erge
1cal. = 4.18J
1eV = 1.6X10-19 J
1KWh =3.6X106J

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 Appendix 5
Area and Volume
1. Circle with radius r
• Circumference = 2π r
• Area = π r2

2. Square with side L

• Area = L2

3. Triangle
• Area = (1/2)(base)(height)

4. Sphere with radius r

• Surface area = 4π r2
• Volume = (4/3) π r3

5. Cube with side L

• Surface area = 6L2
• Volume = L3

6. Cylinder with radius r and length L

• Area of curved Surface = 2πrL
• Area of each end = π r2
• Volume = π r2L

72
 Appendix 6
Color Code for Resistors
Color Code Color Code
Black 0 Blue 6
Brown 1 Violet 7
Red 2 Gray 8
Orange 3 White 9
Yellow 4
Green 5
Tolerance:- Gold 5%
Silver 10%
Colorless 20%

R = AB × 10 C ± D

Where A, B, C and D are codes for 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th color as given in table 1.
D gives the resistance tolerance.

Example:- What is the value of the given resistor?

The resistance of the above resistors is R= 28x103 ± 5% Ω = (28 ± 1.4)k Ω .

Q1: - For the given resistor, find the color combinations to have a resistance of

(5.2 + 1.04) K Ω .

Q2: - What is the value of the given resistor?

73