NUTRITION

CROSS SECTION OF A LEAF

Chloroplast :
Photosynthesis takes place in 2 phases:

Light reaction: (Photochemical phase) – Takes place in Thylakoid.

 Driven by light energy
 Absorption of light energy by Chlorophyll.
1. Formation of assimilatory product –ATP & NADPH
( Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
hydrogen).
2. Photolysis of water –H2O split into H2 & O2

Dark reaction: (Calvin cycle) – Takes place in Stroma.

 Light independent
 In the Calvin cycle,
 Assimilatory product CO2 is reduced to Carbohydrates.
 ATP and NADPH from the light reactions are used to produce
sugars.
 Starch is formed.
STOMATA:
 - Massive amount of gaseous exchange takes place in the
leaves through these pores called stomata.

Raw materials:
- Carbon dioxide (atmosphere)
- Water (soil)
- Minerals(nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, magnesium)- soil
* Nitrogen is an essential element – protein synthesis and
other compounds.
* through physical and biological process in nitrogen cycle.

AUTOTROPHIC MODE OF NUTRITION: (Holophytic Nutrition)

 - Organisms consume liquid food as they lack digestive system.

HETEROTROPHIC MODE OF NUTRITION: (Holozoic Nutrition)

- Organisms consume solid food and digest it in body as they
have well developed digestive system.

(Depends on the body design and functioning of the organism)

1. Saprotrophic nutrition-saprophytes.
Eg: fungi, bacteria (saprotrophs)

2. Parasitic nutrition:
Total parasite-eg: Cuscuta
Partial parasite-eg: mistle-toe.

3. Symbiosis:
Eg- Lichens & Rhizobium bacteria.
Cilia – sweep the food along with some water into

Oral groove  mouth  Gullet  stomach

Human digestive system
Nutrition in human beings:
 Alimentary canal is a long tube (9 metres) extending from
mouth to anus.
 Crushing the food with teeth and mixing with saliva.
 Bolus, food that has been chewed and mixed in the mouth with
saliva
 Saliva - salivary amylase-breaks complex starch into simple
sugar.
 Tongue helps in mixing and swallowing the food.
 Food passes the oesophagus through peristaltic movement.
 Stomach:
Gastric glands releases:
1. HCl - creates an acidic medium for the action of pepsin.
- Kills the harmful bacteria entering the stomach.

2. Pepsin - acts in acidic medium

- Digest proteins into peptones.
3. Mucus –protects the inner lining of the stomach from the
action of enzymes and acids.

 The exit of food from the stomach is regulated by

Sphincter muscles.
Chyme - the pulpy acidic fluid which passes from the
stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric
juices and partly digested food
 Small intestine:
- Longest part fitted in compact space by extensive
coiling.
- Herbivores have longer S.I for cellulose digestion.
- Carnivores have shorter S.I.
- S.I is the site of complete digestion of carbohydrates,
proteins & fats.
- Receives secretions from Liver, Pancreas.
 - Liver:
# makes the medium alkaline for the action of
pancreatic juice.
# secretes bile juice which is stored in gall bladder.
# Bile juice helps in the digestion of fats, breaking
large globules into smaller globules –similar to
emulsification action.
- Pancreas:
# acts only in alkaline medium.
# secretes pancreatic juice which contains,
- Trypsin  digests protein
- P. amylase digests starch
- P. lipase digests emulsified fats
- Intestinal juices:
# convert
- carbohydrates glucose
- proteins amino acids
- fats fatty acids + glycerol.
Absorption in Small intestine is by finger like projections called Villi.
Villi - has increased surface area for absorption.
- richly supplied with blood vessels.
Large intestine:
- Unabsorbed food passes through – villi absorb
water and minerals.
- The egestion is through anus which is regulated
by sphincter muscles.

RESPIRATION
The phenomenon of the release of energy by
oxidation of organic molecules for cellular use is
known as respiration.
Respiration involves 2 separate processes namely
1. External respiration-breathing
2. Internal respiration-cellular respiration.

Sachs (1890) – 2 types.

A. AEROBIC RESPIRATION: complete oxidation

1. # Glycolysis - cytoplasm.

Glucose Pyruvate + 2 ATP

 6-C 3-C

# Pyruvate moves to mitochondria

Co-enzyme A
Pyruvate -------------------- acetyl co-enzyme A + CO2

2. Kreb’s cycle/ Tricarboxylic acid cycle(TCA):

# outer matrix of mitochondria.

O2
# acetyl co-enzyme A ----- CO2 + 2 ATP + hydrogen carrier
Molecule (high energy).

3. Electron transport System:

# occurs in inner membrane of mitochondria.
# Hydrogen carrier molecules are brought to ETS.
( high energy H2 molecules are converted into low
energy H2 molecules )
# 34 ATP (large energy is produced)

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6 CO2 + 6 H2O +38 ATP

(2+2+34)

B. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION: incomplete oxidation

1. Glycolysis:

Anaerobic fermentation in yeast – cytoplasm

Pyruvate  ethanol + CO2 + energy(less)(2ATP)

 3C 2C

This process is called alcoholic fermentation

Lack of oxygen in muscle cells, bacteria and some
parasitic worms :

Pyruvate  Lactic acid + energy (less)(2ATP)

3C 3C

This process is called lactic acid fermentation.

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Respiration in plants:
1. Through leaves & young stems.

The opening and closing of stomata depends on turgor pressure of

guard cells.
  During day:
Rate of photosynthesis > rate of respiration
CO2 produced during respiration is used by photosynthesis,
Therefore CO2 is not released- Compensation reaction.

 During night:
No photosynthesis, only respiration.
Only CO2 is released by plants.

2. Through Root hairs:

* present in young roots.
* exchange of gases through simple diffusion.
* In water logged conditions – no O2 for roots, they
start respiring anaerobically & produce alcoholic
products –due to which the plant die.

3. Through Lenticels:
* tiny openings on the bark (surface)
* cells are loosely packed, more intercellular spaces
through which exchange of gases take place.
 Photosynthesis Respiration
1. Anabolic process- 1. Catabolic process-
forming organic breakdown of
substances from respiratory substrate.
inorganic sub.
2. Energy is required 2. Energy is released
[Link] during day 3. Occurs at all times
[Link] in plants having 4. Occurs in all living cells
chloroplast
5.CO2 is absorbed & O2 is 5. O2 is absorbed & CO2 is
released released
6. Raw materials - CO2 & 6. Raw materials- glucose
water & oxygen.
7. End products – glucose 7. End products - CO2 &
& oxygen water.
 Respiration in Animals
 Terrestrial organisms take O2 directly from the atmosphere.
 Aquatic organisms take O2 dissolved in water, thus the rate of
breathing in aquatic animals is faster than in terrestrial animals.

Types of respiration in animals:

1. Diffusion – Amoeba, Paramecium
2. Cutaneous respiration – earthworm, leech
3. Branchial respiration (gills) – fishes, prawns & crabs
4. Tracheal respiration (tracheae) – grasshopper, housefly,
cockroach
5. Pulmonary respiration (lungs)- birds, reptiles, mammals.

Some special respiratory organs:

 Book lungs –scorpions & spiders

 Book gills –King crab
 Pulmonary sacs – Snails
 Lateral gill slits – few bony fishes.
 Body surface - Amoeba, Paramecium
 Gills- fish
 tracheae – insects - grasshopper, housefly
 moist skin – earthworm, frog (water)
 lungs- man, bird

Respiration in human beings

Human respiratory system
Consist of
1. conducting passage / respiratory tract
2. Respiratory organ –lungs.
 Trachea (windpipe) is 10-12 cm long.
 There are approximately 300-700 million alveoli in the lung
 The pleura includes two thin layers of tissue that protect and cushion
the lungs.
 Pleural cavity (pleural liquid) – prevents friction.
 Alveoli – functional units of lungs
# increased surface area
# richly supplied with blood vessels
 Diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal
cavity.

 FACTS
 The right lung is little wider than the left lung, but it is also
shorter because it has to make room for liver, which is right
beneath it. The left lung is narrower because it makes room for
heart
Exchange of gases in Alveoli

Respiration:
1. Mechanism of breathing – inhalation & exhalation

2. Exchange of gases in lungs and tissues

– gaseous exchange in lungs
– gaseous exchange in tissues.
@ Haemoglobin has a great affinity toward CO than oxygen.
@ When CO is more in the environment (when fossil fuels like coal &
petrol is burnt in closed room), haemoglobin combines with CO than
oxygen.
@ Lack of O2 causes unconsciousness and eventually death (this
phenomenon is called Carbon-monoxide poisoning)
@ Medulla oblongata in brain controls the respiration
IMPORTANT RESPIRATORY DISEASES
1. Pneumonia –inflammatory condition of lungs.
2. Emphysema – inflation /distension of alveolar sac.
3. Asthma- allergic hypersensitivity of the bronchial wall/
bronchioles.
4. Bronchitis
5. Occupational Lung Disease (OLD):
- Silicosis & asbestosis (found in workers of mines due to
exposure of silica & asbestos dust.
TRANSPORTATION
 The system of organs in the body which carries and
transports substances from one part to another part is called
transport system or circulatory system.
 Diffusion- unicellular org’s.
 Significance: transports,
Food, oxygen, waste products, water, hormones.

TRANSPORTATION IN HUMANS
- We have millions of cells and all need
oxygen.
Circulatory system
 1. Blood vascular system/cardio vascular
system:
a. Circulatory fluid-Blood (solid & liquid component)
[Link] tubes-Blood vessels (arteries, veins &
capillaries)
c. Pumping organ-Heart
2. Lymphatic system:
[Link]
[Link] vessels
c. Lymph nodes

HEART

 Heart is an organ which pumps blood to all parts of the

body through the blood vessels.
 Located between the lungs in the chest cavity.
 The heart is slightly tilted towards the left side because
the right lung is larger than the left lung – This condition
provides the heart with enough space to function
 properly and pump blood efficiently to different parts of
the body.
 The size of heart is roughly equal to the fist ( 12cm in
length and 9cm in breadth).
 Heart is enclosed in a double-layered membranous sac
called

Pericardium.
 Heart - 4 compartments called chambers.
 Upper two are called atria/auricles (singular:atrium)
 Lower two are called ventricles.
 Right side – oxygen-rich blood (oxygenated blood).
 Left side – carbon dioxide-rich blood (deoxygenated
blood).
 The left and right side is completely separated by means
of a partition wall called septum – which prevents the
mixing of oxygenated blood with the deoxygenated blood
– allowing a high efficient supply of oxygen to the body –
This is useful in animals that have high energy needs
(mammals & birds which constantly use energy to
maintain their body temperature).
 Tricuspid valve – between right atrium and right
ventricle.
 bicuspid valve – between left atrium and left ventricle.
 VALVES ensure that blood does not flow backwards.
 The hearts natural pacemaker – SA node –sends out
regular electrical impulses from the top chamber causing
it to contract and pump blood in the bottom chamber.
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF TRANSPORT AND

EXCHANGE OF O2 & CO2

 Pulmonary Circulation:
Heart  Lungs  Heart
Systemic Circulation:
Heart  Body  Heart
# When blood flows/passes through the heart twice
during each cycle it is called double
circulation.
 Fishes on the other hand have only 2
chambered heart, where blood is pumped to
gills, gets oxygenated there – and passes
directly to rest of the body. Thus blood goes
only once through the heart in fish during one
cycle, called Single circulation.
Coagulation:
 Blood plasma protein – Fibrinogen (soluble)
 Platlets has Thrombin enzyme
 Thrombin converts Fibrinogen (soluble) to
FIBRIN (CLOT)(insoluble)
HEMOPHILIA- disorder in which a person blood is not
able to clot normally.
Lymph:
LYMPH
 Interstitial fluid / tissue fluid
 Through the pores present in the walls of
the capillaries – some amount of
# plasma from blood
# proteins
# blood cells- WBC
Escapes into intercellular spaces in the
tissues to form lymph.
# similar to blood plasma but colourless &
contain less proteins.

 Lymph (colourless fluid –part of blood plasma)

 Lymphatic capillaries
 Lymph vessel (vein)
 Large veins
 FUNCTIONS OF LYMPH
Lymph carries digested & absorbed fat from intestine
and drains from extracellular space back into blood.

BLOOD PRESSURE:
 The force that blood exerts against the wall of
a vessel is called blood pressure.
Instrument – Sphygmomanometer.

TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
Plants do not possess an elaborate transport
system because they are less active, have a
large proportion of dead cells, low energy
needs & stationary.
 Since most of the cells are exposed due to
extensive branching- oxygen and carbon dioxide
are transferred by diffusion.
 But water & minerals are transported through
specific tissues/conducting tissues.
 Soil is the nearest & richest source of raw
materials & minerals.
 When the distance between soil contacting
organs (roots) and chlorophyll is small– diffusion.
 Large – a proper system is essential for
transportation.
 Conducting tissues in plants:
XYLEM:
1. Tracheids- cell walls made of lignin
2. Vessels- cell wall made of cellulose & lignin
3. Xylem parenchyma (living)
4. Xylem fibres.
 Dead cells
 Tracheides & vessels (tracheary elements)
*helps in conduction of water –
ASCENT OF SAP
SOIL (water & minerals) –concentration
gradient of ions
 root hairs
 xylem vessels root
 xylem vessels of tracheids of stem
 leaf veins.
 3. Xylem parenchyma: stores food.
4. Xylem fibres: dead cells & provide
structural strength/ support.
PHLOEM:
1. Sieve tubes
2. Companion cells
3. Phloem parenchyma
4. Phloem fibres (dead)
*Living cells except phloem fibres.
1 & 2. Sieve tubes & Companion cells:
# helps in conduction of food, hormones & amino acids
---TRANSLOCATION.
Product of photosynthesis (food)
 transferred to phloem tissues using energy from ATP.
= high turgor pressure & high conc. In phloem tissues
causes the entry of water into it from outside (osmosis).
= Osmotic pressure of phloem tissues increases.
= Materials move from phloem tissues (high conc. & high
pressure) to other tissues (low conc. & low pressure)
3. Phloem parenchyma: stores food.
4. Phloem fibres: Dead cells & mechanical support.
XYLEM PHLOEM
 Unidirectional Bidirectional
transport. transport.

Transport water and Transport food from

minerals from root to leaves to different
aerial parts of the parts of the plant.
plant.
Mostly dead tissues Living tissues some
are dead.

Occurs at the centre Occurs on the

of vascular bundle. outside of the
vascular bundle.
Transportation of water & minerals
in plants.
1. Absorption of water & minerals by root hairs
2. Ascent of sap(root pressure & transpiration
pull)
3. Transpiration
Stomatal transpiration,
Lenticular transpiration,
Cuticular transpiration.
Significance:
 Has cooling effect on leaves
 Transports water & minerals through
transpiration pull.
 Helps in the removal of excess water.

Transportation of food & other

substances in plants.
Translocation: transport of metabolic
processes (food)
Translocation occurs in both direction from
leaves to roots, fruits, tips etc.,
 Takes place in sieve tubes & companion
cells.
 Achieved by utilising energy from ATP.
Eg:
 Sucrose enters into phloem tissue using energy
 Due to high pressure created, water moves inside the
tissues.
 This high turgor pressure moves the materials in the
phloem to the tissues which have less pressure.
Example: in spring, sugars stored in root or
stem tissues are transported to buds which
need energy to grow.
 EXCRETION
Excretion is the removal from the body of waste products
which result from normal life processes.

Wastes can consist of nitrogenous by-products and metabolic

waste products such as carbon dioxide, excess water, excess
salts, ammonia, sweat, urine and faeces.

If they are allowed to accumulate they cause poisoning which

slows down vital chemical reactions.

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

How is Urine produced?
The kidneys filter unwanted substances from the blood
and produce urine to excrete them.
There are three main steps of urine formation: glomerular
filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.
These processes ensure that only waste and excess water
are removed from the body.
Functional unit of kidney - NEPHRON
STRUCTURE OF NEPHRON: Consist of

1. Malpighian capsule - Bowman's capsule and a glomerulus

2. Renal tube - Proximal convoluted tubule, Loop of Henle,
Distal convoluted tubule, Collecting duct.
Functions:
1. Ultrafiltration
2. Selective reabsorption
 Most of the glucose, amino acids, salts( Ca++, Na+) and
major amounts of water are selectively reabsorbed as
the urine flows along the tube.

Excretion in plants
 Oxygen is a waste product during photosynthesis.
 Carbon dioxide is a waste product during respiration.
 Water is a waste product during transpiration.
 The different plant structures that eliminate different
forms of wastes are leaves, stems, ageing tissues, xylem,
roots, bark, fruits, and flowers. When the leaves and bark
are shed, the wastes get eliminated.
 Waste products are stored in cellular vacuole.
 Waste products are excreted into soil around them.
 0
2 metabolites:
 Nitrogenous waste –alkaloids
 Organic acids – oxalic acid
 Tannins

 Latex

 Resins and gums

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