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Aristotle’s classification
• Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more scientific basis
for classification of organisms.
• He classified plants into trees, shrubs & herbs and animals
into 2 groups, those which had red blood and those that did not.

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 Two-kingdom classification
• It is proposed by Linnaeus (1758).
• This system classifies organisms into Two Kingdoms-
Plantae & Animalia.

Kingdom
Plantae
Organisms
Kingdom
Animalia

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 Two-kingdom classification
Drawbacks of 2-kingdom classification
Prokaryotes (Bacteria, cyanobacteria) & eukaryotes (fungi, mosses, ferns,
gymnosperms & angiosperms) were included under ‘Plants’. It is based on
the presence of cell wall. But prokaryotes & eukaryotes are widely differed in
other features.

It included unicellular & multicellular organisms in same group.

E.g. Chlamydomonas & Spirogyra were placed under algae.

It did not differentiate between heterotrophic fungi and autotrophic green

plants. Fungi have chitinous cell wall while the green plants have cellulosic
cell wall.

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 Five-Kingdom classification
• It is proposed by R.H. Whittaker (1969).
• It includes Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae & Animalia.
• This classification is based on cell structure, thallus organisation,
mode of nutrition, reproduction & phylogenetic relationships.

Kingdom Monera

Kingdom Protista

Organisms Kingdom Fungi

Kingdom Plantae

Kingdom Animalia
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 Characteristics of the Five Kingdom
Characters Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

Non-cellular Present
Present
Cell wall (polysaccharide + Present in some (without Absent
(cellulose)
amino acid) cellulose)

Nuclear
Absent Present Present Present Present
membrane
Body Multicellular, Tissue/organ/
Cellular Cellular Tissue/organ
organization loose tissue organ system

Autotrophic
(photosynthetic & Autotrophic
Heterotrophic Heterotrophic
Mode of chemosynthetic) (photosynthetic) Autotrophic
(saprophytic (holozoic,
nutrition and heterotrophic and (photosynthetic)
or parasitic) saprophytic etc)
(saprophyte/ heterotrophic
parasite)

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BALAJI TUTORIALS
 1. KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)

• Bacteria are the most abundant

microorganisms.
• Hundreds of bacteria are present in a
handful of soil.

• They also live in extreme habitats

such as hot springs, deserts,
snow & deep oceans.
• Many are parasites.

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 1. KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)

Based on the shape, bacteria are 4

categories:

Coccus (Spherical)

Bacillus (Rod-shaped)

Vibrium (Comma-shaped)

Spirillum (Spiral)

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 1. KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)

• Bacterial structure is very simple

but they are complex in
behaviour and show metabolic
diversity.
• Some bacteria are autotrophic
(synthesize food from inorganic
substrates).
• Majority are heterotrophs (they
do not synthesize the food but
depend on other organisms or on
dead organic matter for food).

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 1. KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)

Classification
Halophiles

Archaebacteria Thermoacidophiles

Methanogens

Bacteria Photosynthetic
autotrophs
Autotrophs
Chemosynthetic
autotrophs
Eubacteria
Parasitic
Heterotrophs
Saprophytic

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 1. KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)

I. Archaebacteria

Halophiles Thermoacidophiles Methanogens

• They live in harshest habitats such as extreme salty areas (halophiles),

hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and marshy areas (methanogens).
• Archaebacteria have a different cell wall structure for their survival in
extreme conditions.
• Methanogens are present in the guts of ruminant animals (cows,
buffaloes etc). They produce methane (biogas) from the dung of these
animals.
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 1. KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)

II. Eubacteria (True Bacteria)

• They have a rigid cell wall and a flagellum (if motile).

• They include Autotrophs (photosynthetic & chemosynthetic) and
Heterotrophs.

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 1. KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)

A. Photosynthetic autotrophs (E.g. Cyanobacteria)

• They have chlorophyll a similar to

that of green plants.
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
• Unicellular, colonial or filamentous,
marine or terrestrial algae.
• The colonies are generally
surrounded by gelatinous sheath.
• They often form blooms in polluted
water bodies.
• Some of them fix atmospheric N2 in Anabaena
specialized cells called heterocysts.
Nostoc
• E.g. Nostoc & Anabaena.

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 1. KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)

B. Chemosynthetic autotrophs

• They oxidize inorganic

substances such as nitrates,
nitrites & ammonia and use
the released energy for their
ATP production.
• They play a great role in
recycling nutrients like
nitrogen, phosphorous, iron
& sulphur.

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 1. KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)

C. Heterotrophic bacteria

Most
abundant in
nature.
Majority are
important
decomposers.

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 1. KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)

C. Heterotrophic bacteria

Rhizobium Impacts of Heterotrophic

bacteria on human affairs

• They are used to make curd

from milk.
• Production of antibiotics.
• Fixing nitrogen in legume
Vibrio cholerae
roots etc.
• Some are pathogens causing
damage to human beings,
crops, farm animals and
pets. E.g. Cholera, typhoid,
Salmonella typhi tetanus, and citrus canker.
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 1. KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)

Reproduction in Bacteria

• Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission.

• Under unfavourable conditions, they produce spores.
• They also reproduce by a sort of sexual reproduction by adopting a
primitive type of DNA transfer from one bacterium to the other.

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 1. KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)

Mycoplasmas

• They are organisms without a cell wall.

• They are the smallest living cells known.
• They can survive without oxygen.
• Many are pathogenic in animals and plants.
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BALAJI TUTORIALS
 2. KINGDOM PROTISTA

It forms a link
It includes Protists are
with plants,
single-celled primarily
animals and
eukaryotes. aquatic.
fungi.

Reproduce
Cell contains well
asexually and
defined nucleus
and other sexually by a
membrane-bound process
organelles. Some involving cell
have flagella or fusion & zygote
cilia.
formation.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF KINGDOM PROTISTA
Chrysophytes

Protozoans Dianoflagellates

Protista

Slime moulds Euglenoids

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 2. KINGDOM PROTISTA
I. Chrysophytes

• They are found in fresh water and marine environments.

• They are microscopic and float passively in water currents
(plankton).
• Most of them are photosynthetic.
• It includes diatoms & golden algae (desmids).
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 2. KINGDOM PROTISTA
I. Chrysophytes
Diatoms

• They have siliceous cell walls forming two thin overlapping shells,
which fit together as in a soap box.
• The cell wall deposit of diatoms over billions of years in their habitat
is known as ‘diatomaceous earth’. This is used in polishing, filtration of
oils and syrups.
• Diatoms are the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.
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 2. KINGDOM PROTISTA
II. Dianoflagellates

• Mostly marine and

photosynthetic.
• They appear yellow, green,
brown, blue or red depending
on the main pigments in cells.
• Cell wall has stiff cellulose
plates on the outer surface.

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 2. KINGDOM PROTISTA
II. Dianoflagellates
• Most of them have 2 flagella;
one lies longitudinally and
the other transversely in a
furrow between wall plates.
• Red dianoflagellates (E.g.
Gonyaulax) undergo rapid
multiplication so that the sea
appears red (red tides). Toxins
released by such large
numbers can kill other marine
animals such as fishes.

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 2. KINGDOM PROTISTA
III. Euglenoids
• Mainly fresh water organisms found in stagnant water.
• Instead of cell wall, they have a protein rich layer called pellicle. It
makes their body flexible.
• They have 2 flagella, a short and a
long one.
• They are photosynthetic in the
presence of sunlight. When
deprived of sunlight they behave
like heterotrophs by predating on
other smaller organisms.
• The pigments of euglenoids are
identical to those of higher plants.
E.g. Euglena.
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 2. KINGDOM PROTISTA
IV. Slime Moulds
• They are saprophytic protists.
• The body moves along decaying twigs and
leaves engulfing organic material.
• Under suitable conditions, they form an
aggregation called plasmodium which may
grow and spread over several feet.
• During unfavourable conditions, the
plasmodium differentiates and forms
fruiting bodies bearing spores at their tips.
• Spores possess true walls. They are
extremely resistant and survive for many
years. The spores are dispersed by air
currents.
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 2. KINGDOM PROTISTA
V. Protozoans
• They are heterotrophs (predators or parasites).
• They are believed to be primitive relatives of animals.

There are 4 major groups of Protozoans

• Amoeboid Protozoans
• Flagellated Protozoans
• Ciliated Protozoans
• Sporozoans

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 Amoeboid Flagellated Ciliated Sporozoans
Protozoans Protozoans Protozoans
•Live in fresh • Free-living or •Aquatic, • They have an
water, sea water Amoeba
parasitic. actively move
Trypanosoma infectious
or moist soil. • They have using cilia. spore-like stage
•They move and flagella. •They have a in their life
capture prey by • Parasitic forms cavity (gullet) cycle.
putting out cause diseases that opens to • E.g.
pseudopodia like sleeping outside. Plasmodium
(false feet). sickness. •Due to the (malarial
•E.g. Amoeba. movement of parasite) . It
• E.g.
•Marine forms Trypanosoma cilia, water with causes malaria.
have silica shells food enters into
on their surface.
Paramecium gullet.
•Some are •E.g.
parasites. E.g. Paramecium
Entamoeba.
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BALAJI TUTORIALS
 3. KINGDOM FUNGI

• It is a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms.

• Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil and on
animals and plants.
• They prefer to grow in warm and humid places.
• E.g. Bread Mould, Orange Rots, Mushroom, Toadstools etc.
• White spots on mustard leaves are due to a parasitic fungus.

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 3. KINGDOM FUNGI

• Some fungi are the source of antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium.

• Some unicellular fungi (e.g. Yeast) are used to make bread
and beer.
• Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals. E.g.
wheat rust-causing Puccinia.

Penicillium Yeast Puccinia

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 3. KINGDOM FUNGI

• Except yeasts, fungi are

filamentous. Their bodies
consist of long, slender thread-
like structures called hyphae.
• The network of hyphae is
known as mycelium.
• Some hyphae are continuous
tubes filled with multinucleated
cytoplasm. These are called
coenocytic hyphae. Others have
septae or cross walls in hyphae.
• Fungal cell wall is made of
chitin & polysaccharides.

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 3. KINGDOM FUNGI

• Most fungi are saprophytes

(absorb soluble organic
matter from dead substrates).
• Some are parasites.
• Some live as symbionts – in
association with algae as
lichens and with roots of
higher plants as mycorrhiza.
Mycorrhiza

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 3. KINGDOM FUNGI
Reproduction

Fragmentation

Vegetative propagation Fission

Reproduction Asexual reproduction budding

Sexual reproduction

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 3. KINGDOM FUNGI
Reproduction
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
By spores (conidia or By oospores, ascospores &
sporangiospores or zoospores). basidiospores. They are
produced in distinct structures
called fruiting bodies.

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 3. KINGDOM FUNGI
Reproduction
The sexual cycle involves 3 steps:
• Plasmogamy: Fusion of protoplasm between two motile or
non-motile gametes.
• Karyogamy: Fusion of two nuclei.
• Meiosis: Occurs in zygote resulting in haploid spores.

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 3. KINGDOM FUNGI
• In sexual reproduction, two haploid hyphae come together and fuse.
• In some fungi, fusion of 2 haploid cells immediately form diploid cells (2n).
• In other fungi (ascomycetes & basidiomycetes), a dikaryotic stage or
dikaryophase (n + n i.e. two nuclei per cell) occurs. Such a condition is
called a dikaryon. Later, parental nuclei fuse and the cells become diploid.
• Fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, leading to
formation of haploid spores.

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 3. KINGDOM FUNGI
Based on the morphology of mycelium, mode of spore formation
and fruiting bodies, Fungi are classified into various classes.

Class
Phycomycetes

Class Kingdom Class

Deuteromycetes Fungi Ascomycetes

Class
Basidiomycetes

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 3. KINGDOM FUNGI
I. Phycomycetes (Lower Fungi)
Rhizopus

• They occur in aquatic habitats

and on decaying wood in moist
and damp places or as obligate
parasites on plants. Mucor
• The mycelium is aseptate & Albugo
Rhizopus on bread
coenocytic.
• E.g. Mucor, Rhizopus (bread
mould) and Albugo (parasitic
fungi on mustard).
Mucor
Albugo

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 3. KINGDOM FUNGI
I. Phycomycetes (Lower Fungi)
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
• Takes place by zoospores • Zygospores are formed by
(motile) or by aplanospores fusion of two gametes.
(non-motile). • These gametes are isogamous
• These are produced in (similar) or anisogamous or
sporangium. oogamous (dissimilar).

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 3. KINGDOM FUNGI
II. Ascomycetes (Sac-fungi)
• Unicellular (e.g. yeast, Sacharomyces) or multicellular (e.g. Penicillium).
• They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous (growing
on dung).
• Mycelium is branched and septate.

Yeast

Penicillium

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 3. KINGDOM FUNGI
II. Ascomycetes (Sac-fungi)

Asexual reproduction
• By conidia produced
exogenously on the special
mycelium called conidiophores.
• Conidia germinate to produce
mycelium.

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 3. KINGDOM FUNGI
II. Ascomycetes (Sac-fungi)
Sexual reproduction
• By ascospores produced
endogenously in sac like asci (sing.
ascus). Asci are arranged to form
ascocarps (fruiting bodies).
Examples
• Aspergillus, Claviceps &
Neurospora.
• Neurospora is used in biochemical
and genetic work.
• Many members like morels &
buffles are edible and are
Neurospora
delicacies.
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 3. KINGDOM FUNGI
III. Basidiomycetes
• Includes mushrooms, bracket fungi or puffballs.
• They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living plant
bodies as parasites (e.g. rusts & smuts).
• Mycelium is branched & septate.
• The asexual spores are generally not found, but vegetative
reproduction by fragmentation is common.

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 3. KINGDOM FUNGI
III. Basidiomycetes

• Sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy

occurs by fusion of two vegetative or
somatic cells of different strains or
genotypes. The resultant structure is
dikaryotic. It gives rise to basidium.
• Karyogamy & meiosis occur in basidium
producing 4 basidiospores exogenously.
• Basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies
called basidiocarps.
• E.g. Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago
(smut) and Puccinia (rust fungus).

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 3. KINGDOM FUNGI
IV. Deuteromycetes
• Commonly known as imperfect fungi
because only their asexual or vegetative
phases are known.
• When perfect (sexual) stages were
discovered they were often moved to
ascomycetes & basidiomycetes.
• It is also possible that the asexual and
vegetative stage have been given one
name (and placed under deuteromycetes)
and the sexual stage another (and placed
under another class). When the linkages
were established, the fungi were correctly
identified and moved out of deuteromycetes.
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 3. KINGDOM FUNGI
IV. Deuteromycetes

• Deuteromycetes reproduce only by asexual spores (conidia).

• Mycelium is septate and branched.
• Some are saprophytes or parasites. Majority are decomposers of
litter and help in mineral cycling.
• E.g. Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.

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BALAJI TUTORIALS
 • It includes all plants
(eukaryotic chlorophyll-
containing organisms with
cellulosic cell wall).
• Some are partially
heterotrophic such as the
insectivorous plants (e.g.
Bladderwort and Venus fly
trap) or parasites (e.g.
Cuscuta).
• Plantae includes algae,
bryophytes, pteridophytes,
gymnosperms &
angiosperms.
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 • Life cycle of plants has two
distinct phases – the diploid
sporophytic & the haploid
gametophytic – that alternate
with each other.
• The lengths of the haploid
and diploid phases, and
whether these phases are
free living or dependent on
others, vary among different
groups in plants. This
phenomenon is called
alternation of generation.

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BALAJI TUTORIALS
 5. KINGDOM ANIMALIA (ANIMAL KINGDOM)

They are multicellular, heterotrophic, eukaryotic organisms

without cell wall.

They directly or indirectly depend on plants for food. They digest

food in an internal cavity and store food reserves as glycogen or
fat. Mode of nutrition is holozoic (by ingestion of food).

They have a definite growth pattern and grow into adults that
have a definite shape and size.

Higher forms show sensory and neuromotor mechanism.

Most of them are capable of locomotion.

Sexual reproduction is by copulation of male and female

followed by embryological development.
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BALAJI TUTORIALS
 • In five-kingdom classification, acellular organisms (viruses & viroids)
and lichens are not mentioned.
• Viruses are non-cellular and not truly ‘living’. So they are not included
in five-kingdom classification.
• Viruses have an inert crystalline structure outside the living cell.
• Viruses are obligate parasites.
• When they infect a cell they take over the machinery of host cell to
replicate themselves, killing the host.

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 Louis Pasteur: Gave the name virus (means venom
or poisonous fluid).

D.J. Ivanowsky (1892): Discovered virus. He

recognized certain microbes that cause mosaic
disease of tobacco. They were smaller than bacteria
because they passed through bacteria-proof filters.

M.W. Beijerinck (1898): Demonstrated that the

extract of the infected plants of tobacco could cause
infection in healthy plants and called the fluid as
Contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living fluid).

W.M. Stanley (1935): Showed that viruses could be

crystallized and crystals consist largely of proteins.

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 • A virus is a nucleoprotein, i.e, it has a protein coat (capsid) &
genetic material (RNA or DNA).
• No virus contains both RNA & DNA.
• The genetic material is infectious.

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 • Generally, viruses that infect plants have single stranded RNA.
• Viruses that infect animals have either single or double stranded RNA
or double stranded DNA.
• Bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) usually have double
stranded DNA.

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 • The protein coat (capsid) made of small subunits (capsomeres)
protects nucleic acid.
• Capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric
forms.

Helical Polyhedral geometric

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 Small pox

• Viruses cause diseases

like mumps, small pox,
Mumps herpes, influenza &
AIDS.
• In plants, the symptoms
can be mosaic
Herpes Influenza formation, leaf rolling &
curling, yellowing & vein
clearing, dwarfing &
stunted growth.

AIDS

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BALAJI TUTORIALS
BALAJI TUTORIALS
 • Viroid: It is an infectious agent with a free low molecular weight
RNA and no protein coat.
• These are smaller than viruses.
• It is discovered by T.O. Diener (1971). He found that it caused
potato spindle tuber disease.

Viroid T.O. Diener Potato spindle tuber disease

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 • Lichens: Lichens are symbiotic associations (mutually useful
associations) between algae & fungi.
• The algal component is called phycobiont (autotrophic) and
fungal component is mycobiont (heterotrophic).

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 • Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi provide shelter and
absorb mineral nutrients and water for its partner.
• Lichens are very good Pollution indicators. They do not grow in
polluted areas.

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